LECTUREScourse

Invertebrate ON COMPARATIVE
for Junior Biology
ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY
 CHAPTER 4: RESPIRTION AND RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Background
 Various metabolic processes of an organism require energy.
 Energy can be obtained from the food which we eat.
 The nutrients like proteins, carbohydrates and lipids contain
energy in their chemical bonds.
 This chemical energy can be released by the oxidation in the
cells. So it is a catabolic process.
 For the oxidation of food materials oxygen is required. It
results the production of water, CO2 and energy.
 Carbon dioxide is acid and toxic to tissues. Hence it is
important to expel from the body.
 So, the respiration is a process which involves exchange
of environmental oxygen and body’s carbon dioxide.
 Function of the Respiratory System
 Oversees gas exchanges (oxygen and carbon
dioxide) between the blood and external
environment
 Exchange of gasses takes place within the lungs
in the alveoli(only site of gas exchange, other
structures passageways(
 Passageways to the lungs purify, warm, and
humidify the incoming air
 Shares responsibility with cardiovascular system
Types of Respiration (based on contact). In general, it is of
two types:

1. Direct Respiration:
 It is present in lower organisms.
 Body wall or surface is thin.
 Exchange of gases takes place directly.
 There is no blood.
 Exchange takes place on the body surface by diffusion.

2. Indirect Respiration:
• Here, there is no direct contact between the body cells and
surrounding water or air.
• The body wall is thick.
• It is common in higher animals.
• Exchange of gases takes place through blood transport system.
Types of Respiration (based on oxygen presence):

1. Aerobic Respiration:
• It occurs in the presence of oxygen.
• Food is completely oxidized.
• End products are CO2, water and large amount of energy.
• Such organisms are known as aerobes.
• Examples: Euglena, man
2. Anaerobic Respiration:
• It occurs in the absence of oxygen.
• Food is incompletely oxidized.
• End products are ethyl alcohol or lactic acid and less amount of
energy.
• Such organisms are known as anaerobes.
• Examples: Taenia, skeletal Muscle tissue.
• Mammalian RBCs show anaerobic respiration as they lack
mitochondria.
Organs of Respiration in Animal Kingdom:
 Protozoa: Body surface.
 Porifera: Body surface (canal system).
 Coelenterates: Body surface.
 Helminthes: Mostly anaerobes. Body surface.
 Annelida: Skin (cutaneous respiration).
 Arthropods: Trachea, gills, ctenidium, book lungs.
 Mollusca: ctenidium, pulmonary sac (lungs).
 Echinodermata: Tube feet.
 Hemichordates: Gills
 Urochordata: branchial sacs (gills).
 Cephalochordates: Gills
 Fishes: Gills and air bladder.
 Amphibia: Skin, Buccal cavity, Lungs.
 Reptiles: Lungs.
 Birds: Lungs, Air sacs.
 Mammalia: Lungs
Phases of Respiration:
Two phases are present in aerobic respiration.
• External Respiration or Breathing:
 It is the exchange of gases between surrounding medium and
respiratory organs.
 It is a physical process and depends on the principle of diffusion.
 No energy is required.
 It does not involve in energy production.
 Food is not oxidized.
 Enzymes are not involved.
• Internal Respiration or Tissue/Cellular Respiration:
 The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood
and body cells is known as Internal respiration.
 It is a Physio chemical process.
 It also depends on the principle of diffusion.
 It involves in energy production.
 Food is oxidized.
 Many enzymes are involved.
Internal Respiration
Principle of Gases Exchange:
The gases exchange is purely physical process and depends on
principle of diffusion.
 Here the flow of the oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place
from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration or low partial pressure.
 The partial pressure (Po2) of oxygen in air or water is about
159nm (760mmHg).
 It is about 104 mmHg in alveoli and 40mmHg in blood
capillaries.
 Therefore, a pressure gradient is created, and it is responsible
for the diffusion of oxygen from air into the blood and tissues.
 Similarly, the Pco2 of carbon dioxide in blood capillaries is
about 46mmHg.
 It is 36 mm Hg in alveoli. In air it ranges from 6-10 mmHg.
 This difference in partial pressure is responsible for the
diffusion of carbon dioxide from tissue to lungs and to
atmosphere.
Characteristics of Respiratory surface
• The external respiration depends upon the principle of
diffusion.
• So, for the efficient exchange of gases the respiratory surface
must have following characteristics:
1. It must be thin
2. It must be permeable for Oxygen and carbon dioxide.
3. It must be moist.
4. It must be highly vascular.
5. It must be direct contact with the surrounding medium
(water/air).
6. It must have larger surface area.
7. Presence of respiratory pigment in many animals increases
the carrying capacity of gases.
 In Vertebrates, there is a progressive increase in the surface
area of the respiratory surface. It increases the efficiency of
respiration.
Respiratory System in Mammals (Man). It is formed of two parts:
I. Respiratory tract
II. Respiratory organs.
Respiratory Tract: It has following parts:
a. Nostrils: paired, small and oval apertures present at the lower
surface of the nose.
b. Nasal chambers:
 Paired, large chambers. Separated by nasal septum.
 Anterior part is lined by hair and act as filter to prevent the entry
of the dust.
 Middle part is lined by glandular epithelium and act as air
conditioner.
 The posterior part is lined by olfactory epithelium (Schneiderian
membrane). It helps in smelling.
c. Internal nares: Present on the roof of pharynx.
d. Laryngo pharynx:
 Lower part of the pharynx opened into glottis.
 It closed by epiglottis during the swallowing of the food.
e. Larynx:
 It is thin and tubular.
 Known as voice box.
 It is supported by four cartilages.
 They are 1 cricoid, 1 thyroid and 2 arytenoids.
 They prevent collapsing the trachea from air pressure
f. Trachea:
Also known as windpipe.
Thin walled and tubular.
It runs downward through the neck.
It is supported by 16-20 dorsally incomplete C shaped
cartilaginous rings.
It is lined by pseudo stratified and ciliated epithelium.
g. Bronchi:
 Trachea is divided into two primary branches in the thoracic part.
 They are known as primary bronchi.
 Each primary bronchus enters in its respective lung.
 It is also supported by cartilaginous rings.
 They further divide and re divide to form secondary, tertiary and
terminal bronchi.
 The cartilaginous rings extend up to the tertiary bronchi.
 They are about tertiary bronchi 10 in number.
 They further divide to form bronchioles.
 The final branch is known as terminal bronchiole which is of 0.5 mm in
diameter.
 It opens into alveoli or air sac which is about 0.1 mm in diameter. It is
the site of respiration.
 It is lined by squamous epithelium and glandular. They are about 750
million of alveoli in both lungs which provide 100 sq.m. surface area of
respiration.
 It is about 50 times more than that of skin.
 Therefore, lungs provide much efficient respiratory organs than the skin.
 Each alveolus itself is known as mini lung.
II. Respiratory Organs:

• Lungs are the respiratory organs in mammals including man.

• They are paired, soft, elastic and spongy.
• Present in thoracic cavity one on either side of the heart.
• Covered by two layered pleural membrane.
 Between these layers pleural cavity is present.
 It is filled with pleural fluid.
 It allows free friction less movements of lungs.
 It also protects the lungs from mechanical shocks.
• Each lung is conical shaped.
• Externally it is divided into lobes by oblique grooves.
 Left lung is divided into two lobes while right lung is divided
into three lobes.
• Internally a network of branches is present.
 It is known as bronchial intercom.
 It is formed by the repeated division of primary bronchi.
Path of Air (from Nose to Lungs)
Nose

Pharynx

Larynx

Trachea

Lungs
Organs in the Respiratory System
STRUCTURE FUNCTION

nose / nasal cavity warms, moistens, & filters air as it is inhaled

pharynx (throat) passageway for air, leads to trachea

the voice box, where vocal chords are

larynx
located

keeps the windpipe "open" trachea is lined

trachea (windpipe) with fine hairs called cilia which filter air
before it reaches the lungs

two branches at the end of the trachea,

bronchi
each lead to a lung

a network of smaller branches leading from

bronchioles the bronchi into the lung tissue &
ultimately to air sacs

the functional respiratory units in the lung

alveoli
where gases are exchanged
Mechanism of Breathing: It has two phases:
1-Inspiration:
• The intake of fresh air in the alveoli is known as inspiration.
• It is an active process and involve following muscle contractions.
a). Phrenic muscles: They extend from diaphragm to ribs and vertebral
column. When they contract, the diaphragm is flattened. As a result, thoracic
cavity increases anterio posteriorly.
b). External Inter costal muscles: They are 11 pairs present between 12 pairs
of ribs. When they contract, ribs are pulled forward, downward and outward.
It increases thoracic cavity dorso ventrally and laterally.
c). Diaphragm: It is present in the abdominal cavity. It separates the
abdominal and thoracic cavity. It is made up of involuntary muscles and
found only in mammals. During inspiration it becomes flat. During
expiration diaphragm is relaxed. It is supplied by phrenic nerves.
2.Expiration:
• It is a passive process.
• Involves the expelling out of air with carbon dioxide.
• External intercoastal muscle relaxed and internal inters coastal muscles
assist. Abdominal muscles also assist.
• Ribs fall and diaphragm become dome shaped.
• Thoracic cavity decreases and air is forced out.
Control of Breathing:
• Conscious control:
• Conscious control of breathing is common in many forms of meditation,
specifically forms of yoga for example pranayama.
• In swimming, cardio fitness, speech or vocal training, one learns to discipline
one's breathing, initially consciously but later sub-consciously.
• The conscious breathing can affect the reticular formation in the brainstem
which autonomously controls breathing and the cardiovascular system.
• Thus, conscious control of breathing and its effect on the cardiovascular
system is the mystery behind practices of yoga and meditation.
Unconscious control
• It is controlled by specialized centres in the brainstem.
• When carbon dioxide levels increase in the blood, it reacts with the water in
blood, producing carbonic acid. Lactic acid produced by fermentation during
exercise also lowers pH.
• The drop in the blood's pH stimulates chemoreceptors in the carotid and
aortic bodies as well as those inside the respiratory center in the medulla
oblongata.
 Chemoreceptors send more nerve impulses to the respiration center in the
medulla oblongata and pons in the brain.
 These, in turn send nerve impulses through the phrenic and thoracic nerves
to the diaphragm
Special Respiratory movements:
 Cough:
 The forcible expiration preceded by prolonged inspiration.
 It is a reflex action.
 Stimulation takes place from trachea to lung.
 Centre is medulla oblongata.
 Cough air comes out through the mouth.
 Sneeze:
 It is also a reflex action stimulated by olfactory epithelium.
 Air is exploded through the mouth.
 Yawning: It is prolonged inspiration due to increase of carbon dioxide
concentration in lung.
 Hiccough: It is a noisy inspiration due to muscular spasm of diaphragm
at regular intervals.
 It occurs due to sudden sucking of air through vocal cords.
 Branchial Asthma:
 It is difficult breathing.
 More mucus is secreted in alveoli.
 Occurs due to muscular spasm of smooth muscles of alveoli, bronchioles.
Cough start to force out the mucus.
Respiratory Diseases:
 Common cold:
 It is a viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory tract
which primarily affects the nose.
 Symptoms include coughing, sore throat, runny nose, sneezing,
and fever which usually resolve in seven to ten days.
 Pneumonia:
 It is an inflammatory condition of the lung affecting primarily
the microscopic air sacs known as alveoli.
 It is usually caused by infection with viruses or bacteria and
less commonly other microorganisms, certain drugs and other
conditions such as autoimmune diseases.
 Characterized by a high neutrophil count, e.g. asthma, cystic
fibrosis, emphysema, chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder
or acute respiratory distress syndrome.
 symptoms include a cough, chest pain, fever, and difficulty
breathing.
 Restrictive Lung disease:
 Restrictive lung diseases are a category of respiratory
disease characterized by a loss of lung compliance, causing
incomplete lung expansion and increased lung stiffness,
such as in infants with respiratory distress syndrome.
 Tuberculosis, MTB, or TB:
 It is a widespread, and in many cases fatal, infectious
disease
 caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
 Tuberculosis typically attacks the lungs but can also affect
other parts of the body.
 Symptoms of active TB infection are a chronic cough with
blood tinged sputum, fever, night sweats, and weight loss.
 Bacillus Calmette Guerin (BCG) is the most widely used
vaccine.
Pulmonary air volumes and Lung capacities:
 The changes in the volume of air into and out of the lungs can
be measured by spirometer or respirometer.
 The graph showing the changes in the pulmonary volumes and
capacities is called as spirogram.
The spirogram has the following values:
 Tidal Volume (TV):
 It is the volume of air inspired or expired in each normal breath.
 It is about 500ml in the average adult man.
 Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV):
 It is forced inhalation after normal inspiration.
 It is also known as complimentary air volume.
 It is the deepest possible inspiration.
 It is about 2000-3000 ml.
 Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV):
 It is forced expiration after normal expiration.
 It is also known as supplementary air volume.
 It is the deepest possible expiration. It is about 1000-1500 ml.
 Residual Volume (RV):
 This is the air that remains in the lungs after forcible expiration.
 It is about 1200-1400ml.
 Vital Capacity (VC):
 It is the largest possible expiration after largest possible
inspiration.
 It is equal to tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume and
expiratory reserve volume.
 VC= TV+IRV+ERV. i.e. = 500+3000+1200 =4700 ml.
 he range of vital capacity = 3.5 -4.5 litres in a normal adult man.
 Total Lung capacity (TLC):
 It is the total amount of air in the lungs after the maximum
inhalation.
 TLC =VC+ RV. It is about 5-6 litres.
All pulmonary volumes and capacities are about 20-25 per
cent less in women than in men
Exchange of gases:
Gas exchange is a biological process through which different
gases are transferred in opposite directions across a specialized
respiratory surface.
 Gases are constantly required and produced as a by-product of
cellular and metabolic reactions.
 Gases must first dissolve in a fluid in order to diffuse across a
membrane.
 Therefore, all gas exchange systems require a moist
environment.
 Therefore, an efficient system for their exchange is extremely
important.
 It occurs in two phases.
1. External Respiration or Pulmonary gas exchange.
2. Internal Respiration or Gases exchange in Tissues.
1- External Respiration or Pulmonary gas exchange.
 It involves the exchange of oxygen of air and carbon
dioxide of blood at lung site.
 The pO2 in alveoli =100mm Hg.
 The pO2 in venous blood =40 mmHg.
 The difference in partial pressure =60mmHg.
 By this difference O2 enter in from alveoli to blood.
 Similarly, pCO2 in alveoli = 40mmHg.
 pCO2 level in venous blood is = 46 mmHg.
 Difference in pressure gradient =6mmHg.
 By this difference CO2 diffuse out in alveoli from
blood.
 Diffusing capacity of respiratory membrane is 20
times more to CO2 than O2. So, CO2 diffuse out at
faster rate.
Gas exchange between a capillary and an alveolus
2. Internal Respiration or Gases exchange in Tissues.
 The oxygenated blood from lungs is carried to the heart which supplies it to
the body tissues.
 The exchange occurs between the oxygen of blood and the carbon dioxide of
the body cells.
Transport of oxygen:
 In lower, smaller and sluggish animals the oxygen requirements are low. So,
oxygen is mainly transported in dissolved form. But in higher organisms and
metabolically active animals more oxygen is required. So, oxygen is mainly
transported in bound form with some respiratory pigment. Hence blood
transports the oxygen in two ways.
In solution:
About 1-3% of oxygen is transported by plasma in dissolved form.
As oxy haemoglobin:
• About 97-99% of oxygen is transported in this form in RBCs.
• Haemoglobin is formed of 4 iron containing porphyrin prosthetic groups
attached to a globulin protein.
• Each porphyrin molecule is formed of 4 pyrrole rings attached to iron element
(Fe++) at the center.
• Globulin is formed of 4 poly peptide chains (2 alpha and 2 beta chains). Each
Fe++ can bind one molecule of oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin.
• So, one Haemoglobin molecule can bind up to 4 molecules of oxygen.
Binding of Oxygen to Haemoglobin: Oxygen Saturation (Dissociation)
Curve:
• It is also known as oxygen equilibrium curve.
• It expresses the relationship between PO2 and the bound oxygen content.
• Percent saturation is plotted against O2 tension.
 The haemoglobin molecule has four binding sites for oxygen molecules.
 Actually, some of the Hb normally in red blood cells cannot bind oxygen (it is
either metHb or Carboxyhemoglobin HbCO).
 The experimentally determined oxygen binding capacity of haemoglobin
(CHb) is 1.34 ml O2per gram Hb.
 In 100 ml of blood, there is about 15 g of Hb, so that 100 ml of blood has
the capacity to bind 20.1 ml of oxygen.
 This quantity is called the oxygen-binding capacity of blood (CB).
 Note that CB is proportional to the haematocrit of the blood
 The curve shows that there is progressive increase in the percent
saturation of haemoglobin with the increase in Po2 up to a level and
becomes constant (30% saturation at 20mm Hg, 75% at 40 mmHg, and
97% about 95 mmHg).
 So, a normal oxygen disassociation curve is sigmoid.
the percentage of red cells in your blood
Haemoglobin saturation curve.

bisphosphoglycerate

partial pressure of oxygen in the blood

Factors affecting the oxygen disassociation curve:
 Pco2: The oxygen disassociation curve turns to right and oxygen
binding capacity of haemoglobin is lowered with increase in
Pco2.It is known as Bohr’s effect.
 Temperature: The oxygen disassociation curve turns to right with
increase in temperature.
 pH: The oxygen disassociation curve turns to right with decrease in
pH (acidity).
 Transport of carbon dioxide: CO2 is produced in the tissues as an
end product of cell respiration.
 From the cells CO2 diffuses into blood in exchange with the
oxygen of blood.
 It is transported both by plasma and haemoglobin.
 Blood transports the CO2 in three ways:
I-As carbonic acid:
 About 7% of CO2 is transported by this method.
 Carbonic acid is formed by the diffusion of CO2 in water.
 Reaction occurs in the presence of an enzyme carbonic anhydrase
in RBCs and stimulated by low Po2.
 The H2CO3/HCO3- combination acts as the primary buffer of the
blood.
 The hydration of carbon dioxide is a slow process but occurs
rapidly in the red blood cells because a high concentration of the
enzyme carbonic anhydrase catalyzes the reaction.
II-As carbaminohaemoglobin: About 10-15 % of carbon dioxide is
transported bound to haemoglobin and plasma proteins.
 Carbon dioxide combines reversibly with haemoglobin to form
carbamino haemoglobin.
 Carbon dioxide does not bind to iron, but it binds to amino groups
on the polypeptide chains of haemoglobin.
 Carbon dioxide also binds to amino groups on the polypeptide
chains of plasma proteins.
III-Carbaminohaemoglobin (Tissues): Of the total carbon dioxide
in the blood, 23% binds to the globin portion of the haemoglobin
molecule to form carbaminohaemoglobin, as written in this
equation:
Carbaminohaemoglobin forms in regions of high PCO2, as
blood flows through the systemic capillaries in the tissues.
CO2 Transport: Bicarbonate Ions (Tissues)
 Of the total carbon dioxide in the blood, 75% is converted into
bicarbonate ions within the red blood cells, in a sequence of reversible
reactions.
 The bicarbonate ions then enter the plasma.
 In regions with high PCO2, carbon dioxide enters the red blood cell
and combines with water to form carbonic acid.
 This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase.
 The same reaction occurs in the plasma, but without the enzyme it is
very slow.
 Carbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions.
 The hydrogen ions produced in this reaction are buffered by binding
to haemoglobin. This is written as HHb.
 In order to maintain electrical neutrality, bicarbonate ions diffuse out
of the red blood cell and chloride ions diffuse in. This is called the
chloride shift.
 Within the plasma, bicarbonate ions act as a buffer and play an
important role in blood pH control.
CO2 Transport: Bicarbonate Ions (Lungs)
 In the lungs, carbon dioxide diffuses out of the plasma
and into the alveoli.
 This lowers the PCO2 in the blood, causing the
chemical reactions to reverse and proceed to the left.
 In the lungs, the bicarbonate ions diffuse back into the
red blood cell, and the chloride ions diffuse out of the
red blood cell. Recall that this is called the chloride
shift.
 The hydrogen ions are released from haemoglobin and
combine with the bicarbonate ion to form carbonic
acid.
 Carbonic acid breaks down into carbon dioxide and
water.
 This reverse reaction is also catalyzed by the enzyme
carbonic anhydrase.
Hamburger’s Phenomenon (Chloride shift):
 CO2 produced from tissue metabolism enters into RBC.
 This CO2 reacts with water and form carbonic acid.
 This reaction is catalysed by carbonic anhydrase.
 Carbonic acid is buffered by potassium and KHCO3 id
formed.
 The cell membrane of RBC is permeable for K+ and Na+ ions
but not for Cl- and HCO3- .
 Cl- ions enters in RBC and KCL is formed. Now HCO3- ions
become free which come outside and react with Na+ to form
NaHCO3 .
 About 80% of CO2 is transported towards respiratory organs
in this form.
 Entering Cl- ions into RBC is known as positive chloride
shift.
 Shifting of Cl- ions from RBC into plasma is known as
negative chloride shift.