Journal of Climate Change, Vol. 10, No. 3 (2024), pp. 31-42.

DOI 10.3233/JCC240021

Review on Conservation Approach Study

of Largest Mangrove Ecosystem as the Mitigation
of Climate Change

Prabal Barua1*, Sadika Sultana Chowdhury2 and Abhijit Mitra3

1
Department of Knowledge Management for Development, Young Power in Social Action, Chittagong, Bangladesh
2
Department of Sociology and Sustainable Development, Premier University, Chittagong, Bangladesh
3
Department of Marine Sciences, University of Calcutta, West Bengal, India
* prabalims@gmail.com

Received July 12, 2024; revised and accepted July 30, 2024

Abstract: Bangladesh’s complicated socioeconomic background serves as an example of the 21st-century

worldwide environmental challenges. With a land area of 10,200 km2, the ‘Sundarbans’ is the world’s biggest
mangrove forest, a hotspot for biodiversity, and home to several rare or endangered birds, reptiles, and mammals.
Issues with biodiversity and climate change are linked here. Bangladesh and India share this important carbon
sink ecosystem downstream of the Ganges Brahmaputra Meghna River complex. The Sundarbans are extremely
beneficial to the local population because they produce beeswax, honey, and an abundance of seafood. They also
prevent saltwater intrusion onto arable land, accumulate sediment as sea levels rise, and lessen the effects of
seasonal droughts and monsoon floods. The mangrove is the main source of food and money for a large number
of the impoverished residents that live in and around this forest, mostly from farming and fishing. The negative
effects of climate change are becoming more and more evident. Preserving this worldwide treasure is of utmost
importance; nevertheless, how can this forest be sustained over the long haul? In order to ensure the effective
conservation of this globally significant ecosystem in the context of climate mitigation, this paper evaluates the
advantages of the Sundarbans ecosystem’s good ecosystem function and lays out an integrated approach at the
national (Bangladesh), bi-national (India-Bangladesh), and regional (with all countries of the Sundarbans river
catchment system) levels.

Keywords: Sundarbans; Climate change; Cyclones and monsoon; Mangroves; Mitigation.

Introduction inhabitants per square kilometer in 2020 (Work Bank

2020). Birth rates are now declining but the population
Bangladesh is a developing country with a total area of has more than doubled since the early 1980’s. This
147,570 km2 surrounded to the west, north and east by population boom is generating socioeconomic and
a 4,095 km land border with India and by a land and environmental challenges in terms of land planning
water border of 193 km with Myanmar in the southeast. and management, food security, health and education
It is the eighth most populous country in the world (Farid et al., 2011). Bangladesh is in a phase of rapid
with about 170 million people and a population growth economic growth which is reducing poverty. The
rate of 0.95% in 2021 (United Nations 2022). It is the country converted from low- to lower-middle-income
seventh most densely populated country, with 1,265 status in 2015 (Raihan et al., 2017) to the world’s

*Corresponding Author
32 Prabal Barua et al.

seventh fastest-growing economy in 2020 with a rate diversified aquatic and terrestrial flora (around 5,700
of 5% GDP annual growth, yet 21% of the population angiosperm species) and rich fauna (about 700 fish
(ca 34 million people) still live below the poverty line. species), UNESCO designated the region as a world
Most of the workforce (85%, >50 million people) is heritage site in 1997 (Rahman, 2015). In addition to
casually employed (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, providing food and materials, the region is a global
2020). The services sector contributed 50 to 53 % priority for the protection of biodiversity and offers
of the country’s GDP in 2019, followed by industry shelter from storms, erosion, and flooding (Pullaiah,
(30 %) and then agriculture (13 %) (O’Neill, 2021). 2019). It contains rare and endemic animals including
Manufacturing had a key role in recent economic the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris) and the Rhesus
growth with the main industries being textiles, clothing, monkey (Macaca mulata). Of its 102 islands, 58
tea processing, paper production, cement, chemical are inhabited. It offers a range of ecosystems, such
fertilisers, sugar and light engineering (Majumder, as freshwater and saltwater Heritiera forests, low
2013). Bangladesh is the world’s fourth biggest rice mangrove forests, and tree mangrove forests (Payo et
producer, and this crop is the main food source for al., 2016). The Sundarbans’ species composition and
its populace. Bangladesh is also a major producer of community structure vary from east to west and along
tea, jute, wheat, sugarcane, tobacco, spices, and fruits salinity gradients, with freshwater genera like Heritiera,
(Majumder, 2013). Since 2020, economic turmoil due Ceriops, and Xyocarpus coexisting with salt-tolerant
to the COVID pandemic highlighted the strengths and genera like Excoecaria, Sonneratia, and Bruguiera
weaknesses of the Bangladesh economy as an initial (Rahman, 2015). Since 1950, over 50% of the mangrove
global trade slowdown and then acceleration impacted trees have been cut down for timber, to make way for
the clothing sector, which accounts for >80 % of exports farmland and shrimp operations. The Sundarbans may
(Bodrud-Doza, et al., 2020). Bangladesh is one of the disappear during the next century if predicted “under
most vulnerable countries to climate change as it is business as usual” increases in atmospheric carbon
already strongly affected by seasonal droughts and dioxide persist (Feller et al. 2010; IPCC 2022). The
floods which are increasing in severity (Rahman, et al., Sundarbans face this existential risk because there are
2021). Bangladesh is the eighth most natural disaster- no plans in place to allow for the natural inland retreat
prone country in the world (Eckstein et al., 2019) and of the mangrove forest and sea levels are rising there
experiences cyclones, floods, landslides, earthquakes, at a rate of 5.5 mm/year (CEGIS, 2011 cited by Sadik
heat waves, as well as outbreaks of dengue, cholera and et al., 2018). Global mean sea level rise is projected to
other infectious diseases. During the monsoon season be a further 2800-5500 mm higher by 2100 with 1.5
(Hossain et al., 2020) at least a third of the country is degrees C warming (IPCC, 2022).
vulnerable to flooding which causes loss of human life, According to Rahman (2020), freshwater marsh
people displacement and illnesses that impact economic forests have receded from their historical range, and
growth and damage assets. The frequency, magnitude species including wild rice (Potresia coarctata), rice
and duration of floods have increased significantly and grass (Leersia hexandra), and screw pine (Pandanus
all floods that covered more than 30% of the country tectorius) have gone extinct locally. As salt-tolerant
have occurred since 1974 (Hossain et al., 2020). In species proliferate and spread throughout the forest,
1974, extreme events ‘only’ caused $600 million worth including the white mangrove (Avicennia marina), palm
of damage in Bangladesh, in 1998 this was $3.5 billion, tree Nipa fruticans, and mangrove date palm (Phoenix
in 2004 $6.3 million; there was crop damage of $ 290 pelludosa), Heritiera fomes, a once-abundant species, is
million in 2007 and $1.2 billion worth of damage to in danger of going extinct (Khan et al., 2020). Sea level
infrastructure in 2017 (Hossain et al., 2020; Mirza, rise, saltwater intrusion, increased rainfall, storms, and
2003). temperature are all contributing to the damage of the
Bangladesh is a low-lying country, with two-thirds Sundarbans (Basu et al., 2016). In addition, increased
of its land area below sea level, making these issues water pollution from industry and urban wastes has
particularly severe there. The Ganges, Brahmaputra, reduced the quality of fish habitats in the area and
and Meghna river basins, in summary, include the resulted in a decline in property values (Hoq, 2014).
majority of the nation (GBM). Since 1987, the Ramsar The Bangladesh government has policies, laws and
treaty has protected the Sundarbans mangrove forest, management plans in place to protect the Sundarbans
which spans 4,260 km2 in West Bengal and 6017 but these regulations have been inefficient with limited
km2 (62%) in Bangladesh. Because of the remarkably knowledge regarding their significance for climate
 Review of Mangrove Conservation Study in Response to Climate Changes 33

mitigation and poor coordination among government mammal and amphibian species (Ahmed et al., 2017).
agencies and the local communities (Rahman, 2021). The forest plays an important role in the capture of
Many of the people who live in and around the sediments, the recycling of nutrients (Basu et al., 2016)
Sundarbans depend on the region as their major source and the sequestration of atmospheric CO2 (Hilmi et
of food and income, mostly from agriculture and fishing, al., 2023). It is strongly affected by the seasons, for
and are burdened by poverty and inadequate governance example, Avicennia species of mangrove tree produce
systems. Extortion and bribery are two instances of peak amounts of leaf fall and litter production after
poor governance that worsen the overuse of Sundarbans annual monsoons. The Sundarbans is one of the largest
resources, which results in serious environmental and detritus-based ecosystems in the world where mangrove
social issues (Rahman, 2018). litter regulates the productivity of the adjacent Ganges
Brahmaputra estuarine complex, which acts as an
Benefits of the Sunderbans Mangrove Forest important nursery for commercially important species
Mangroves grow along tropical and subtropical of finfish and shellfish (Basu et al., 2016).
coastlines and have trees that can withstand high According to Ahmed et al. (2017), the Sunderbans
salinity, strong winds, high temperatures and anaerobic store more than 0.5 million tonnes of carbon annually
sediment. They take up nutrients and water from at rates of between 4.7 and 6.5 Mg C ha−1·y−1, which
their roots to fix carbon dioxide from the air through is faster than in the Amazon rainforest (Mitra et al.,
photosynthesis in their leaves, producing carbohydrates 2011; Ray et al., 2013). The standard measure used
for forest growth that are translocated into living wood to price carbon is a tonne of carbon or Mg C. A Tg C
tissues. Leaf and dead wood material build up muddy is equal to 1012 g of carbon. The annual worldwide
sediments that are rich in inorganic and organic matter emissions of carbon are around 10 Pg C or 10 × 1015
(Robertson et al., 1992). In global terms, the estimated g y-1. With an estimated 56 million metric tonnes of
mangrove litter fall varies from 130 to 1870 g m-2 y-2 stored carbon and ecosystem services worth between
(Twilley et al., 1997). Mangroves absorb carbon up to 273 and 714 million USD annually, the Bangladeshi
100 times faster than terrestrial forests and store it for portion of the forest covers 4415 km2 (Aziz and Paul,
millennia. They provide many other benefits (Das and 2015). According to Ray et al. (2013), the Indian
Vincent 2009, Table 1) such as limiting the risk and portion of the Sundarbans, which spans 4264 km2,
impacts of natural hazards (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2018) is thought to have absorbed 2.79 Tg C, or 0.64%, of
which increases the value of their ecosystem services India’s 2010–2011 emissions of fossil fuels. To put
(Hilmi et al., 2023). it another way, the Kolaghat coal-fired power station
Material brought in by rivers and tides becomes released 2.83 Tg C into the atmosphere in 2011 in order
trapped amongst the forest root system where inorganic to generate 7469732 MW of energy. This amount of
nutrients stimulate forest growth and organic material CO2 was therefore sequestered by roughly 4328 km2 of
stimulates a highly productive detritus-based food Sundarbans mangrove forest (Ray et al., 2013). Salinity
web (Twilley et al., 1997). Organic carbon can also and vegetation type affect how much carbon is stored in
be sequestered in anoxic layers of sediment which the Sunderbans. About 70% of the trees in this area are
mangrove trees can tolerate as they have specialised Heritiera fomes, which store the most carbon per unit
aerial roots that supply buried parts of the trees area (mean 360 Mg C ha-1) in the mangrove habitat.
with oxygen. Mangrove forests are among the most While the amount of below-ground carbon storage is
productive natural ecosystems in the world with primary highest in the high salinity zones, zones with freshwater
productivity levels that exceed that of many agricultural impact have greater carbon stores (mean 336 Mg C ha-1)
systems (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2018). Mangroves help than high salinity zones (Mizanur et al., 2015).
improve water quality, are important nursery and fishing The Sunderbans store carbon and other greenhouse
areas for finfish and shellfish and are biodiverse habitats gases like methane and nitrous oxide, but they also
that can include numerous endangered species (Maiti & release more of these gases into the atmosphere due to
Chowdhury, 2013; Mukhopadhyay et al., 2018). deforestation caused by prawn cultivation for export
The Sundarbans mangrove forest was formed about (Ahmed et al., 2017; Rosentrenter et al., 2023). During
7,000 years ago as it colonised coastal sediment their 5-year study period, Chowdhury et al. (2019)
deposits from the Himalayas (Aziz & Paul, 2015). It found that planting Avicennia mangrove tree seeds
is a biodiverse area with records of 334 plant species, into regularly spaced holes was the most cost-effective
260 bird species, 210 fish species and many reptile, method of sequestering the highest amount of carbon in
34 Prabal Barua et al.

terms of restoration. However, the success rates of these been noted (Mitra et al., 2019; Mitra and Zaman, 2022;
plants varied depending on salinity, tidal inundation, Biswas et al., 2020).
and soil type. Mangrove preservation and sustainable Mangrove growth and spatial distribution are
use are crucial steps in reducing the negative effects of predicted to be impacted by changes in precipitation
climate change locally preserving biodiversity, boosting patterns (Yadav and Majumder, 2020). Reduced
recreational value, and promoting sustainable economic rainfall and increased evaporation will increase salinity,
strands in the area (Hafiz Iqbal & Nur Mozahid, 2022). decreasing net primary productivity, growth, and
seedling survival; changing the competition between
Relationship between Climatic Parameters and mangrove species; reducing the diversity of mangrove
Sundarbans zones; and causing a notable reduction in mangrove area
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change due to the conversion of upper tidal zones to hypersaline
predicts that, as a result of global climate change, flats. These conclusions are primarily based on links
there will likely be an increase in tropical storm peak observed between mangrove habitat conditions and
wind intensities as well as an increase in tropical rainfall trends (Barua and Mitra, 2024; Barua et al.,
cyclone mean and peak precipitation intensities in some 2017). Reduced precipitation means less freshwater
locations during the twenty-first century ( Agarwal and surface water input for mangroves and less water
Mitra, 2019). If severe winds and low pressure become entering groundwater, which raises salinity. Mangrove
more frequent, storm surge heights are also expected to trees’ increasing tissue salt levels and correspondingly
rise. This could happen if storm frequency or intensity decreased water availability as soil salinity rises lower
increases due to climate change (Mitra, 2013). Storms productivity (Barua and Barua, 2023; Barua et al., 2023).
that are stronger and occur more frequently may cause The mangrove’s susceptibility to any rise in relative sea
more harm to mangroves by killing off trees and causing level will be heightened by increased salinity since it
defoliation. Storms can change the height of mangrove would increase the availability of sulfate in seawater,
sediment by soil erosion, soil deposition, peat collapse, which will accelerate the anaerobic breakdown of peat.
and soil compression in addition to stressing trees and Mangrove invasion of freshwater and saltwater wetlands
generating sulfide soil toxicity (Mitra, 2018; Mitra, can be caused by decreased precipitation (Barua et al.,
2020). Because of changes in sediment elevation and 2022; Barua and Rahman, 2022; Barua et al., 2020;
accompanying hydrology, areas experiencing widespread Goodrich et al., 2022).
tree mortality with low survival of saplings and trees From a pre-industrial value, the atmospheric
may undergo permanent ecological conversion (Dhar et concentration of CO2 increased by 35%, from 280 parts
al., 2022). Recovery through seedling recruitment may per million by volume (ppmv) in 1880 to 379 ppmv in
not occur in these areas. Climate change will not have 2005 (Solomon et al., 2021). CO2 emissions have been
an impact on other natural disasters like tsunamis, which rising over the last few decades: between 2000 and 2005,
can nonetheless seriously harm mangroves and other they went from an average of 6.4±0.4 GtC/yr in the
1990s to 7.2±0.3 GtC/yr. Certain mangrove species may
coastal ecosystems (see, for example, the tsunami that
produce more as a direct result of higher atmospheric
struck the Indian Ocean on December 26, 2004 (Guha
CO2 levels. Mangroves are expected to develop faster
and Mitra, 2020).
and regulate water loss more effectively in response
Due to climate change, there will likely be a 25%
to rising atmospheric CO2 levels (Bhattachariya et al.,
increase in rainfall worldwide by 2050. Rainfall will,
2022; Chatterjee et al., 2023).
however, be distributed unevenly throughout the region.
It is quite probable that precipitation will increase in Natural Resource Management in the Sunderbans
high latitudes and decrease in most subtropical regions, The Sundarbans, the world’s biggest mangrove
particularly along the poleward edges of the subtropics. forest, have and require careful management because
The Sahel, the Mediterranean, southern Africa, and coordination between Bangladesh and India, the nations
portions of southern Asia experienced drying, according upstream of the river, is still necessary for the basin and
to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s businesses looking to make money off of the resources
most recent assessment, which also noted notable at their disposal. Bangladesh possesses national policies
increases in precipitation in eastern North and South like the Convention on Biological Diversity, which it
America, northern Europe, and northern and central signed as a National Environment Management Action
Asia. For other regions, no long-term patterns had Plan, a National Conservation Strategy, and a National
 Review of Mangrove Conservation Study in Response to Climate Changes 35

Action Plan and Strategy for Biodiversity. The Ministry to livelihoods, food supply, human health, education,
of Climate Change, Forests, and Environment is legal. and transportation. Communities affected by the
Inadequate communication between this incoherence mismanagement of natural resources must be involved
can be produced by ministries, as demonstrated by the in order to determine and long-term fixes (Arruda,
prawn development policy, which is the second-largest 2018). Without lecturing the populace, information
export industry in the nation after apparel. Thousands must be disseminated in the appropriate socioeconomic
of hectares of mangrove vegetation were devastated context (Chowdhury et al., 2016). Participation from
in Chakaria due to prawn aquaculture even though local communities and the exchange of traditional
there are legal safeguards in place to protect this forest knowledge aid in determining appropriate policies and
(Ishtiaque et al., 2016). solutions totaling (Titumir, et al., 2020). A few crucial
The Sundarbans have undergone strategic points regarding the conversation between traditional
environmental assessments and management plans. knowledge, science, and policy-making encompass
Forestry Department to advance a more comprehensive wildlife biology, environmental science, ecological
plan that includes the indications required to make management, biodiversity conservation, weather
monitoring easier. Nationally, people meet the UN variability, ecosystem management, and the effects of
Sustainable Development Goals (Schnatz, 2022). climate change (Kruskwoski and Arruda, 2017).
Natural remedies have the potential to conservation
and offer strategies for coping with difficulties related How to Improve the Conservation of the
to territory and climate change (Smith et al., 2021). Mangroves in Bangladesh?
The mangrove ecosystem provides services to the entire Sustainable management of the Sundarbans requires
community (Table 1). coordination between India and Bangladesh. Natural
continuity, common environmental risks, and human
Community Involvement challenges faced by both countries require improved
dialogue and coordination. India and Bangladesh
In order to specify actions, impacts, and outcomes, are both parties to the Convention on Biological
dialogue with stakeholders is required. Civil society is Diversity and to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
a part of this. All users of natural resources, including and share the UNESCO World Heritage Site. A 2011
global corporations, as well as organisations and local Memorandum of Understanding on Conservation of
communities. The Sundarbans ecosystem is related the Sundarbans “Recogni[ses] that the Sundarban of

Table 1: The Sundarbans mangroves forest’s ecosystem services

Regulating service Oxygen production, temperature regulation, carbon sequestration, climate regulation, water and
nutrient cycling, pollutant and sediment regulation. For example, they reduce the impacts of
cyclones by saving human life, properties and protecting biodiversity from intense winds, waves
and seawater flooding during cyclones.
Supporting service Terrestrial and marine biodiversity maintenance & protection. Reproductive habitat for aquatic,
benthic and terrestrial species.
Nursery, feeding and breeding grounds for economically valuable fish and shellfish.
Materials, e.g. Nypha fruticans leaves are widely used for thatching and
Phoenix paludosa wood is used for building.
Provisioning service Edible fish and shellfish, wax and honey from Apis dorsata bees, fruits such as Keora (Sonneratia
apetala) and Ora (Sonneratia caseolaris).
Raw materials e.g. wood for paper and fuel (species like Ceriops decandra, Cynometra ramiflora,
Amoora cuculatta).
Medical resources: Several biocides, food additives like alginates, and leaves of Phoenix paludosa
are used for the treatment of ringworm and sore throats.
Cultural service Accessible knowledge on biodiversity processes, for education and research. Spiritual values
associated with the environment and rituals for religious communities.
Creating job opportunities such as growing numbers of tourists joining ethnic festivals, river cruises
and jungle trails.
36 Prabal Barua et al.

India and Bangladesh represent a single ecosystem ecosystem. Consideration of the entire river catchment
divided between the two countries” and established key system is needed for Sunderban conservation in the
principles, as follows: “Both Parties recognize the need long term. The Mekong River basin in Southeast Asia
to monitor and conserve the Sundarbans, which is home is a similar case where the middle and downstream
to rich biodiversity consisting of a large variety of rare countries (Cambodia, Lao People’s Democratic
species of flora and fauna, and acts as a vital protective Republic, Thailand and Vietnam) have formed a
barrier protecting the mainland from flooding, tidal common agreement, the Mekong River Commission
waves and cyclones (article 1)” “They also agree to: 1. (Mukhopadhay et al., 2018). This agreement does not
Consider and adopt appropriate joint management and include Myanmar or China in the upper part of the basin
joint monitoring of resources; Explore the possibility of which is problematic as the latter has developed major
implementing conservation and protection efforts, and hydropower infrastructure. The status of downstream
encourage mangrove regeneration, habitat restoration, biodiverse areas of Cambodia (Tonle Sap Lake) and
and rehabilitation programs, which would eventually the deltas of Vietnam are quickly deteriorating despite
increase the potential for carbon sequestration; 3. the MRC dialogue and strong positive efforts between
Develop a long-term strategy for creating ecotourism member countries and international financing. Since the
opportunities for both countries, which will create 1990s, there has been major dam construction in China,
synergy and generate greater revenue (Article 2)” India in the upstream part of the river, to provide electricity to
and Bangladesh clearly state ‘why’ cooperation was support economic development (Foreign Policy, 2020).
needed and ‘what’ to do. However, ‘how’ to implement This is comparable to the Sundarbans river input decline
these activities, and ‘who’ will finance them is missing. as since the 2010s, the density of dams in tributaries of
Indian government legislation aims to preserve part the Brahmaputra has been increasing quickly.
of the mangrove forest as a national park and they
created three sanctuaries to stop mangrove degradation, “Blue Carbon” as a Nature-Based Solution to
but, despite these efforts, the populated coastline of Enhance Mangrove Conservation
these protected areas is the most affected by human As governments, financial institutions, and corporations
development and land encroachment (Abhiroop et al., become more aware of the magnitude of risks of
2018). biodiversity loss and business dependency on nature,
Distinguishing and separating green (terrestrial they are updating regulations, sustainability measures
ecosystems) carbon from blue (marine ecosystems) and policies to extend credit, or establish new
carbon opens opportunities for future trading. The investment criteria for “ethical investment, socially
establishment of a blue carbon market could positively responsible investment, or “impact investing”. Climate
impact local communities and contribute to climate funds are important as significant resources are needed
change mitigation and adaptation. It is important to to adapt to the adverse effects and reduce the impacts
highlight the co-benefits that can be derived from of a changing climate. They involve the scaling-up of
financial blue carbon activities, and how they can resources from public, private, bilateral, multilateral,
improve social well-being, and economic growth, and
and alternative financial sources. Mobilising private
meet sustainability goals (Schindler Murray et al.,
climate finance is needed to address climate change
2023). For the Sundarbans, a blue carbon strategy could
because public finance alone will not be enough (Arruda
have positive impacts on seafood supplies, shoreline
and Johannsdottir, 2023). Mangroves require carbon
protection, and water quality. Blue carbon strategies for
mangrove conservation are creating new employment prices to reflect their real value as these habitats store
opportunities linked to sustainable practices. They carbon, provide climate resilience and provide water,
can be used to help local communities and strengthen and food security. Knowledge of the drivers leading to
Sundarbans restoration (Herr et al., 2019). their destruction: climate change, urban development,
economic activities (rice and palm oil production,
The River Basin Perspective aquaculture). Environmental, Social, and Governance
Of the Bangladesh fresh water input, 93% comes (ESG) goals (environmental and social issues) need
from abroad needing international efforts to improve to be considered when making investment decisions.
water quality, reduce contamination and improve Green Bonds are used to finance projects with positive
water risk management (Chowdhury 2016) this is to environmental impacts. Sustainability bonds are used
conserve downstream biodiversity and the mangrove to “finance or re-finance a combination of green and
 Review of Mangrove Conservation Study in Response to Climate Changes 37

social projects or activities” (La Torre and Chiappini, with the Ten Principles of the UN Global Compact, the
2020). Sustainability-linked finance instruments have Sustainable Ocean Principles, the International Capital
been also introduced. The most popular have been Market Association’s Green and Social Bonds Principles
corporate sustainability-linked loans (SLLs) and as well as the criteria defined by the Tipping Points for
sustainability-linked bonds (SLBs). For SLLs: Interest a Healthy and Productive Ocean. The KPI needs to be
may increase if the borrower fails to achieve an agreed- clear, measurable, and aligned to the Sustainable Ocean
upon sustainability performance target, and vice versa. Principles that are incorporated into the project strategy
For SLBs, coupon rates will increase, or the issuer (a five-year use of proceeds blue bond to finance
may pay a penalty when the bond matures if it fails innovation or a three-year KPI-linked blue bond). The
to achieve sustainability or ESG objectives or targets. future of the blue bond market depends on aligning
Debt for nature swaps are used in many countries and environmental incentives, objectives, innovation,
can raise capital in low-income countries to address infrastructure, government support, policy frameworks,
environmental and other policy challenges, but come standards, clear measurable key performance indicators,
with a range of risks and management issues (Arruda credibility, and transparency (Aziz et al., 2022; Rahman
and Johannsdottir, 2023). et al., 2020; Bhowmick et al., 2020)
The co-benefits can become synonymous with “Blue
Carbon” and investors might evaluate their engagement Mitigation Options for Climate Change
in carbon credits with the impact these services have on According to Simard et al. (2019), the ecosystem carbon
their supply chain (Vanderklift et al., 2019). The need stocks in the afforested plantation mangroves of the
for a Green Climate Fund dominated discussions at the Delta were similar to those in other mangrove-rich
Conference of Parties in November 2022, especially the deltas in Asia (Table 2).
need to scale up access to finance to developing nations.
In 2022, the main target of the GCF and GEF was to Abbreviation: AGB, aboveground biomass
promote a Long-Term Vision of Complementarity and However, they were lower than those in other
Coherence collaboration (GEF, 2021) between the geomorphic settings, indicating lower mangrove
Green Climate Fund (GCF) and the Global Environment biomass carbon per hectare than in tropical humid
Facility (GEF) for climate change adaptation and regions and and reduced soil carbon, perhaps as a
mitigation. It created an opportunity to scale- bonds result of the Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers’ heavy
focussed on marine and ocean-based environmental sediment input (Sarwar & Woodroffe, 2013). When
initiatives. As the largest class in the global financial compared to the values in Asia, Africa, the Americas,
market, green bonds (and blue bonds as a subcategory Oceania, and the global mean values (~758 Mg C ha−1),
of green bonds) can play a significant role in orienting the carbon stocks in the plantations in Bangladesh
investment to achieve the Sustainable Development were lower than the carbon stocks reported for natural
Goals (SDGs) and the Blue Economy. Blue Bonds mangroves worldwide. The differences ranged from
are a sector-based type of bond that can be issued by two to five times lower in Bangladesh (Donato et al.,
companies, financial institutions, governments, and 2011; Kauffman et al., 2020; Murdiyarso et al., 2021;
municipalities for the protection of ocean-related assets Rahman et al., 2015). The environmental circumstances
and finance projects oriented to deliver the SDGs. of the plantations, which do not support the same level
The blue bond label is an opportunity to improve of productivity and carbon accumulation as natural
ocean sustainability by addressing the risks of forests in the Sundarbans—which typically tend to
unsustainable business operations, incentivising be less saline and less exposed to wind, waves, and
corporate social responsibility, attending to the high currents—may be responsible for the lower carbon
demand for financial instruments linked to SDGs and stock in the plantations in Bangladesh (Rahman et al.,
ESG as well as financing solutions for conservation 2015). Both anthropogenic (such as land use change)
and sustainable management of ocean and coastal and natural (such as climate) factors affect the variations
resources. Blue bond issuance is based on two levels of in mangrove carbon stores along the Delta’s coastal
expectations (UN Global Compact (2020b) in a relevant regions (Kauffman et al., 2020). Different regions
corporate sustainability strategy in place to address the (such as Bangladesh’s East, Central, and West coasts)
SDGs’ and ‘a clear target for the Bonds reflected in one may have different carbon stock levels due to factors
or more Key Performance Indicator (KPIs’). This aligns such as climate, vegetation structure, salinity regime,
38 Prabal Barua et al.

Table 2: Carbon stocks by planted mangroves in mangrove-rich Asian deltas

Carbon stock (Mg C ha−1)

Region/ country Biomass C Soil C Ecosystem C References
Bangladesh 60.3 129.8 190.1 Uddin et al. (2022)
Vietnam 107 (AGB carbon) 146–­159 250 Ha et al. (2018); Hien et al. (2018); Phan et al. (2019)
China 184 89 270 Yu et al. (2020)
India 91 61 152 Sahu et al. (2016)
Indonesia 49.2–168 300–­450 350–600 Cameron et al. (2019); Murdiyarso et al. (2021)
Myanmar 18–­43 167 185–­210 Thant et al. (2012)

geomorphology, and land use change (Kauffman et Conclusions and Recommendations

al., 2020; Rahman et al., 2015). Variations in the
geomorphic settings and corresponding variations in The socioeconomics of developing countries are highly
the biophysical circumstances across the coastal regions affected by the risks posed by climate change. The
are linked to higher carbon stock values on the West Sundarbans mangrove forest, in Bangladesh, provides
coast and lower values on the Central and East coasts ecosystem services that are in decline although there are
of the Delta (Rovai et al., 2018; Sasmito et al., 2020; opportunities to mitigate the risks of climate change,
Uddin et al., 2022). secure carbon stocks, increase carbon sequestration
The environmental factors that support higher and improve regulating, supporting and provisioning
mangrove productivity associated with freshwater influx ecosystem services as well as protecting cultural
from rivers, high levels of precipitation, lower salinity services. These are benefits to local populations that
levels, and higher species richness on the West Coast also reduce the impacts of climate change, biodiversity
are likely linked to the higher carbon stocks per hectare loss, and food chains, ameliorating negative impacts
as well as the higher level of plantation success in the on economic and cultural activities. The benefits of
West coast of the Delta compared to the Central and the Sunderbans ecosystem functions can be better
East coast (Alongi, 2014; Hayes et al., 2017; Uddin et secured if long-term sustainable conservation efforts
al., 2022). and blue carbon strategies are supported by finance
mechanisms that are implemented according to an
In Bangladesh, planted mangroves helped remove
integrated and articulated ‘local-global’ approach.
CO2 by about 5,417,609 mg C, or 19.9 Mt CO2, over
Important multiscale challenges can be addressed by
the course of 50 years of plantation establishment (at
interinstitutional coordination of nature-based solutions,
a rate of 114,149 mg C/year, or 0.41 Mt CO2/year).
environmental planning, sectorial conservation, and
The amount of carbon that accumulated in mangrove
adaptive strategies oriented to scientific research,
soils—3,660,671 mg C, or 13.5 Mt CO2—was about 2.1
communication, education, participation, respect to
times higher than the carbon stock made up of biomass
environmental traditional knowledge, policies, and
(1,756,938 mg C, or 6.4 MtCO2). The total carbon stocks
efficient governance systems. The Sundarbans are key
(Mg C) that have accumulated in mangrove species
to adaptation, mitigation, biodiversity conservation,
plantations in Sundarbans. Even though Bangladesh’s
carbon sequestration and ecosystem services with
current plantations are helping to mitigate climate
critical implications for the health and wellbeing of local
change, more planted mangroves could be established,
people. If done well, the establishment of a blue carbon
which would increase their contribution. However,
market would be an environmental and economic large-
because plantation biomass grows exponentially, the
scale strategy to protect and restore the Sundarbans
new plantations would only be fully effective 20 years
through nature-based investment funds to finance
after they are established. According to estimates made
conservation enterprises, sustainable economic activity
by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
models, new technological applications that increase
Change (MoEFCC) in 2022, the AFOLU sector in
efficiency and scale-up bio-carbon markets, blue carbon
Bangladesh is expected to contribute 14.4% of the
credits and blue bonds. The preservation of mangroves,
country’s total GHG emissions (111,553,134 Mg C or
their sustainable use and the quality of maritime
409.4 MtCO2) by 2030, or 14,989,101 Mg C (or 55.01
environments will depend on a transformative co-
MtCO2) (MoEFCC, 2022).
investment platform combined with the right alignment
 Review of Mangrove Conservation Study in Response to Climate Changes 39

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