Linear Algebra

Vectors and Vector

Spaces
MPS Department|FEU Institute of Technology
 Linear Algebra

Introduction to Vector
Spaces
MPS Department|FEU Institute of Technology
 Objectives

At the end of the discussion, the learner should be able to:

• define vector in space and other related terms
• perform vector operations on 𝑅𝑛
• determine whether the given set together with the given operation is a vector
space
• show subset which are subspaces.
• Physics definition:
• A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction,
represented by means of an arrow or directed line segment
emanating from a reference point O.

y
V

x
• Linear Algebra:

• Let n be any positive integer. A vector in 𝑅𝑛 is an ordered set

of n real numbers:

• 𝑢 = 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛

• The numbers 𝑢𝑖 are called the components of u.

• 𝑅𝑛 is also know as Euclidean n-space.

• A specific example is 𝑢 = [3, −2, 4]

• where 𝑢 is a vector in ℝ3 .
 Two vectors, u and v, are equal, written u = v, if they have
the same number of components and if the corresponding
components are equal. Although the vectors (1, 2, 3) and (2, 3,
1) contain the same three numbers, these vectors are not equal
because corresponding entries are not the same.

The vector (0, 0, . . . , 0) whose entries are all 0 is called the

zero vector and is usually denoted by 0.
 The following are vectors:
(2, -5), (7, 9), (0, 0, 0), (3, 4, 5)

Note:
1. The first two vectors belong to R2
2. The last two belong to R3. The third is the zero vector in R3.
(b) Find x, y, z such that (x – y, x + y, z – 1) = (4, 2, 3)

Solution:
By definition of equality of vectors, corresponding entries
must be equal. Thus,
x-y=4 x+y = 2 z-1 = 3

Solving these equations, we have:

x=3, y=-1, z=4

 Sometimes a vector in n-space Rn is written vertically
rather than horizontally. Such a vector is called a column
vector, and, in this context, the horizontally written vectors in
the previous are called row vectors. For example, the following
are column vectors with 2; 2; 3, and 3 components, respectively:
The transpose of a column vector in ℝ𝑛 is a row vector.
If
𝑢1
𝑢2
𝑢= ⋮ ,
𝑢𝑛
then
𝑢𝑇 = 𝑢1 𝑢2 ⋯ 𝑢𝑛
Consider two vectors u and v in Rn, say

u = (a1,a2,…,an) and v = (b1,b2,…,bn)

Their sum, written u + v, is the vector obtained by adding

corresponding components from u and v. That is,

u + v = (a1 + b1, a2 + b2, . . . , an + bn)

Evaluate:
1. 3,4, −1,5 + 8, −9,2,6
2. 11, −2,4 + 3,3, −3
3. −1,7 + 9,3
4. 2, −6, −3 + 3,2,4
5. 2,7, −9,1, −2 + 1, −7,9,1, −5
1. 3,4, −1,5 + 8, −9,2,6 = 3 + 8, 4 − 9, −1 + 2, 5 + 6 = 11, −5,1,11 .

2. 11, −2,4 + 3,3, −3 = 11 + 3, −2 + 3,4 − 3 = 14,1,1 .

3. −1,7 + 9,3 = −1 + 9,7 + 3 = 8,10 .

4. 2, −6, −3 + 3,2,4 = 2 + 3, −6 + 2, −3 + 4 = 5, −4,1 .

5. 2,7, −9,1, −2 + 1, −7,9,1, −5 = 2 + 1,7 − 7, −9 + 9,1 − 1, −2 + −5

= 3,0,0,0, −7 .
 The scalar product or, simply, product, of the vector u by a
real number k, written ku, is the vector obtained by multiplying
each component of u by k. That is,

ku = k(a1, a2, . . ., an) = (ka1, ka2, . . . , kan)

Evaluate:
1. 5 3,4, −1,5
2. −2 11, −2,4
3. 4 9,3
4. 11 2, −6, −3
5. 4 1, −7,9,1, −5
Evaluate:
1. 5 3,4, −1,5 = 15,20, −5,25 .
2. −2 11, −2,4 = −22,4, −8 .
3. 4 9,3 = 36,12 .
4. 11 2, −6, −3 = 22, −66, −33 .
5. 4 1, −7,9,1, −5 = 4, −28,36,4, −20 .
Let u = (2, 4, -5) and v = (1, 6, 9). Then

i. u + v = (2 + 1, 4 + -5, -5 + 9) = (3, 1, 4)

ii. 7u =((7*2), (7*4), (7*5)) = (14, 28, 35)

iii. -v = ((-1*1), (-1*6), (-1*9)) = (-1, -6, -9)

iv. 3u - 5v = (6, 12, 15) – (5, 30,45) = (1, 42, 60)

Consider arbitrary vectors u and v in Rn; say,
u = (a1,a2,…,an) and v = (b1,b2,…,bn).
The dot product or inner product or scalar product of u
and v is denoted and defined by
< 𝑢, 𝑣 > = 𝑢 ⋅ 𝑣 = a1b1 + a2b2 + ….. + anbn .
That is, u.v is obtained by multiplying corresponding
components and adding the resulting products.
That is, multiplying u and 𝑣 𝑇 .
Find the inner product of the following pairs of vectors.
1. 3,4, −1,5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 8, −9,2,6
2. 11, −2,4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3,3, −3
3. −1,7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 9,3
4. 2, −6, −3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3,2,4
5. 2,7, −9,1, −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 10, −7,9,2, −5
Find the inner product of the following pairs of vectors.

1. 3,4, −1,5 ⋅ 8, −9,2,6 = 3 8 + 4 −9 + −1 2 + 5 6 = 16.

2. 11, −2,4 ⋅ 3,3, −3 = 11 3 + −2 3 + 4 −3 = 18.

3. −1,7 ⋅ 9,3 = −1 9 + 7 3 = −2

4. 2, −6, −3 ⋅ 3,2,4 = 2 3 + −6 2 + −3 4 = −18.

5. 2,7, −9,1, −2 ⋅ 10, −7,9,2, −5 = 20 − 49 − 81 + 2 + 10 = −98.

 The vectors u and v are said to be orthogonal
(or perpendicular) if their dot product is zero. That is,
𝑢 ∙ 𝑣 = 0.
Let 𝑢 = (1, −2, 3), 𝑣 = (4, 5, −1), 𝑤 = (2, 7, 4). Identify which pair is
orthogonal to each other.

𝑢 ⋅ 𝑣 = ((1 ∗ 4) + (−2 ∗ 5) + (3 ∗ −1)

= (4 − 10 – 3) = −9.

𝑢 ⋅ 𝑤 = (1 ∗ 2) + (−2 ∗ 7) + (3 ∗ 4)
= (2 − 14 + 12) = 0.

𝑣 ⋅ 𝑤 = 4 ∗ 2 + 5 ∗ 7 + −1 ∗ 4
= 8 + 35 − 4 = 39.

Thus, 𝑢 and 𝑤 are orthogonal.

Suppose u = (1, 2, 3, 4) and v = (6, k, -8, 2). Find k so that u
and v are orthogonal.
Solution:
First obtain
𝑢 ⋅ 𝑣 = 6 + 2𝑘 − 24 + 8 = −10 + 2𝑘.

Then set 𝑢 ⋅ 𝑣 = 0 and solve for k:

−10 + 2𝑘 = 0 or 2𝑘 = 10 or 𝑘 = 5
A real vector space is a nonempty set V of objects, called
vectors, on which are defined two operations, called addition
and multiplication by scalars (real numbers), subject to the ten
axioms (or rules) listed below. The axioms must hold for all
vectors u, v, and w in V and for all scalars c and d.

1. The sum of u and v, denoted by u + v, is in V.

2. u + v = v + u .
3. (u + v) + w = u + (v + w) .
4. There is a zero vector 0 in V such that u + ( − u) = 0.
5. For each u in V, there is a vector -u in V such that
u + (− u) = 0 .
6. The scalar multiple of u by c, denoted by cu, is in V.
7. c(u + v) = cu + cv.
8. (c + d)u = cu + du .
9. c(du) = (cd )u .
10. 1 ⋅ 𝑢 = 𝑢 ⋅ 1 = 𝑢.
A vector space consists of four entities:
a set of vectors, a set of real-number scalars, and two operations
V: nonempty set of vectors
c: any scalar
+ (u, v ) = u + v : vector addition
(c, u) = cu : scalar multiplication
(V , +, ) is called a vector space
The set V together with the definitions of vector addition and scalar
multiplication satisfying the above ten axioms is called a vector
space
The following sets are examples of a vector space:

• ℝ-set of real numbers under usual addition and

multiplication.

• ℂ-set of complex numbers under usual addition and

multiplication.

Axioms for real numbers and complex numbers will prove

these claims.
Show that the following sets are a vector space:

1. Set of all 2 × 3 matrices

2. Set of all ordered pairs (x, y) denoted by 𝑅2 , where x and y
are real numbers.
3. Set of polynomials under usual operations.
The proof of is left as exercise.
A subspace of a vector space V is a nonempty subset S of V that
itself a vector space under the same operations on 𝑉.
Let 𝑉 be a vector space under (+, ⋅ ) and suppose S a nonempty
subset of 𝑉. Then S is said to be a subspace of 𝑉 it possesses these
three properties:
a. The zero vector of V is in S.

b. S is closed under vector addition. That is, for each u and v

in H, the sum u + v is in S.

c. S is closed under multiplication by scalars. That is, for each

u in S and each scalar c, the vector cu is in S.
Properties (a), (b), and (c) guarantee that a subspace H of V is
itself a vector space, under the vector space operations
already defined in V.

i.e., Every subspace is a vector space.

Conversely, every vector space is a subspace (of itself and

possibly of other larger spaces).
• The set consisting of only the zero vector in a vector space V
is a subspace of V, called the zero subspace and written as
{0}.
▪ Given v1 and v2 in a vector space V, let H = Span{v1 ,v 2 }. Show
that H is a subspace of V.

Solution:
The zero vector is in H, since 0 = 0v1 + 0v 2 .
▪ To show that H is closed under vector addition, take two
arbitrary vectors in H, say, u = s1v1 + s2 v 2 and w = t1v1 + t2 v 2 .
▪ By Axioms 2, 3, and 8 for the vector space V,
u + w = ( s1v1 + s2 v 2 ) + (t1v1 + t2 v 2 )
= ( s1 + t1 )v1 + ( s2 + t2 )v 2
The set of real numbers ℝ is a subset of the set of complex
numbers ℂ.
 Let W be a nonempty subset of the vector space V. If W
is a vector space with the operations of addition and scalar
multiplication as defined in V, then W is a subspace of V.

1. W = {0} is a subspace of (called the zero subspace).

2. W = is a subspace of (also called the improper subspace).

(All other subspaces of are called Proper Subspaces)
 Linear Algebra

Basis and Dimension of a

Vector Space
MPS Department|FEU Institute of Technology
 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the discussion, the learner should be able to:
• Define spanning set, linear independence, linear dependence, basis,
and linear combination.
• Decompose a vector into linear combination of vectors.
• Prove spanning set, linear independence, and basis.
A vector u in a vector space V is called a linear combination of
the vectors v1 , v 2 , , v k in V if u can be written in the form

u = c1 v1 + c2 v 2 + + ck v k ,

where c1 , c2 , , ck are real-number scalars

v1 = (1,2,3) v 2 = (0,1,2) v 3 = ( − 1,0,1)
Prove (a) w = (1,1,1) is a linear combination of v1 , v 2 , v 3
(b) w = (1, − 2,2) is not a linear combination of v1 , v 2 , v 3
To prove (a), we need to find real numbers 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , and 𝑐3 such
that we can express 𝑤 as a sum of multiples of 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , and 𝑣3 .
i.e., (a) w = c1 v1 + c2 v 2 + c3 v 3
(1,1,1) = c1 (1,2,3) + c2 (0,1,2) + c3 (− 1,0,1)
= (c1 − c3 , 2c1 + c2 , 3c1 + 2c2 + c3 )
c1 − c3 =1
 2c1 + c2 =1
3c1 + 2c2 + c3 =1
 1 0 − 1 1 1 0 − 1 1 
 2 1 0 1 ⎯⎯⎯→ 0 1 2 − 1
G.-J. E.
 
3 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 

Since we have a row whose entries are all zeros, then this system has
infinitely many solutions. Therefore, for any value of 𝑐3 with
𝑐2 = −1 − 2𝑐3 and 𝑐1 = 1 + 𝑐3
is a solution to the system.
Therefore, we can express 𝑤 as linear combination of 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 and 𝑣3 .
Example, we take 𝑐3 = 1, then 𝑐1 = 2 and 𝑐2 = −3. Thus,
𝑤 = −3𝑣1 + 2𝑣2 + 𝑣3 .
(b) Similarly,
w = c1 v1 + c2 v 2 + c3 v 3

1 0 − 1 1  1 0 − 1 1 
 
 2 1 0 − 2 ⎯⎯⎯ 0 1 2 − 4 
G.-J. E.
→  
3 2 1 2  0 0 0 7 
 This system has no solution since the third row means
0  c1 + 0  c2 + 0  c3 = 7
 w can not be expressed as c1 v1 + c2 v 2 + c3 v 3
Express 16 as linear combination of 3 and 7.

Solution:

Find real numbers 𝑎, 𝑏 such that 3𝑎 + 7𝑏 = 16. If you can recall your
knowledge on lines, we can already say that we have infinitely many
solutions to the equation. In fact, any real number 𝑎 is a solution as
16−3𝑎
long as we take 𝑏 = .
7

13 13
Example, 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑏 = is a solution. That is, 16 = 1 3 + 7 .
7 7
If S = {v1, v2,…, vk} is a set of vectors in a vector space V, then
the span of S is the set of all linear combinations of the vectors
in S,
span(S ) = c1v1 + c2 v 2 + + ck v k ci  R
(the set of all linear combinations of vectors in S )

Definition of a spanning set of set of vectors:

If every vector in a given vector space V can be written as a
linear combination of vectors in a set S, then S is called a
spanning set of the vector space V
Notes: The above statement can be expressed as follows

span( S ) = V
 S spans (generates) V
 V is spanned (generated) by S
 S is a spanning set of V
(a) The set S = {(1, 0, 0), (0,1, 0), (0, 0,1)} spans R 3 because any vector
u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) in R 3 can be written as
u = u1 (1, 0, 0) + u2 (0,1, 0) + u3 (0, 0,1)

(b) The set S = {1, x, x 2 } spans P2 because any polynomial function

p ( x) = a + bx + cx 2 in P2 can be written as
p ( x) = a (1) + b( x) + c( x )
2
(a) The set S = {(1, 0, 0), (0,1, 0), (0, 0,1)} spans R 3 because any vector
u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) in R can be written as
3

u = u1 (1, 0, 0) + u2 (0,1, 0) + u3 (0, 0,1)

(b) The set S = {1, x, x 2 } spans P2 because any polynomial function

p ( x) = a + bx + cx 2 in P2 can be written as
p ( x) = a (1) + b( x) + c( x 2 )
 A spanning set for R3

Show that the set S = (1, 2,3),(0,1, 2),( −2,0,1) spans R 3

Solution:
We must examine whether any vector u = (u1 , u2 ,u3 ) in R 3
can be expressed as a linear combination of v1 = (1, 2,3),
v 2 = (0,1, 2), and v 3 = (−2, 0,1)
If u = c1 v1 + c2 v 2 + c3 v 3  c1 − 2c3 = u1
2c1 + c2 = u2
3c1 + 2c2 + c3 = u3
The above problem thus reduces to determine whether this
system is consistent for all values of u1 , u2 , and u3
 1 0 −2 Recall previous Theorems,
❖ if A is an invertible matrix, then the system of linear equations Ax =
A=2 1 0 0 b has a unique solution (x = A-1b) given any b
3 2 1 ❖ a square matrix A is invertible (nonsingular) if and only if det (A)  0

 Ax = u has exactly one solution for every u

 span( S ) = R 3

S1 =  v1 , v 2 , v 3 , v 4  = (1, 2,3), (0,1, 2), ( −2, 0,1), (1, 0, 0)

 3
❖ For any set S1 containing the set S, if S can span R , S1 can span
R3 as well.

❖ Actually, in this case, what S1 can span is only R3. Since v1, v2,
3
and v3 span R , v4 must be a linear combination of v1, v2, and v3.
So, adding v4 will not generate more combinations. As a
consequence, v1, v2, v3, and v4 can only span R3
 span(S) is a subspace of V

If S = {v1, v2,…, vk} is a set of vectors in a vector space V, then

(a) span(S) is a subspace of V
(b) span(S) is the smallest subspace of V that contains S, i.e., every other
subspace of V containing S must contain span(S) any subspace
containing S

 v1  

    vk



5  v3   v2
❖ For example, V = R , S = {(1, 0, 0, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0, 

0, 0), (0, 0, 1, 0, 0)} and thus span(S) = R3, and span(S)

V

U = R4, U contains S and contains span(S) as

well
 S =  v1 , v 2 , , v k : a set of vectors in a vector space V
For c1 v1 + c2 v 2 + + ck v k = 0
(1) If the equation has only the trivial solution (c1 = c2 = = ck = 0)
then S (or v1 , v 2 , , v k ) is called linearly independent
(2) If the equation has a nontrivial solution (i.e., not all ci 's are zero),
then S (or v1 , v 2 , , v k ) is called linearly dependent (The name of
linear dependence is from the fact that in this case, there exist at least
one v i which can be represented by the linear combination of {v1 , v 2 ,
, v i −1 , v i +1 , v k } in which the coefficients are not all zeros. This
statement will be proved in Theorem 4.8 on Slide 4.54)
 3
Determine whether the following set of vectors in R is L.I. or L.D.
S =  v1 , v 2 , v 3  = (1, 2, 3) , ( 0, 1, 2 ) , ( −2, 0, 1)
Solution:
c1 − 2c3 = 0
c1 v1 + c2 v 2 + c3 v 3 = 0  2c1 + c2 + =0
3c1 + 2c2 + c3 = 0
1 0 − 2 0  1 0 0 0 
 2 1 0 0 ⎯⎯⎯ G.-J. E. 0 1 0 0 
→  
3 2 1 0 0 0 1 0 
 c1 = c2 = c3 = 0 (only the trivial solution )
(or det(A) = −1  0, so there is only the trivial solution)  S is (or v1 , v 2 , v 3 are) linearly independent
 Testing for Linear Independence

Determine whether the following set of vectors in P2 is L.I. or L.D.


S =  v1 , v 2 , v 3  = 1 + x − 2 x 2 ,2 + 5 x − x 2 ,x + x 2 
Solution:
c1v1+c2v2+c3v3 = 0
i.e., c1(1+x – 2x2) + c2(2+5x – x2) + c3(x+x2) = 0+0x+0x2

c1+2c2 =0  1 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 
 1 5 1 0  ⎯⎯⎯  
 c1+5c2+c3 = 0   
G. E.
→ 0 1 3 0 
1
–2c1– c2+c3 = 0  −2 −1 1 0   
 0 0 0 0 
 This system has infinitely many solutions
(i.e., this system has nontrivial solutions, e.g., c1=2, c2= – 1, c3=3)
 S is (or v1, v2, v3 are) linearly dependent
 Testing for Linear Independence

Determine whether the following set of vectors in the 2×2 matrix

space is L.I. or L.D.
  2 1  3 0  1 0  
S =  v1 , v 2 , v 3  =    ,  ,  
  0 1  2 1   2 0  
Solution:
c1v1+c2v2+c3v3 = 0

2 1  3 0 1 0  0 0 
c1   + c2   + c3   = 
 0 1  2 1   2 0   0 0 
 2c1+3c2+ c3 = 0
 c1 =0
2c2+2c3 = 0
c1+ c2 =0

2 3 1 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 G.-J. E. 0 1 0 0
  ⎯⎯⎯→ 
0 2 2 0  0 0 1 0
   
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

 c1 = c2 = c3= 0 (This system has only the trivial solution)

 S is linearly independent
Basis : Linearly
Spanning Bases Independent
V: a vector space Sets Sets
S = {v1, v2, …, vn}V
V
(1) S spans V (i.e., span(S) = V)
 (For any u  V ,  ci v i = Ax = u has at least one solution (If there is

 exact one solution (det( A)  0) or if there are infinitely many
 solutions (det( A) = 0))
(2) S is linearly independent
(For  c v = Ax = 0, there is only the trivial solution (det(A)  0).
i i

See the definition on Slide 4.49 and Ex 8 on Slide 4.50)

 S is called a basis for V ( For  c v = Ax, det(A)  0)

i i
Note:
A basis S must have enough vectors to span V, but not so many
vectors that one of them could be written as a linear combination of
the other vectors in S

Remarks:
3
(1) the standard basis for R : {i, j, k}, for i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0),
k = (0, 0, 1).
n
(2) the standard basis for R : {e1, e2, …, en}, for e1 = (1,0,…,0),
e2 = (0,1,…,0),…, en = (0,0,…,1).
For R4 :{(1,0,0,0), (0,1,0,0), (0,0,1,0), (0,0,0,1)}, Express any
vector in Rn as the linear combination of the vectors in the standard
basis:

the coefficient for each vector in the standard basis is the

value of the corresponding component of the examined vector,
e.g., (1, 3, 2) can be expressed as
1·(1, 0, 0) + 3·(0, 1, 0) + 2·(0, 0, 1)
(3) the standard basis for mn matrix space:
 aij = 1
{ Eij | 1im , 1jn }, and in Eij 
other entries are zero
Ex: 2 2 matrix space:
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 
  ,  ,  ,  
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 

(4) the standard basis for Pn(x): {1, x, x2, …, xn}

Ex: P3(x): {1, x, x2, x3}
 The nonstandard basis for R2

Show that S = {v1 ,v 2 } = {(1,1), (1, −1)} is a basis for R 2

 c1 + c2 = u1
(1) For any u = (u1 , u2 )  R , c1 v1 + c2 v 2 = u  
2

c1 − c2 = u2
Because the coefficient matrix of this system has a nonzero determinant,
the system has a unique solution for each u. Thus you can conclude that S
spans R2 c1 + c2 = 0
(2) For c1 v1 + c2 v 2 = 0  
c1 − c2 = 0
Because the coefficient matrix of this system has a nonzero determinant,
you know that the system has only the trivial solution. Thus you can
conclude that S is linearly independent.
According to the above two arguments, we can conclude that S is a
(nonstandard) basis for R2.
The dimension of a vector space V is defined to be the number of vectors
in a basis for V.
V: a vector space S: a basis for V

 dim(V) = #(S) (the number of vectors in a basis S)

Finite Dimensional:
A vector space V is finite dimensional if it has a basis consisting of a
finite number of elements.

Infinite dimensional:
If a vector space V is not finite dimensional, then it is called infinite
dimensional
 Determining the dimension of a subspace of R3.
(a) W = {(d, c – d, c): c and d are real numbers}
(b) W = {(2b, b, 0): b is a real number}

Solution:
(a) (d, c – d, c) = c(0, 1, 1) + d(1, – 1, 0)
 S = {(0, 1, 1) , (1, – 1, 0)} (S is L.I. and S spans W)
 S is a basis for W
 dim(W) = #(S) = 2

(b) (2b, b, 0) = b(2,1, 0)

 S = {(2, 1, 0)} spans W and S is L.I.
 S is a basis for W
 dim(W) = #(S) = 1
 Finding the dimension of a subspace of M22
Let W be the subspace of all symmetric matrices in M22.
What is the dimension of W?

Solution:
a b  
W =   a , b, c  R 
b c  

a b  1 0 0 1 0 0
  = a  + b  + c 
 b c   0 0   1 0   0 1 

1 0 0 1 0 0 
 S =   ,  ,   spans W and S is L.I.
0 0 1 0 0 1 

 S is a basis for W  dim(W) = #(S) = 3

References
• Howard Anton, Chris Rorres (2008). Elementary Linear Algebra Applications 9th ed, John Wiley and Sons
• Larson R. (2015), Elementary Linear Algebra 8th Edition, Cengage Learning
• Poole D. (2015), Linear Algebra: A Modern Introduction 4th Edition, USA: Cengage Learning
• Denna. “Chapter 5-BASIS AND DIMENSION LECTURE 7.” SlideServe, 6 Sept. 2014, [Link]/denna/chapter-5-
basis-and-dimension-lecture-7.
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[Link],
[Link]/~jryanwang/course/Mathematics%20for%20Management%20(undergraduate%20level)/MM_Ch04.pptx.
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[Link].
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