Chapter 1

Keys to the Study of Chemistry

Dr. Shamindri M. Arachchige

[email protected]

1
 What is Chemistry?

Chemistry is the study of matter, its properties, the changes that matter
undergoes, and the energy associated with these changes.

Matter: anything that has both mass and volume – the “stuff” of the universe:
books, planets, trees, professors, students

States of Matter

A solid has a fixed shape and volume. Solids may be hard or soft, rigid or flexible.

A liquid has a varying shape that conforms to the shape of the container, but a fixed
volume.

A gas has no fixed shape or volume.

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secret=108622448&loop=0&nologo=0&hd=0#

2
 Measurement of Matter

There are 3 parts to every measurement:

1. Number

2. Unit

3. Uncertainty

We will start with uncertainty.

3
 Uncertainty of Measurements
Every measurement includes some uncertainty.
Graduated in 0.1 oC increments Graduated in 1 oC
increments

Uncertainty Uncertainty
= 0.1/10 = = 1/10 = 0.1
0.01

32.33 oC ± 0.01 32.3 oC ± 0.1

Always estimate 1 digit beyond the markings on the scale. This is where the uncertainty
begins in the measurement.
The recorded digits, both certain and uncertain, are called significant figures.

The number of significant figures is used to express uncertainty in a measurement. The

greater the number of significant figures, greater is the certainty.
4
 Rules For Significant Figures

o Any non-zero digit is significant.

o Zeros between non-zero digits (captive zeros) are significant

o Placeholding zeros on the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant; these
are only used to locate the decimal point.

o Trailing zeros following a decimal point are significant.

o Trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point are presumed to be

placeholders and are not significant.

5
 Scientific Notation

Scientific notation is an efficient means of expressing extremely large and small

numbers: N × 10a N is a number between 1 and 10, but not 10 itself, and a is an
integer (positive or negative number). In scientific notation, all digits before the
multiplication sign are significant:

6075000 0.000371
4 significant figures: 3 significant figures:

5 significant 2 significant
figures: figures:

6
 Example Problem

Write in scientific notation.

42 × 10−7

0.0850 × 10−9

7
 Example Problem

How many significant How many significant figures do these numbers have?

2364 409 0.0579 2090 0.04050 3.040×104

A. 4, 3, 4, 4, 3, 4
B. 4, 3, 3, 4, 3, 4
C. 4, 2, 5, 3, 4, 5
D. 4, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4
E. 4, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5

8
 Rules Rules for forRounding
Rounding Off OffNumbers
Numbers
Rules
Rulesfor forRounding
RoundingOff OffNumbers
Numbers
1. If1.the If digit removed
the digit removed is moreis more thanthan
5, the5, preceding
the preceding numbernumber increases
increases by 1.by 1.
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5.379 Ifthe
thedigit removed
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removed
5.38 isissig.
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number increases
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5.379
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(threesig. sig.figs)
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5.4 (two
(twosig. sig.figs)
figs)
2. If2.the If digit removed
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5, preceding
the preceding numbernumber is unchanged.
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0.241 isless than
than5,5,the
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significant figures)
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0.24 (two (twosignificant
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3. If3.the If digit removed
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the preceding number
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is odd
3.3. Ifremains
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isit5,isthe
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17.75remains
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isiseven.
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figures)
17.6517.75
17.75
17.65 17.617.8
17.8
17.6 (three
(three (three significant
significant
significant figures)
figures)
figures)
17.65
17.65 17.6
17.6 (three(threesignificant
significantfigures)
figures)
If theIf 5the
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by zeros, rulerule
3 is 3followed;
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rule is followed. byzeros,
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followed;ififthe the55isisfollowed
followedby by
nonzeros,
17.6500nonzeros,rule
17.6500 11isis17.6
rule17.6 followed.
followed. 17.6513
17.6513 17.717.7
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17.6 17.6513
17.6513 17.7
17.7
4. Be4. sure to carry
Be sure twotwo
to carry or moreor more additional
additionalsignificant figures
significant figuresthrough
through a a
4.4. BeBesure
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round additional
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9
 Rules for Significant Figures in Calculations

Multiplication and Division

The answer contains the same number of significant figures as in the

measurement with the fewest significant figures.

134 cm x 25 cm =

Answer =

6.85 g / 112.04 cm3 =

Answer =

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 Rules for Significant Figures in Calculations

Addition and Subtraction

The answer has the same number of decimal places (or places) as there are in the
measurements with the fewest decimal places (or places).

89.332 mL + 1.1 mL =

Answer =

11
 Exact Numbers

Exact numbers do not have uncertainty associated with them. Exact numbers do not
limit the number of significant figures in the answer.

100 cm = 1 m
1 in = 2.54 cm
26 letters in the English alphabet

1𝑚
1.84 × 102 cm × = 1.84 m
100 𝑐𝑚

(1.84 × 102 g) (44.70 m/s)2 =

2
(2 is exact)

Answer =
Try sample problem 1.9 b
12
 Significant Figures in Combined Operations

Use the rules for addition/subtraction, multiplication/division in the order you do the
operation. Keep track of the significant figures in each step, but don’t round until the end.

What is the correct answer to the following calculation expressed in the correct number of
significant figures?
1.07−0.8826
0.762
=

A. 0.24593
B. 0.25
C. 0.245
D. 0.246

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 Precision and Accuracy
Precision Accuracy

Indication of how close the Indication of how close measurements

measurements are to each other are to the true value.

Affected by Random Error, Affected by Systematic Error. This error

quality of the measuring tool, and is part of the experimental system
variability of the sample.

Random error produces values Systematic error produces values that

that are both higher and lower than are either all higher or all lower than the
the actual value. actual value.

Precise measurements have low Accurate measurements have low

random error systematic error.

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 Demonstrating Accuracy and Precision

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4

Precision
(high or low)

Accuracy
(high or low)

15
 Measurement of Matter

There are 3 parts to every measurement:

1. Number

2. Unit

3. Uncertainty

We will talk about Units.

16
 Two Systems of Units

1. English System

Length: inch, foot, mile

Mass: ounce, pound, ton

Volume: cup, pint, gallon, ounce

2. SI (Metric) System: Used all over the world and in science. Units are based on
multiples of 10 and are converted to other units by means of prefixes.

17
 System International d′Unitès (SI)

All SI units are based on seven base units.

There are also derived units combining one more base units.
18
UNITS: PREFIXES USED IN METRIC SYSTEM (MEMORIZE)

19
 Chapter 1 Keys to the Study of Chemistry

Typical Units:
Length: Mass: Volume:

Cubic units:

20
 Example Problem

Which of the following is the smallest mass?

A. 1 ng
B. 1 mg
C. 1 pg
D. 1 kg
E. 1 g

21
 Common SI-English Equivalent Quantities

**You must know the conversion factors for the metric system but you do not
have to memorize English-metric conversion factors.** 22
22
 Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis is the use of conversion factors in calculations.

Conversion factor: Ratios used to express measured quantities in different units.

A conversion factor is equal to one.

To convert units
1. Identify conversion factors.
2. Multiply the beginning measurements with a conversion factors so that all units cancel
except those required for the answer. Work stepwise.
 Example Problem

I have 62.5 g of liquid N2. What is its mass in pounds? (1 lb = 0.4536 kg)

24
 Example Problem

An ostrich can run at 45 miles/hr. What is the speed in m/min? 1 mile = 1.609 km

25
Density

26
 Using Density as a Conversion Factor
Example Problem

What volume in cm3 does 62.5 g of liquid N2 occupy? Density = 0.808 g/mL

Also work sample and follow up problem 1.5 27

 Example Problem –Cube Units

The density of liquid N2 is 0.808 g/mL. Convert the density of liquid N2 to lb/ft3
(453.6 g = 1 lb, 2.54 cm = 1 inch).

28
 Complex Unit Conversion Problems

Gold can be hammered into very thing sheets called gold leaf. A builder needs to cover a
100 ft ×82 ft ceiling with gold leaf that is five millionths of an inch thick. The density of
gold is 19.32 g/cm3 and gold cost $1418 per troy ounce (1 troy ounce = 31.1 g). How
much will it cost for the builder to purchase the necessary gold? (I in = 2.54 cm)

List the conversion factors:

29
 Unit conversions – Famous Error

– July 1983, jumbo jet ran out of fuel (lbs. vs. kg)

30
 Properties of Matter
Physical Properties

those which the substance shows by itself without interacting with another substance
such as color, melting point, boiling point, density

Intensive Properties:
_____________ of amount of substance.

_____________ used to characterize matter.

eg:

Extensive Properties:
____________________ of amount of substance.

____________________ used to characterize matter.

eg:

Chemical Properties

those which the substance shows as it interacts with, or transforms into, other substances
such as flammability, corrosiveness etc. 31
 Temperature Scales and Interconversions

Fahrenheit ( oF ) - Commonly used scale in the U.S., water freezes at 32 oF and

boils at 212oF.

Celsius ( oC ) - The temperature scale used by science, formally called

centigrade, most commonly used scale around the world; water freezes at 0 oC,
and boils at 100oC.

Kelvin ( K ) - The “Absolute temperature scale” begins at absolute zero and only
has positive values; water freezes at 273 K, and boils at 373 K..

T (in oF) = 9/5 T (in oC) + 32 T (in K) = T (in oC) + 273.15

T (in oC) = [ T (in oF) - 32 ] 5/9 T (in oC) = T (in K) - 273.15

Memorize
32
 Temperature Scales

Celsius Kelvin Fahrenheit

Symbol °C K °F

Freezing 0 °C 273.15 K 32 °F
point of
water

Boiling point 100 °C 373.15 K 212 °F

of water

Difference 100 100 180

between
freezing and
boiling
points

The Kelvin and Celsius scales use the same size degree but their starting points differ. The
Fahrenheit scale has a different degree size and a different zero point than the other two
scales. 33
 Temperature Conversion Example Problem:

Liquid nitrogen has a boiling point of –196 oC. What is this temperature in oF and K?

Click on the link to see more fun with liquid N2.

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