Sugar Tech

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12355-018-0683-2

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Utilization of Lignin Extracts from Sugarcane Bagasse as

Bio-based Antimicrobial Fabrics
Jackapon Sunthornvarabhas1 • Siriluck Liengprayoon2 • Tucksin Lerksamran2 •

Chonlada Buratcharin2 • Thongchai Suwonsichon3 • Wirat Vanichsriratana4 •

Klanarong Sriroth5

Received: 1 April 2018 / Accepted: 16 November 2018

Ó Society for Sugar Research and Promotion 2018

Abstract A lignin-coated fabric made from sugarcane 0.0002 at the pre-pilot scale. The PPI for commercial silver
bagasse exhibits antimicrobial characteristics. The bacterial nanoparticles was USD 0.6084 (20 nm) and USD 0.3498
strain Staphylococcus epidermidis (DMST 15505), a cause (200 nm). The PPI index supported the utilization of lignin
of skin infection commonly found in medical facilities, was extracts from sugarcane bagasse as a bio-based antimi-
used in this study. At specific coating concentration, crobial agent on fabric for antimicrobial textile application.
in vitro study suggested this bacterium can be inhibited to
prevent further propagation within 6 h of contact with Keywords Sugarcane  By-product  Antimicrobial textile
lignin-coated fabric. The price for lignin extraction at the
laboratory scale (500 ml) was approximately USD 974.60/
kg and USD 15.22/kg at the pre-pilot scale (50 l). The Introduction
minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for lignin
extracts was 4096 lg/ml. A price-performance index (PPI) Research on utilizing by-products from the sugar produc-
was proposed and calculated from the material price and tion process for value-adding has gained significant
the amount required to inhibit bacterial propagation based momentum in Thailand’s sugar research community
on the MIC according to the antimicrobial performance of (Sriroth et al. 2016). The Cane and Sugar Board (OCSB)
the coated fabric. This index provides swift cost estimation under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Industry of Thai-
of a product’s antimicrobial properties to inhibit specific land formulated a research road map that supported the
bacterial propagation. A smaller value of PPI is preferred development of new applications for by-products from
when comparing multiple antimicrobial agents. The PPI for sugar processing (Sukyai et al. 2016). As a result of this
lignin was USD 0.0080 at the laboratory scale and USD initiative and with support from the government, collabo-
ration among multiple researchers in the sugar industry,
research agencies and academia was launched to accelerate
& Wirat Vanichsriratana research and development.
[email protected] The amount of sugarcane bagasse is expected to increase
1
National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology,
with the increasing number of sugarcane milling factories
Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand and to reach average milling of 20,000 t per day over 120
2
Kasetsart Agricultural and Agro-Industrial Product
milling days by the end of 2020 (Sriroth et al. 2016). After
Improvement Institute, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, sugar processing, bagasse accounts for approximately 28%
Thailand of cane entering the factory (Wakamura 2003), with the
3
Department of Product Development, Kasetsart University, bagasse typically having 50% moisture content. In most
Bangkok 10900, Thailand sugar plants in Thailand, bagasse is only used as fuel for
4
Department of Biotechnology, Kasetsart University, Bangkok producing electricity. According to our survey in early
10900, Thailand 2018 from a project to assess the technology readiness
5
MITR PHOL Group, Phu Khiao, Chaiyaphum 36100, level of industry before adopting technology for product
Thailand development from by-products of sugar processing based

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on 21 sugar factories, there were eight that could not fully antimicrobial agent and an inorganic antimicrobial agent
utilize their waste bagasse. Almost all sugar factories from by including technical and financial aspects has never been
our survey expressed great interest when asked for future reported. This document introduces an index to identify
research collaboration to utilize by-products from sugar financial feasibility based on the price and antimicrobial
processing. performance of lignin compared with silver nanoparticles
Lignin is known as one of the three major components in and discusses the potential research direction of lignin as
bagasse. It is a dark brown bio-based polymer whose pri- an antimicrobial material in antimicrobial textiles.
mary function is to provide strength and to act as a barrier
for the plant. The average lignin content is 27% by weight
of bagasse (Reddy and Yang 2005). Since approximately Materials and Methods
99 million t/yr of cane has entered factories during the last
5 years (Sriroth et al. 2016), there are several million Lignin Extraction Methods
tonnes of lignin available for utilization. Lignin has diverse
potential with antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-ultraviolet Alkaline treatment was used for lignin extraction from
and flame retardant properties (Doherty et al. 2011). bagasse. It was selected due to ease of scaling up the
Even though lignin has been recognized as a potential evaluation and the need for minimal equipment for tech-
bio-based antimicrobial agent, the potential production of a nology transfer. The amount of sugarcane bagasse to 1% of
lignin-coated fabric has not been widely recognized and is NaOH solution was 1:12 w/v for the laboratory-scale
missing in mainly scientific reports. This might be due to process (500 ml) and 1:10 w/v for the pre-pilot scale pro-
its unpleasant color for the consumer and the lack of cess (50 l). In the laboratory-scale extraction, the mixture
recognition of lignin as a natural antimicrobial agent by was heated to 105 °C for 2 h using an autoclave, while in
consumers and manufacturers. Currently, metal nanoparti- the pre-pilot scale extraction, the mixture was maintained
cles are the most common commercially available at approximately 80–90 °C for 3 h in a metal tank. After
antimicrobial agents that are being used in many products the extraction process, black liquor was collected from the
due to their performance in the inhibition of propagation by extraction unit for the lignin precipitation step. This step
many types of bacteria. However, the trend in antimicrobial was completed within the same day of extraction at the
agents is continuously shifting to bio-based materials laboratory scale, while the pre-pilot scale process required
because metal nanoparticles have been reported to be 2 days to complete both the extraction and precipitation
released from the product and cause subsequent environ- steps. Lignin was precipitated by adding sulfuric acid to
mental pollution (Mollahosseini et al. 2012; Sriroth and adjust the solution from alkaline (pH 13) to acidic (pH 2),
Sunthornvarabhas 2018). Thus, research and development which is the key mechanism for lignin precipitation.
to find substitute materials for metal-based antimicrobial Wetted lignin was filtered and dried at 60 °C for 2 h or
material have gained more attention in recent years. until weight is constant. Tables 1 and 2 summarize the cost
Lignin-coated fabric was developed in our previous of extraction and precipitation to obtain lignin powder at
study in which we found the antimicrobial performance of different extraction scales. Table 3 shows the cost of lignin
the coated fabric against S. epidermidis was directly related nanoparticles.
to the coating amount, type of fabric (natural and synthetic
fibrous) and contact time (Sunthornvarabhas et al. 2017, Antimicrobial Textile Preparation and Evaluation
Thailand patent filing number 1701005062). Figure 1
shows the antimicrobial performance of the coated fabric Bagasse was provided by the Mitrphol sugar factory
with different coating amounts in proportion to the MIC of (Chaiyaphum province, Thailand). Lignin extraction con-
lignin against S. epidermidis that is associated with the ditions, preparation of antimicrobial textile sample and
proposed evaluation method for product performance antimicrobial evaluation against Staphylococcus epider-
according to the coating amount and contacting period midis (DMST 15505) were reported in our previous study.
(Sunthornvarabhas et al. 2017). For the same coating Laboratory-grade silver nanoparticle prices were acquired
amount, a sheet of natural fiber performed better than a from Sigma-Aldrich. Lignin nanoparticles were prepared
sheet of synthetic fiber. Further investigation is required to by forcing lignin precipitation through an increasing
understand the coating efficiency regarding the surface amount of water in lignin solution at a controlled rate
characteristics and the antimicrobial performance of the (Yearla and Padmasree 2016). A scanning electron
product. microscope (SEM) model JSM-6400 (JEOL Ltd., Tokyo,
A comparison of antimicrobial properties is normally Japan) was used, and samples were coated with gold prior
performed between materials of the same class. To the best to analysis. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC)
of our knowledge, comparison between a natural of lignin nanoparticles was evaluated according to the

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Fig. 1 Antimicrobial performance of lignin-coated fabric based on plotting colony formation units of S. epidermidis against contact time
(h) between bacteria and coated fabric

method described in Sunthornvarabhas et al. (2017). The Price-Performance Index Calculation

antimicrobial performance of silver nanoparticles was
based on Kvitek et al. (2008). To compare different antimicrobial agents, the PPI index
was proposed. This index was introduced to provide esti-
Cost of Lignin Extraction Calculation mations and fair comparisons of antimicrobial materials
and consists of: (1) the price of the antimicrobial material;
The costs of lignin extraction at the laboratory scale (2) the concentration of the antimicrobial material against
(500 ml) and at the pre-pilot scale (50 l) were calculated the targeted bacteria and (3) a conversion factor associated
from the amounts of materials, cost of utility for extraction with the actual amount required for use in the product:
and cost of equipment which included the depreciation PPI ¼ material cost  MIC  conversion factor
cost. The cost of personnel was based on the current
national minimum wage THB 300 or USD 9.60 per day.
The calculations and prices of material and equipment are Results and Discussion
shown in Tables 1 and 2. The equipment depreciation cost
per hour (D) can be calculated from the current equipment Cost of Lignin Extraction
cost (C, USD), the equipment useful life period (Y, year)
and the percentage salvage value of the current equipment The cost of lignin extraction, based on the laboratory scale
cost (S%) using: (500 ml), was USD 974.60/kg of solid lignin extracts. By
D ¼ ½C  f1  0:01  Sg=½Y  365  24 increasing the scale of production to the pre-pilot scale
(50 l), the lignin extract costs decreased to USD 15.22/kg
The equipment useful life period and salvage value were of solid lignin extracts. It is expected that at a larger scale,
based on standard prices from the Bureau of the Budget, further reduction in the production cost can be achieved.
Thailand. The difference in cost for lignin extraction between the
two methods was due to: (1) the production period; (2) the

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Table 1 Cost of lignin extraction at laboratory scale (500 ml)

Material cost Amount Cost (USD) Note

Bagasse 33.33 g –
NaOH 4.0 g 0.004 USD 1.024/kg
Deionized water 400 ml 0.384 USD 0.960/l
H2SO4 2.346 ml 0.002 USD 0.005/l
Whatman filter No.1 2 pcs 0.178 USD 0.089/pc
Water for cleaning 4.5 l 0.002 USD 0.0005/l
Total 0.570
Personnel cost Work period Cost (USD) Note

5h 6.000 USD 1.2/h

Total 6.000

Equipment cost Work period Cost (USD) Note (C/Y/S%)*

Autoclave 2h 0.417 USD 6900/10/11%

Mechanical pump 2h 0.098 USD 1600/10/11%
Oven 2h 0.117 USD 1920/10/11%
Magnetic stirrer 30 min 0.008 USD 550/10/11%
pH meter 15 min 0.011 USD 700/5/8%
Balance 30 min 0.016 USD 1600/10/11%
Ceramic filter unit 2h 0.017 USD 135/5/8%
Magnetic stir bar 30 min 0.0001 USD 4/5/8%
Glassware – 0.002 USD * 25/5/8%
Total 0.686

Energy and utility cost Work unit Cost (USD)** Note (power, usage)

Autoclave 0.550 kW/h 0.352 2200 W, 50%

Mechanical pump 0.408 kW/h 0.090 280 W, 100%
Oven 0.160 kW/h 0.102 1600 W, 20%
pH meter 0.040 kW/h 0.0003 10 W, 100%
Lighting 0.007 kW/h 0.224 50 W, 100%
Balance 0.004 kW/h 0.0001 10 W, 20%
Magnetic stirrer 0.408 kW/h 0.016 1020 W, 20%
Total 0.784
Total production cost 8.040
Lignin production 0.008 kg 8.25 g from 33.33 g bagasse
Production cost USD 974.60/kg Of crude lignin powder

*C = current equipment cost, Y = equipment working period, S% = percentage of equipment salvage value
**Energy cost is calculated from percentage use of equipment power (watt) with operation period and finally multiplied with electricity cost per
unit usage based on a medium-scale factory (USD 0.16/unit)

cost of the different extraction units; (3) the amount and substantially reduce the cost of lignin extraction. These
method of energy consumption for extraction and (4) the concepts will be investigated and discussed in the future
amount of equipment and the energy required in the drying study.
process due to an increasing lignin amount. For larger-scale
extraction, better management to minimize the labor cost, Price-Performance Index Calculation
proper use of fuel such as bagasse that is considered to be
lost during storage as fuel for the extraction and drying This index indicates the cost-based estimation for an
process and the introduction of automation can antimicrobial agent on product to prevent the further

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Table 2 Cost of lignin extraction at pre-pilot scale (50 l)

Material cost Amount Cost (USD) Note

Bagasse 4.0 kg –
NaOH 0.4 kg 0.410 USD 1.024/kg
Water for process 40 l 0.020 USD 0.0005/l
H2SO4 0.6 l 0.003 USD 0.005/l
Fabric filter cloth 0.25 m2 0.080 USD 0.320/m2
Water for cleaning 20 l 0.001 USD 0.0005/l
Total 0.514
Personnel cost Work period Cost (USD) Note

8h 9.600 USD 1.2/h

An accumulative 8 h during 2 days period
Total 9.600

Equipment cost Work period Cost (USD) Note (C/Y/S%)*

50 l metal tank 3h 0.146 USD 1600/10/11%

Mechanical pump 4h 0.195 USD 1600/10/11%
Oven 2h 0.117 USD 1920/10/11%
Magnetic stirrer 30 min 0.008 USD 550/10/11%
pH meter 15 min 0.011 USD 700/5/8%
Balance 30 min 0.016 USD 1600/10/11%
Ceramic filter unit 4h 0.034 USD 135/5/8%
Magnetic stir bar 30 min 0.0001 USD 4/5/8%
Glassware – 0.004 USD * 50/5/8%
Total 0.531

Energy and utility cost Work unit Cost (USD)** Note (power, usage)

50 l metal tank 1 operation 3.200 Using household fuel (LPG) for heating the tank which
requires approximately one-quarter of the container to
heat and maintain temperature during the extraction.
Local price USD 12.8/tank
Mechanical pump 0.140 kW/h 0.090 280 W, 100%
Oven 0.080 kW/h 0.205 1600 W, 20%
pH meter 0.004 kW/h 0.0004 10 W, 100%
Lighting 0.006 kW/h 0.256 50 W, 100%
Balance 0.004 kW/h 0.0001 10 W, 20%
Magnetic stirrer 0.408 kW/h 0.016 1020 W, 20%
Total 3.768
Total production cost 14.413
Lignin production 0.947 kg
Production cost USD 15.22/kg Of crude lignin powder

*C = current equipment cost, Y = equipment working period, S% = percentage of equipment salvage value
**Energy cost is calculated from percentage use of equipment power (Watt) with operation period and finally multiplied with electricity cost per
unit usage based on a medium-scale factory (USD 0.16/unit)

propagation of bacteria. A conversion factor was used may differ due to variation in the components and factors
based on actual experimentation to identify the amount of involved in the cost evaluation such as equipment price, the
antimicrobial material required to effectively inhibit bac- national daily labor cost and the cost of utilities (electricity,
terial propagation which might vary for different sources of fuel and water).
lignin and product format. The actual cost of production

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Table 3 Lignin nanoparticle preparation cost in laboratory scale

Material cost Amount Cost (USD) Note

Crude lignin 0.60 g 0.585 USD 974.60/kg

Acetone 54.0 ml 0.760 USD 0.141/ml
Deionized water 114 ml 0.109 USD 0.960/l
Syringe and needle 1 pc 0.160 USD 0.160/pc
0.2-lm membrane 1 pc 0.224 USD 0.224/pc
Water for cleaning 3.0 l 0.002 USD 0.0005/l
Total 1.840
Personnel cost Work period Cost (USD) Note

7h 8.400 USD 1.2/h

Total 8.400

Equipment cost Work period Cost (USD) Note (C/Y/S%)*

Syringe pump 2 min 0.098 USD 2000/10/11%

Oven 6h 0.351 USD 1920/10/11%
Centrifuge 20 min 0.130 USD 12,800/10/11%
Magnetic stirrer 38 min 0.011 USD 550/10/11%
Balance 30 min 0.022 USD 1600/10/11%
Magnetic stir bar 38 min 0.0002 USD 4/5/8%
Glassware/cuvette – 0.004 USD * 50/5/8%
Total 0.616

Energy and utility cost Work unit Cost (USD)** Note (power, usage)

Syringe pump 0.008 kW/h 0.00001 12 W, 20%

Oven 1.920 kW/h 0.307 1600 W, 20%
Centrifuge 0.418 kW/h 0.073 2760 W, 50%
Lighting 0.006 kW/h 0.256 50 W, 100%
Balance 0.004 kW/h 0.0001 10 W, 20%
Magnetic stirrer 0.324 kW/h 0.021 1020 W, 20%
Total 0.657
Total production cost 11.122
Lignin production 0.002 kg
Production cost USD 72,867/kg Of crude lignin nanoparticle

*C = current equipment cost, Y = equipment working period, S% = percentage of equipment salvage value
**Energy cost is calculated from percentage use of equipment power (Watt) with operation period and finally multiplied with electricity cost per
unit usage based on a medium-scale factory (USD 0.16/unit)

The minimum inhibitory and bactericidal concentrations twofold was required when coating lignin on synthetic
(MIC and MBC, respectively) of lignin extracts from nonwoven fiber sheet (Sunthornvarabhas et al. 2017). For
sugarcane bagasse against S. epidermidis were 4096 and coating on a sheet of natural fiber (delignified bagasse
8192 lg/ml (Sunthornvarabhas et al. 2017). Lignin fiber), the required coating amount was less than for a
nanoparticles were prepared and evaluated against S. epi- synthetic nonwoven sheet to prevent further bacterial
dermidis and yielded an MIC of 2048 lg/ml. After propagation within 6 h of contact (Thailand patent filing
antimicrobial performance evaluation of the coated fabric, number 1701005062). For the purpose of this calculation,
it was found that the amount of lignin extracts and the there was no reduction in performance compared to using
performance on fabric per unit area were different from the silver nanoparticles in the product.
MIC value based on a proposed antimicrobial evaluation The PPI value of lignin based on pre-pilot scale
method (Sunthornvarabhas et al. 2017). A minimum of extraction against S. epidermidis for the antimicrobial

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textile was calculated from USD 0.015/g * 0.004096 g * Another challenge for lignin in this application is the
twofold which yielded $0.0002. Based on the proposed lack of detailed information regarding its antimicrobial
equation and to obtain similar antimicrobial performance, mechanism. The current understanding of the basic
lignin is more cost-effective than silver nanoparticles antimicrobial mechanism of lignin is inconclusive due to
against S. epidermidis, as PPIlignin \ PPIsilver nanoparticle. its macromolecular size and the randomization of the basic
monomer, p-coumaryl alcohol, coniferyl alcohol and
Challenges for Lignin in Antimicrobial Application sinapyl alcohol (Doherty et al. 2011). However, two basic
monomers of lignin (coniferyl alcohol and sinapyl alcohol
The lignin used in this study did not pass through a structures) have been acknowledged for their inhibitory
purification process, and hence, impurities (ash and car- characteristic against microbes (Zemek et al. 1979). With
bohydrate) were definitely present in the lignin extracts. variation in the basic monomer in lignin from different
Further purification could improve the antimicrobial plants, understanding the basic composition may profit the
properties due to the lower impurity content, and according selection of lignin that provides the highest antimicrobial
to our calculation, it is financially possible to introduce a performance to be utilized in product.
purification method due to the gap in the PPI values The antimicrobial property of lignin can be further
between lignin and the current commercial antimicrobial improved by increasing the area of contact between the
agent, silver nanoparticles. Currently, there are three major lignin and the bacterial surface. This is achieved by
purification techniques to improve lignin purity: solvent reducing the size of the lignin particle as shown in Table 4.
extraction, lignin precipitation and utilization of a mem- Nanolignin was obtained by the solvent precipitation pro-
brane (Toledano 2012). Each technique utilizes a different cess (Yearla and Padmasree 2016). According to our study,
mechanism to obtain lignin extracts with less impurity. the MIC was reduced twofold when the particle size of
Solvent extraction will not be discussed due to the devel- lignin was reduced from 70 lm to 140 nm, (500 times
opment focus on the utilization of less solvent that may smaller). The production cost of nanolignin at the labora-
alter both the yield and chemical characteristic of the lignin tory scale was approximately $72,867/kg of nanolignin. A
in our system. Lignin precipitation is simple and requires substantial increase in the preparation cost was due to the
less energy consumption than the ultrafiltration technique. low production rate. A single laboratory-scale production
Controlling lignin chemistry during precipitation becomes unit produces approximately 0.158 g nanolignin in 7 h. A
the logical approach to adopt in the current system to more efficient process is required to reduce the production
obtain lignin with lower impurity. Even though lignin cost by improving the production rate before nanolignin
precipitation through acid addition is unable to control the can be successfully applied for industry. The lignin from
molecular weight distribution, it is a widely used technique the process may be divided into two separate categories
to obtain lignin from black liquor after extraction. Cur- based on molecular weight. First is the low molecular
rently, there are no available reports on the relation weight lignin that is suitable for antimicrobial application,
between the molecular weight of lignin and antimicrobial if the hypothesis is correct. Second is the medium and high
performance. If the molecular weight of lignin is important, molecular weight lignin that is suitable for applications
a purification method (especially ultrafiltration) is pre- which require the advantage of a large molecule such as an
ferred. A recent report showed a correlation between the adhesive application. This will allow a more systematic
lignin molecular weight and cytotoxicity activity as it was and optimized utilization of lignin from sugarcane bagasse
found that lignin with a large molecular weight exhibits or other plant that is currently not fully utilized.
less cytotoxicity and antioxidant properties (Ugartondo
et al. 2008). This information strengthens the hypothesis of
the influence of molecular size on toxicity to bacteria and Conclusion
the antimicrobial properties. Normally, to precipitate lignin
from black liquor, the pH is adjusted to approximately 2 for The substantial amount of sugarcane bagasse available
the lignin to undergo precipitation, agglomeration and provides enough lignin for product development. The
sedimentation at the bottom of the container. Further current lignin extraction cost of USD 15.22/kg can be
addition of acidic solution may result in higher amounts of reduced by increasing the extraction scale to more than a
lignin. This also adds to the waste management and overall 50 l tank. According to the calculation of the trade-off
production costs which require study to identify the opti- between the price and performance of antimicrobial, it is
mum point between the characteristics of the obtained possible to compare different antimicrobial performances
lignin and the utilized resources or the utilization of the and price ranges. In an antimicrobial textile product to
waste water in other applications such as fertilizer. prevent Staphylococcus epidermidis (DMST 15505), lignin
is more cost-effective because PPIlignin (USD

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 Table 4 Antimicrobial properties of silver nanoparticles and lignin nanoparticles
Silver nanoparticle (commercial) Silver nanoparticle (commercial) Lignin from sugarcane bagasse Lignin after size reduction by solvent
precipitation

123
Average 20 nma 200 nmb *70 lm *140 nm
diameter
SEM image

Minimum 1.69 lg/mlc (26 nm) [1.69 lg/mld 4096 lg/ml 2048 lg/ml
inhibitory
concentration
(MIC)
Laboratory – – USD 0.974f/g solid USD 72.87f/g solid
scalee
Pre-pilot scalee – – USD 0.015f/g solid –
Commercial USD * 360,000/g solid unit price USD * 207,000/g solid unit price – –
price USD * 180.00f USD * 103.50f
g
PPI to inhibit USD 0.6084 Greater than USD 0.3498 USD 0.0080 g (laboratory scale) USD USD 0.2985 (laboratory scale)
bacterial 0.0002 g (pre-pilot scale)
propagation
a
http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/aldrich/730793?lang=en&region=SG (accessed March 21, 2018)
b
http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/aldrich/796026?lang=en&region=SG (accessed March 21, 2018)
for particle size, unit sell price, sell volume 25 ml, unit particle concentration 0.02 mg/ml and SEM image
c
MIC of silver nanoparticle at average diameter 26 nm against Staphylococcus epidermidis (methicillin susceptible and methicillin resistant). (Kvitek et al. 2008)
d
Size and characteristics of silver nanoparticle influence antimicrobial activity, as the smaller particle provide more contact area. Therefore, a large particle has less antimicrobial activity than a
small particle and requires a larger amount for bacterial inhibition. (Rai et al. 2009)
e
Material cost for PPI calculation
f
Currency conversion between based on March 21, 2018; THB 1 = USD 0.032 = SGD 0.042
g
Experimentation showed that to prevent further bacteria propagation within 6 h, coated fabric with a minimum of twofold of MIC is required for sheet of synthetic fiber
Sugar Tech
Sugar Tech

0.0002–0.0080) is less than PPIsilver nanoparticle (USD performance and antibacteriality of polysulfone ultrafiltration
0.3498–0.6084). To make lignin nanoparticles commer- membrane. Desalination 306: 41–50.
Rai, M., A. Yadav, and A. Gade. 2009. Silver nanoparticles as a new
cially feasible, lower production cost is required. Appli- generation of antimicrobials. Biotechnology Advances 27:
cation of antimicrobial textiles from lignin has potential, 76–83.
and it is financially feasible to replace silver nanoparticles Reddy, N., and Y. Yang. 2005. Biofibers from agricultural byproducts
according to this analysis, but further development is for industrial applications. Trends in Biotechnology 23 (1):
22–27.
required to create a product that is appealing to the users. Sriroth, K., and J. Sunthornvarabhas. 2018. Lignin from sugar process
as natural antimicrobial agent. Biochemistry and Pharmacology
Acknowledgements The authors express their gratitude to the (Los Angel) 7: 239. https://doi.org/10.4172/2167-0501.1000239.
Thailand Research Fund (TRF). This work was financially supported Sriroth, K., W. Vanichsriratana, and J. Sunthornvarabhas. 2016. The
under Contract Number RDG 5950094 for ‘‘Production of fabric filter current status of sugar industry and by-products in Thailand.
media with active compound from sugarcane bagasse’’ and RDG Sugar Tech 18 (6): 576–582.
61T0067 for ‘‘Development of assessment pattern and module to Sukyai, P., N. Yingkamhaeng, N.T. Lam, V. Tangsatianpan, C.
evaluate potential product development from by-product of sugar Watcharinrat, G. Vanitjinda, V. Vanichsriratana, and K. Sriroth.
process.’’ The authors declare no conflict of interest. 2016. Research and development prospects for sugarcane and
sugar industry in Thailand. Sugar Tech 18 (6): 583–587.
Funding Jackapon Sunthornvarabhas has received research grants Sunthornvarabhas, J., S. Liengprayoon, and T. Suwonsichon. 2017.
from Thailand Research Fund (TRF), RDG 5950094. Thongchai Antimicrobial kinetic activities of lignin from sugarcane bagasse
Suwonsichon has received research grants from Thailand Research for textile product. Industrial Crops and Products 109: 857–861.
Fund (TRF), RDG 61T0067. Thailand patent filling number 1701005062, filing date September 5,
2017. Lignin coated natural fiber as antimicrobial textile method
Compliance with Ethical Standards and thereof.
Toledano, A. 2012. Lignin extraction, purification and depolymer-
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of ization study, Universidad del Paı́s Vasco, Doctoral dissertation.
interest. Ugartondo, V., M. Mitjans, and M.P. Vinardell. 2008. Comparative
antioxidant and cytotoxic effects of lignins from different
sources. Bioresource Technology 99: 6683–6687.
Wakamura, Y. 2003. Utilization of bagasse energy in Thailand.
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