Lecture title:

Some types of Functions

* Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
* Trigonometric Functions
1.1 Exponential Functions

y
4
f(x) = 2x

f(x) = (1/2)x

x
–2 2
Exponential Function
• The function defined by
f (x ) = b x (b  0, b  1)

is called an exponential function with base b

and exponent x.
• The domain of f is the set of all real numbers.
Example
• The exponential function with base 2 is the function
f (x ) = 2x

with domain (– , ).

• The values of f(x) for selected values of x follow:
f (3) = 23 = 8

3
f   = 23/ 2 = 2  21/ 2 = 2 2
2

f (0) = 20 = 1
Example
• The exponential function with base 2 is the function
f (x ) = 2x

with domain (– , ).

• The values of f(x) for selected values of x follow:
−11
f (−1) = 2 =
2

 2  2−2 / 3 = 1 = 1
f −  = 2/3
 
3
3 2 4
Laws of Exponents
• Let a and b be positive numbers and let
x and y be real numbers. Then,
1. b x  b y = b x + y
bx x −y
2. y = b
b
3. (b )
y
x
= b xy

(ab ) = ax b x
x
4.
x
 
x
a a
5.  b  = b x
 
Examples
2x – 1
• Let f(x) = 2 . Find the value of x for which f(x) =
16.
Solution
• We want to solve the equation
2x – 1 4
2 = 16 = 2
• But this equation holds if and only if
2x – 1 = 4
5
giving x = .
2
Examples
• Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) = 2x.
Solution
• First, recall that the domain of this function is the set of
real numbers.
• Next, putting x = 0 gives y = 20 = 1, which is the y-
intercept.
(There is no x-intercept, since there is no value of x for
which y = 0)
Examples
• Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) = 2x.
Solution
• Now, consider a few values for x:
x –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 1/32 1/16 1/8 1/4 1/2 1 2 4 8 16 32

• Note that 2x approaches zero as x decreases without

bound:
• There is a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.
• Furthermore, 2x increases without bound when x increases
without bound.
• Thus, the range of f is the interval (0, ).
Examples
• Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) = 2x.
Solution
• Finally, sketch the graph:
y
4
f(x) = 2x

x
–2 2
Examples
• Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) =
(1/2)x.
Solution
• First, recall again that the domain of this function is the
set of real numbers.
• Next, putting x = 0 gives y = (1/2)0 = 1, which is the
y-intercept.
(There is no x-intercept, since there is no value of x for
which y = 0)
Examples
• Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) = (1/2)x.
Solution
• Now, consider a few values for x:
x –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 32 16 8 4 2 1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 1/32

• Note that (1/2)x increases without bound when x decreases

without bound.
• Furthermore, (1/2)x approaches zero as x increases without
bound: there is a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.
• As before, the range of f is the interval (0, ).
Examples
• Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) =
(1/2)x.
Solution
• Finally, sketch the graph: y
4

f(x) = (1/2)x

x
–2 2
Examples
• Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) =
(1/2)x.
Solution
• Note the symmetry between y the two functions:
4
f(x) = 2x

f(x) = (1/2)x

x
–2 2
Properties of Exponential Functions
• The exponential function y = bx (b > 0, b ≠ 1)
has the following properties:
1. Its domain is (– , ).
2. Its range is (0, ).
3. Its graph passes through the point (0, 1)
4. It is continuous on (– , ).
5. It is increasing on (– , ) if b > 1 and
decreasing on (– , ) if b < 1.
The Base e
• Exponential functions to the base e, where e is an irrational number
whose value is 2.7182818…, play an important role in both theoretical
and applied problems. m
 1
• It can be shown that e = lim 1 + 
m →
 m
Examples
• Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) = ex.
Solution
• Since ex > 0 it follows that the graph of y = ex is similar
to the graph of y = 2x.
• Consider a few values for x:
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
y 0.05 0.14 0.37 1 2.72 7.39 20.09
Examples
• Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) = ex.
Solution
• Sketching the graph:
y
5 f(x) = ex

x
–3 –1 1 3
Examples
• Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) = e–
x
.
Solution
• Since e–x > 0 it follows that 0 < 1/e < 1 and so
f(x) = e–x = 1/ex = (1/e)x is an exponential function
with base less than 1.
• Therefore, it has a graph similar to that of y = (1/2)x.
• Consider a few values for x:
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
y 20.09 7.39 2.72 1 0.37 0.14 0.05
Examples
• Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) = e–x.
Solution
• Sketching the graph:
y
5

1
f(x) = e–x
x
–3 –1 1 3
1.2 Logarithmic Functions

y y = ex y=x

y = ln x

1
x
1
Logarithms
• We’ve discussed exponential equations of the form
y = bx (b > 0, b ≠ 1)
• But what about solving the same equation for y?
• You may recall that y is called the logarithm of x to the base b, and is
denoted logbx.

• Logarithm of x to the base b

y = logbx if and only if x = by (x > 0)
Examples
• Solve log3x = 4 for x:
Solution
• By definition, log3x = 4 implies x = 34 = 81.
Examples
• Solve log164 = x for x:
Solution
• log164 = x is equivalent to 4 = 16x = (42)x = 42x, or
41 = 42x,
from which we deduce that

2x = 1
1
x =
2
Examples
• Solve logx8 = 3 for x:
Solution
• By definition, we see that logx8 = 3 is equivalent to
8 = 23 = x 3
x =2
Logarithmic Notation

log x = log10 x Common logarithm

ln x = loge x Natural logarithm

Laws of Logarithms
• If m and n are positive numbers,
then
1. logb mn = logb m + logb n
m
2. log b = logb m − logb n
n
3. log b m n
= n logb m

4. logb 1 = 0

5. logb b = 1
 Examples
• Given that log 2 ≈ 0.3010, log 3 ≈ 0.4771, and log 5 ≈
0.6990, use the laws of logarithms to find
log15 = log 3  5
= log 3 + log 5
 0.4771 + 0.6990
= 1.1761
 Examples
• Given that log 2 ≈ 0.3010, log 3 ≈ 0.4771, and log 5 ≈
0.6990, use the laws of logarithms to find
log 7.5 = log(15 / 2)
= log(3  5 / 2)
= log 3 + log 5 − log 2
 0.4771 + 0.6990 − 0.3010
= 0.8751
 Examples
• Given that log 2 ≈ 0.3010, log 3 ≈ 0.4771, and log 5 ≈
0.6990, use the laws of logarithms to find
4 i
log 81 = log 3 e
= 4 log 3
 4(0.4771)
= 1.9084
 Examples
• Given that log 2 ≈ 0.3010, log 3 ≈ 0.4771, and log 5 ≈
0.6990, use the laws of logarithms to find
log 50 = log 5 10
= log 5 + log10
 0.6990 + 1
= 1.6990
Examples
• Expand and simplify the expression:

log 3 x 2 y 3= log 3 x 2 + log 3 y 3

= 2 log 3 x + 3log 3 y
Examples
• Use the properties of logarithms to solve the equation
for x:
log 3 (x + 1) − log 3 (x − 1) = 1
x +1
log 3 =1 Law 2
x −1
x +1 1
=3 =3 Definition of
x −1 logarithms

x + 1 = 3(x − 1)

x + 1 = 3x − 3

4 = 2x
x =2
Examples
• Use the properties of logarithms to solve the equation
for x: log x + log(2x − 1) = log 6
log x + log(2x − 1) − log 6 = 0
x (2x − 1)
log =0 Laws 1 and 2
6
x (2x − 1)
= 100 = 1 Definition of
logarithms
6
x (2x − 1) = 6
2x 2 − x − 6 = 0
(2x + 3)(x − 2) = 0 3
x=− is out of
x =2 2
the domain of log x,
so it is discarded.
Logarithmic Function
• The function defined by
f (x ) = logb x (b  0, b  1)

is called the logarithmic function with base b.

• The domain of f is the set of all positive numbers.
Properties of Logarithmic Functions
• The logarithmic function
y = logbx (b > 0, b ≠ 1)
has the following properties:
1. Its domain is (0, ).
2. Its range is (– , ).
3. Its graph passes through the point (1, 0).
4. It is continuous on (0, ).
5. It is increasing on (0, ) if b > 1
and decreasing on (0, ) if b < 1.
Example
• Sketch the graph of the function y = ln x.
Solution
• We first sketch the graph of y = ex.
y y = ex y=x
◆ The required graph is the
mirror image of the graph of
y = ex with respect to the line
y = x: y = ln x

1
x
1
Properties Relating
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

• Properties relating ex and ln x:

eln x = x (x > 0)
ln ex = x (for any real number x)
1.3 Trigonometric Functions
First let’s look at the three basic trigonometric functions

SINE (x,
COSINE r
y)
TANGENT 

They are abbreviated using their first 3 letters r= x +y 2 2

Let’s look at an angle  in standard position

whose terminal side contains the point (x, y).

Let r be the distance from the origin to the point (x, y).
r can be found using the distance formula.
The three basic trigonometric functions are defined as
follows:
y x y
sin  = cos  = tan  =
r r x
 There are three more trig functions. They are called the
reciprocal functions because they are reciprocals of the first
three functions.
Like the first three trig functions, these are referred
to by the first three letters except for cosecant since
it's first three letters are the same as for cosine.
y r r
sin  = cosecant  = csc  =
r y y
x r r
cos = secant  = sec  =
r x x
x x
y cotangent  = cot  =
tan = y y
x
Best way to remember these is learn which is the reciprocal of which and flip
them over.
Based on the fact that these 3 trig functions are
reciprocals of the three basic ones, they are called the
reciprocal identities.

RECIPROCAL IDENTITIES
1 1 1
csc  = sec  = cot  =
sin  cos  tan 
 Find the values of the six trigonometric functions of the angle 
in standard position whose terminal side passes through the
point (4, -5)
r= ( 4 ) + ( −5) = 41
2 2

41r
(4, -5)
y 5 41 r 41
sin  = = −  =−
5 41 csc  = = −
r 41 41 41 y 5
x 4 41 4 41 r 41
cos = =  = sec  = =
r 41 41 41 x 4
y 5 x 4
tan = = − cot  = =−
x 4 y 5
An angle whose terminal side is on an axis is called a quadrantal angle.
(0, 1)
A 90° angle is a quadrantal angle.
To find the trig functions of 90°, 1
choose a point on the terminal side. 90°

y 1 r 1
sin  = = = 1 csc  = = =1
r 1 y 1

x 0 r 1
cos = = = 0 sec  = = = undefined
r 1 x 0

y 1 x 0
tan = = = undefined cot  = = =0
x 0 y 1
To fill in the following table of quadrantal angles use the graph below. Start with 0°
going down. Figure out the answer and then click the mouse to see if you are right.
r
sin  =
y
(0, 1) csc  =
r y
x r
cos = sec  =
r x
(-1, 0) (1, 0)
y
tan = x
x (0, -1) cot  =
y

? ? ? ? ?
? ? ? ? ?
? ? ? ? ?
? ? ? ? ?
? ? ? ? ?
? ? ? ? ?
 All trig In quadrant I both the x
functions and y values are positive
positive so all trig functions will be
positive
 Let's look at the signs of sine,
cosine and tangent in the other
quadrants. Reciprocal functions will
have the same sign as the original
sin is + since "flipping" a fraction over
cos is - doesn't change its sign.
tan is -
In quadrant II x is negative
and y is positive.

We can see from this that any trig function that
requires the x value will then have a negative
sign on it.
 In quadrant III, x is
negative and y is negative.
The r is always positive so if we
have either x or y with hypotenuse
 we'll get a negative. If we have both
x and y the negatives will cancel
sin is -
cos is -
tan is +

In quadrant IV, x is positive

and y is negative .

So any functions using y will be
sin is - negative.
cos is +
tan is -
 To help
remember
sin is + All trig
these S A
cos is - functions
signs we
tan is - positive
look at T C
sin is - sin is - what trig
cos is - cos is + functions
tan is + tan is - are
positive in
each
quadrant.
Here is a mnemonic Students All
to help you
remember.
(start in Quad I and Take Calculus
go counterclockwise)
 The 45-45-90 Triangle
In a 45-45-90 triangle the sides are in a ratio of 1- 1- 2

This means I can build a triangle with these lengths for sides
(or any multiple of these lengths) (1, 1)
We can then find the six trig
functions of 45° using this triangle. 45°
1 2
sin 45 = = rationalized 2
2 2 1
1 2
cos 45 = = 45° 90°
2 2
1
1 You can "flip"
tan 45 = = 1 these to get other
1 3 trig functions
You are expected to know exact values for trig functions of 45°.
You can get them by drawing the triangle and using sides.

What is the radian equivalent of 45°?
4
You also know all the trig
functions for /4 then.
45°
2 2
sec = = 2 1
4 1
reciprocal of cos 45° 90°

1 1
tan = =1
4 1
 The 30-60-90 Triangle side opp 60°

In a 30-60-90 triangle the sides are in a ratio of 1- 3 - 2

side opp 30° side opp 90°

This means I can build a triangle with these lengths for sides
We can then find trig functions of 60° using this
triangle.
1, 3 ( )
sin 60 = 3 30°
2 2
1 3
cos 60 =
2
60° 90°
3 1
tan 60 = = 3
1
 The 30-60-90 Triangle side opp 60°

In a 30-60-90 triangle the sides are in a ratio of 1- 3 - 2

side opp 30° side opp 90°

We can draw the triangle so the 30° angle is at the bottom.
We can then find trig functions of 30° using this
triangle.

sin 30 =
1 ( )
3,1
2
2 60°
3
cos 30 = 1
2
30° 90°
1 3
tan 30 = = 3
3 3
You also can find the radian equivalents of these angles.

  
45 = 30 = 60 =
4 6 3
Here is a table of sines and cosines for common angles.