BCH-303: Sugar and Alcohol Technology

Unit 2: Sugar Production

1. Juice Preparation Preparation of cane, Extraction of juice, Mill sanitation &
types of biocides

2. Juice Clarification Different type of cane juice clarification

3. Juice Treatment Heating of juice, Settling of juice, Filtration of juice,

Evaporation

4. Crystallization and Refining Crystallization of juice, Crystal separation and Refining of

sugars
Juice preparation
Part 1 of Unit 2: Sugar Production
Cane Sugar
• The total crystal sugar manufactured in the world is around 180 million tonnes per annum,
out of which the cane sugar accounts for 60-65% of the production, the remaining being
the share of the beet sugar industry

• The cane sugar industry is widely dispersed in different regions of the world like India,
Australia, South America, Africa, U.S.A., and many parts of Asia, because of the tropical
warm climate.

• The per capita consumption of sugar is more or less related to the standard of living.
Cane Sugar Industry …(1/2)

• Based on the types of sugar produced, the cane sugar factories can be classified into four
categories as under:
i. Raw Sugar: In many sugar producing areas raw sugar of 98-99 % purity is produced from cane, which
is sent to refineries (for refined sugar of high purity) or exported.

ii. Refined Sugar: White and sparkling in appearance the refined sugar is of 99.9% purity and is used
directly for human consumption, besides a small proportion for pharmaceutical and chemical industries.

iii. Raw Sugar Factories-cum refineries: In these factories producing raw sugar from sugar cane, small
refining units are installed for processing the raw sugar and manufacture of refined sugar. The refinery
can operate throughout the year even though the raw sugar production is confined to the crushing
campaign restricted to dry periods of the year.
Cane Sugar Industry …(2/2)

• Based on the types of sugar produced the cane sugar factories can be classified into four
categories as under:
iv. Plantation white sugar factories—In India and some of the developing countries white sugar is
manufactured from cane for direct consumption employing more complicated techniques in clarification
of juice and also in crystallization of sugar. The sugar produced is of 99.8% purity and contains slightly
higher amount of impurities than the refined sugar. These plants can also produce raw sugar either for
export or supply to refineries.

• With the exception of raw sugar refineries, the cane sugar factories are necessarily located in cane
growing tracts usually away from urban areas.
Sugar Industry: India
• The modem vacuum pan cane sugar industry in India owes its origin to the first enterprises of
Englishmen who at the beginning of the twentieth century set up half a dozen sugar factories in
U.P.

• The first sugar mill in India was established in the year 1903 in Pratappur area of Deoria district
U.P. At present, there are around 525 mills producing sugar in India.

• Another important landmark in the historical development of the Indian Industry was the release of
new varieties of sugarcane as a result of the pioneering breeding research work of the sugarcane
breeding institute established in 1912.

• In India sugar cane is cultivated extensively in vast areas of the subtropical and tropical belts of the
country.
Sugar Cane …(1/6)

• Sugarcane, with its high fibre and carbohydrate content constitutes an important renewable source
of energy in the form of Sugar and Cellulose.

• In the growth phase of the plant, sugar accumulation occurs more in the lower portion of the stalk,
progressively decreasing from bottom to top joints but in a fully mature cane this disparity is
practically absent or negligible.

• Within the stalk the internodes are richer in sugar while the fibre content is higher in the nodes.

• Sugar cane plant standing in the field consists of three principal portions viz The leaves, the tops,
and The stalk. Stalks are the one which delivered to the sugar factories and have to be free from
tops and Leaves.
Sugar Cane …(2/6)
• The principal components of the cane stalks to be processed for commercial sugar production, are

• ~ 70-75% water.

• 12 to 15% water insoluble fibre, and

• Sucrose (12-15 %) and other carbohydrates (Glucose, Fructose, Starch etc.).

• The composition of sugarcane is conditioned by the variety of cane, soils and agricultural factors in addition
to the climate during the different phases of growth of the plant.

• At the end of its growth period, the sugarcane crop reaches maturity, during dry weather, marked by highest
sugar build up, when it is considered to be suitable for harvesting. If allowed to stand in the field after its
maturity phase, it starts deteriorating in the sense that sucrose gets decomposed with the formation of
nonsucrose compounds and cellulose.

• Sugarcane is processed in India for producing three types of sweetening agents viz., Gur, Khandsari Sugar
and Vacuum pan crystal white sugar, for direct consumption, and for manufacture of sweets.
Sugar Cane: Composition …(3/6)
• Sugarcane fed to mills for processing contains besides the water insoluble fibre, sugars, salts and organic
matter dissolved in water, some of them being in colloidal state.

• The composition of cane is a function of cultivation practices as also the soil and climatic conditions and is
therefore bound to exhibit wide variations from area to area and region to region.

• The principal components of sugarcane, along with their role in manufacturing operation are described below
in brief:

Sucrose & reducing sugars: Sugar solutions are stable under neutral conditions of pH and moderate
temperatures. The cane juices thus form ideal media for growth of microorganisms at atmospheric temperatures.
The important monosaccharides, glucose and fructose, termed as reducing sugars, these occur in abundance in
growing and immature portions of cane but decrease in the lower parts of cane stalk. Sucrose and reducing
sugars on prolonged heating form brown colored component known as caramel.
Sugar Cane: Composition …(4/6)

Mineral matter: The principal cations in the mineral matter of cane juice are potassium, calcium, magnesium
and silica while the anions are phosphates, chlorides, sulphates. The mineral matter content is maximum at the
top and growing portions of cane while it tends to reduce in the lower-most internodes of the cane. The mineral
constituents and mainly the potassium salts which constitute over 60% of the total ash.

Organic constituents: pH of cane-juice is around 5.2 - 5.4 on account of the presence of organic acids, out of
which aconitic acid forms a major portion, the remaining being citric, oxalic, succinic as also a number of
amino acids; prominent amongst whom is aspartic acid. Amino acids are found to decrease with advance of
maturity but increase again when cane becomes over-mature. Proteins, coloring organic compounds
(chlorophyll, carotene and xanthophyll) are present in small amounts and are removed to a considerable extent
in clarification. Other organics present are Polyphenols, gums, dextran etc. The cane tops are rich in
polyphenols and organic acids.
 Sugar Cane: Composition …(5/6)
Fibre: The water insoluble part of cane stalk, commonly known as fibre contains around 40%
Cellulose, 30% hemicelluloses and 15-20% pectin, with small amount of mineral matter. The
cellulosic portion of this fibre has high potential for conversion into commercially valuable products
like paper boards etc. This fibrous portion of cane constitutes the main fuel for generation of steam
and electric power in sugar plants.

• India can be divided three major regions of varying cane composition

Region Composition

Deccan tract (Maharastra, North High Sucrose (13-14.5%), Medium fibre (12.14%), Reducing sugar (0.4-
Karnatka, Gujarat) 0.7%)
Southern Satates ( Andhra, Tamilnadu, Low recovery region, pol in cane (10-12 %), Juice purity 78-82%, Low
Kerala, South Karnataka) sugar (10-12%)
Northern States (UP, Bihar, Punjab, High fibre (13-16%), Low sugar (10-13%), reducing sugar (0.4-1%)
Rajasthan
Sugar Cane: Field to Factory …(6/6)

• Cane being perishable raw material susceptible to microbial deterioration, it is the primary function
of the cane supply section of the factory to see to it that the harvested material is available to the
processing unit with minimum possible delay since deterioration of raw material resulting from
staling would ultimately lead to reduction in the recoverable sugar.

• The factors which have significant bearing on the quality of sugarcane from the point of view of
recovering maximum sucrose in bags are—
1. Time lag between cutting to crushing: Post harvest deterioration because of temperature, humidity etc.

2. Extraneous matter accompanying cane: Green immature crops, dry trash, soil resulting in lower purity
of juices, milling losses, undesirable impurities etc.
Sugar Cane Juice Extraction: Cane Milling …(1/7)
• The extraction of juice from cane constitutes the first stage of the entire process of cane sugar
manufacture, wherein the object of separation of juice from the fibrous portion of the cane is
accomplished by employing heavy machinery.

• The sugarcane plant is essentially composed of two types of fibre, the interior soft pith which holds
sugar rich juice, and the outer hard portion known as rind, containing juice with high impurities.

• In cane juice extraction, the cane tissues are disintegrated and juice removed by compression and
squeezing.

• Before the dawn of machine age, vertical rollers of wooden or stone construction, were employed
for squeezing out juice, the energy being provided by animals and human labour, which later gave
place to massive machines, the basic principle remaining unaltered.
Cane Milling: Cane weighing …(2/7)

• Cane weighing is essential for two reasons, one is to serve as method for payment to growers, on
the basis of weights and the other is from the point of view of its importance in chemical control,
wherein the cane weight forms the basis of arriving at weights of bagasse.

• Cane carrying bullock carts, or trucks or trailors are weighed at the entrance of the cane yard on
platform weighing scales care being taken to find out tare weights after the transporters are
unloaded, for finding out the actual cane weights.

• In most of the factories the distance of the weighing scales is about 50-100 m. from the cane
carrier and the weighed transporters are lined up inside the yard.

• A moving apron type conveyor, commonly known as cane carrier is to convey sugarcane from the
yard to the mills, should have horizontal portion of 30m., suitable for cane feeding and the inclined
portion has a slope of normally 18°.
Cane Milling: Cane Preparation …(3/7)
• The objective of cane-preparation is to cut cane into short pieces for feeding the mills as also to rupture the
cells, without extracting juice.

• The preparatory devices commonly employed and installed before the milling tandem, are classified into
three types—
1. Knives which cut the cane to pieces

2. Shredders which shred cut cane into long fine pieces

3. Fibrizer system combining the features of both (i) & (ii)

• Percentage of cells opened to the total, which is indicative of the extent of cane preparation, is (a) 50-60% in
the case of two sets of knives run in the direction of carrier, (b) 85-90% with a combination of knives and
shredder, while for unigrator or fibrizor it would be 75-80%. In the case of knives run in opposite direction to
the flow of cane, the preparation index can be 65-70% depending on whether one or both the sets are
revolving in reverse direction.
Cane Milling: Mills …(4/7)
• The disintegrated cane is fed to the first mill commonly known as crusher, of the series of three-roller mills-
forming a mill train in which the subsequent mills perform the function of extracting the juice from bagasse
soaked in water or imbibition fluid.

• In some old designs the first juice extraction of the prepared cane is carried out in a two roller crusher
followed by three roller mill.

• Modern milling tandem comprises four, five or six-three roller mills, each roller being 760 mm. - 1100 mm.
dia and 1520 mm. - 2200 mm. length respectively, usually the length being about twice the diameter.

• In India most of the modern mills are of 760 x 1520 mm size or 850 x 1700 mm size.

• The rollers have V shaped grooves, on the periphery of the shell, distributed over the entire length such that
the distance between adjacent grooves, the depth and the apex angle of grooves remain the same for a
particular roller.
Cane Milling: Mills …(5/7)
• The grooves serve two-fold purpose : one to provide passage for juice extracted on compression and two to
disintegrate the bagasse to facilitate juice extraction, and in any mill the system of cutting the grooves is such
as to allow the teeth of the top roller mesh with the grooves of bottom rollers.

• The pitch of grooves i.e. the distance between axes of two successive grooves is gradually reduced from first
to last mill as the fine pitch favours extraction which is important for last mills whereas coarse grooves serve
to disintegrate bagasse due to differential peripheral velocities of meshing top and bottom grooves.

• The angle of groove varies from 35° to 55°, the usual practice being to maintain acute angle for feedroller,
wider for the top, while the discharge roller has groove of value lying in between the two. Acute angle of 35°
at the feed facilitates good juice drainage, which is very vital at the feed side.

• The system of hydraulic pressure exerted on top rollers of mills is so designed as to maintain constant
pressure irrespective of the volume of cane or bagasse passing through the mill. Pressures increase towards
the end of the length of milling tandem and are highest on the last mill.
Cane Milling: Mills …(6/7)

• Increasing the speeds of roller mills is conductive to higher crushing rate but results in fall in
extraction efficiency. In Indian industry speeds maintained are usually 8 to 10 m/min.

• Mill setting i.e. the openings between the top roller and the two bottom rollers i.e. feed and
discharge openings, as also the opening at the trash-plate. Proper setting takes into account the
Desired rate of crushing,

Fibre content of cane,

Extraction aimed at,

Grooving, and results in smooth operation combined with good performance

• The first mill extracts high purity juice and the brixes, the purities of juices go on decreasing from
first to last mill.
Cane Milling: Juice Strainers …(7/7)

• Juice strainers are installed on the mills which separate the bagacillo to be put back on the bagasse
leaving first mill. Both the primary and secondary juices need straining

• Fine bagasse particles dropping from mill rollers into juice and carried by the extracted juice are
known as bagacillo or 'cush cush' the quantity of which varies from 1 to 10 gms.
• There are many types of strainers
available for application such as:
Elevator type inclined screens,
Vibrating screens and Dorr Oliver
Stationary D.S.M. (Dutch state
mines) screen.
 Juice Extraction: Important Process …(1/4)

Imbibition

 In the milling process, the first mill extracts 50-70% of the total juice contained in the prepared cane, the
remaining offering resistance to removal from fibre by simple compression in rollers.

 To extract the remaining juice, 'imbibition' process which consists in spraying diluted juice or water on the
bagasse emerging after each mill in the milling tandem, can be used. In simple imbibition water alone is applied
to bagasse from every mill, no longer practiced in the industry. The compound imbibition adopted universally
involves the application of water only on the bagasse fed to last mill, the juice from this mill being sprayed on
the bagasse going to the penultimate mill while juice from the penultimate mill is added at the preceding mill.

 This recirculation is continued upto the second mill, the juice from which constitutes the secondary juice. This
secondary juice when combined with primary juice from first mill is known as mixed juice sent to boiling
house for processing.

 In actual practice the ratio of water to dry bagasse is seldom higher than 250-300%.
 Juice Extraction: Mill Capacities …(2/4)
 The capacity of a mill, expressed as tonnes cane crushed per day or per hour is governed by following factors:

 Cane quality: The fibre content of cane influences the crushing capacity in as much as for a given set of
conditions with regard to the power supplied, mill setting etc.

 Size of mill and rollers: The quantity of bagasse passing through a mill is directly proportional to the length
of the rollers and the square of the diameter of the rollers.

 Cane preparatory devices: The extent of cane preparation exerts profound influence on the capacity of mill
in that the finer preparation improves throughput in the same mill. The conventional two sets of knives
enhance capacity by 15-20% while combination of shredder and knives effects 25% increase in milling.
 Miscellaneous: Feeding devices, toothed rollers, treatment of cush-
crush, Mill maintenance etc
Juice Extraction: INFLUENCING FACTORS …(3/4)
 The extraction efficiency of a milling tandem depends on many factors as under—

1. Cane preparation: Fine cane preparation from the point of view of high preparation index has great
bearing on the primary extraction as well efficiency of imbibition.

2. Primary extraction: Primary extraction means juice extraction by dry crushing which is accomplished in a
three/five-roller the head of the mill. High primary extraction by dry crushing in the mill at the head of
tandem renders the task of subsequent mills employing imbibition for extraction of maximum possible
juice easy, and in effect improves the extraction performance of the mills.

3. Imbibition: After primary extraction, imbibition plays a vital role in determining the overall mill extraction
for which essential conditions are:

(i) thorough mixing of diluted juice with the respective bagasse, (ii) efficient drainage of the bagasse juice
on compression and finally, (iii) the quantum of water and juice which is recirculated in the system, the latter
depending mainly on the water applied.
Juice Extraction: INFLUENCING FACTORS …(4/4)
 The extraction efficiency of a milling tandem depends on many factors as under—

4. Hydraulic load: The extraction increases directly in proportion to Load upto a certain limit (25-27 t/dm2)
but the gain in extraction with increase in pressure is reduced thereafter. Usual practice in efficient milling
is to maintain 24-26 tonnes/dm2. Loads at the mills other man the last mill at which pressure is raised to
around 27-29 t/dm2; in as much pressure goes on increasing from first to last mill in the interest of higher
extraction of juice.

5. Length of tandem: Increasing the number of mills in a tandem is helpful in improving the extraction
efficiency.

6. Miscellaneous: Roller speed, bagasse moisture, bagasse blanket thickness etc.

 Juice clarification
Part 2 of Unit 2: Sugar Production

• 1 0Brix (Bx) = 1 gm of solute in 100 gm of solution

(measured by Brix Hydrometer)
• Pol represent quantity of sugar in the sugar solution
and measured by Polarimeter.
• Purity = (pol% / brix%)*100
Juice Clarification …(1/13)

• The raw juice is turbid and contains undesirable impurities such as sand, fine bagacillo and
other dissolved solids which have to be eliminated so that the concentrated clear juice or
syrup is suitable for sucrose crystallization.

• Thus, the treatment in purification should impart transparency, lightness and also bring
clean appearance to juice and syrup.

• Cane juice clarification aims at

(i) elimination of suspended impurities and colloids, (ii) removal of maximum amount of
nonsugar components in solution, (iii) imparting clarity and transparency to juice.

• The choice of a particular system of clarification is determined by the type of sugar to be

produced.
Juice Clarification …(2/13)

• The defecation of juice is employed for manufacture of raw sugar while plantation white
sugar plants follow either sulphitation or carbonation process of cane juice purification. In
every process of clarification, the treatment of juice by heat and clarifying agents results in
formation of precipitate which when separated, yields transparent juice.

• Various number of organic and inorganic substances have been proposed so far for bringing
about the desirable results in clarification. Choice of these chemicals depends upon
following factors:
(i) costs, (ii) actual results obtained in large scale adoption, (iii) effects on recovery of sugar, (iv)
impact on quality of sugar, (v) influence on further process operation.
Juice Clarification …(3/13)

• The agents to be used in sugar manufacturing should not persist to the final product viz.
sugar and in case find their way to sugar the residual concentration should be below the
toxic limits, laid down by Food and drugs standards.

• There are two types of reagents used; which are:

1. Those that are used in substantial amounts like lime, phosphates, sulphur etc. as main
clarificants
2. Those additives employed for assisting certain operations, like settling aids.

• Processes involved are coagulation, flocculation, and precipitation of the colloids and
pigmented substances, which are later eliminated by decanting and filtration.
• The solids are swept from the tray into a mud compartment, from which it is pumped to
filters for de-sweetening and dewatering.
Juice Clarification: Characteristics …(4/13)

1. Rise in sucrose purity from raw juice to clear juice indicative of the degree of nonsucrose removal
which brings down the formation of molasses, as the nonsucrose constituents are responsible for
molasses formation.

2. Sucrose which is unstable at low pH coupled with heat, has to remain intact and undecomposed,

3. Reducing sugars with their vital role in bringing down sucrose retention in final molasses, should
as far as possible not be destroyed. High pH and temperature cause the decomposition of reducing
sugars, which is quite high 25-30% in carbonation and very low in sulphitation 0.1 to 0.5%.

4. Increase in inorganic salts like silica, iron, sulphates results in undersirable scale formation in
evaporator which has to be avoided by exercising rigid control on quality of chemicals employed.

5. The process must be amenable to continuous operation and automation.

6. In the context of the entire factory operation, the process has to be energy efficient.
Juice Clarification: Methods …(5/13)

DEFECATION
• Defecation of juice employing mainly lime and heat as agents, is probably the oldest and cheapest
method of juice purification.

• It is more or less established that, for optimum results the juice must contain 300 mgms. of P2O5
per litre and in case the juices are deficient; natural phosphate, inorganic phosphates or phosphoric
acid are added to bring the P2O5 content to the required level.

• The lime added, besides neutralizing the free organic acids (pH neutralization), forms insoluble
Tricalcium phosphate Ca3(P04)2 precipitate which accumulate colloids and suspended impurities.

• It can be of two types: Cold Liming and Hot Liming

• Mainly done for the production of Raw Sugar for export.

Juice Clarification: Methods …(6/13)

SULPHITATION
• Purification of juice employing sulphur dioxide and lime is termed as sulphitation. This
process first invented in European beet sugar industry.

• Almost 85-90% of the white crystal sugar produced by vacuum pan sugar industry in India
is manufactured by sulphitation process of clarification.

• The sugar produced by sulphitation is inferior in whiteness to the carbonation sugar.

Juice Clarification: Methods …(7/13)

CARBONATION
• Carbonation, implies formation of carbonate of lime for purification of juice and was
introduced in cane sugar manufacture for the first time in Java in 1876.

• It involved addition of excess lime to hot juice followed by CO2 in two stages.
Juice Clarification: Clarificants …(8/13)

Lime (CaO)
• Lime is the oldest and cheapest chemical being used in sugar manufacturing industry, as a juice
clarificant.

• In Indian factories lime i.e. calcium oxide CaO is used in the form of lumps or powder but
sometimes, hydrated lime i.e. Ca(OH)2 in powder form or pulverised quick lime has used as well.

• Lime is obtained from high grade limestone by burning it in kilns. Many Indian sulphitation plants
prefer producing lime in kilns, installed at the factory site procuring limestone and coal, for their
process use.
• The quantities consumed depend on the process
adopted for clarification such as 
Juice Clarification: Clarificants …(9/13)

Sulphur
• Sulphur is an important chemical used in plantation white sugar manufacture for generating
SO2 in the clarification house.

• Elemental sulphur occurs mostly in U.S.A., Italy and Japan, though in sulphide form it is
found in copper, iron and other mineral deposits.

• For use in sugar manufacture sulphur must be of very high purity (above 99%)., the
maximum permissible levels of impurities being—
Juice Clarification: Clarificants …(10/13)

Phosphates
• Phosphate addition to raw juice is being practiced since long in all type of sugar production
raw sugar, refined and plantation white sugar manufacture.

• The source of phosphate compounds added in clarification is the naturally occuring

phosphatic rocks. Formerly single super phosphate and triple superphosphate were added
in the form of slurry or extracts.

• In recent years phosphoric acid containing about 55% P2O5 is being used in preference to
any one of superphosphates due to—

(i) ease of handling, (ii) absence of impurities and (iii) high P2O5 content.
 Juice Clarification: Clarificants …(11/13)

Magnesium Oxide (MgO)

• Magnesium oxide MgO has been proposed as clarificant in partial replacement of CaO because of its
beneficial effects on reduction of scale formation on heating surface of evaporator.

• Good results are obtained in defecation, when about 50-80% lime dose is replaced by MgO and it is
convenient to start with a mixture containing higher proportion of MgO and later gradually increase
the lime proportion.

• The evaporator tubes remain clean and where scale formation on heating surface poses a serious
problem magnesia offers solution for such conditions.

• MgO is much costlier than lime and its ultimate adoption is to be decided on the basis of economic
benefits.
 Juice Clarification: Additives …(12/13)

SURFACE ACTIVE AGENTS:

• Surface active agents of cationic type are expected to remove colloids from raw juice substantially
when added to the normal purification process.

FLOCCULANTS:

• A number of synthetic flocculating agents are high molecular weight polyacrylamides which are
partially hydrolysed. Their efficacy as settling aids depends on the molecular weight (ranges between
7 to 10 million) and the degree of hydrolysis. These compounds can be either anionic, cationic or
nonionic, and serve as bridges among particles of precipitate and thus bring about formation of bigger
aggregates of floes. (Ex. Separan A.P. 30, Sedipur etc.)

• They are added as 0.05 to 0.1% solution in water at the rate of 2 to 5 parts per million parts of juice,
to the treated juice in the pipe connecting flash tank to clarifier.
 Juice Clarification: Additives …(13/13)

ENZYMES:

• Enzymes are biological catalysts, consisting of protein molecule and are industrially
produced from microorganism. They are specific in their action and leave no undesirable
residue in the final product. (Eg. Amylase, Dextranase etc.)

Irrespective of the method of clarification, it must be noted that the results of clarification
have a great bearing on the subsequent sugar crystallization process as well as the overall
efficiency of the process of sugar manufacture.
Juice treatment
Part 3 of Unit 2: Sugar Production
Juice Treatment: Equipment
• The raw juice from the mill is received in automatic weighing scale and thereafter sent to
clarification station. The entire clarification section comprises following units:
a) Juice weighing, (b) milk of lime preparation, (c) juice heaters, (d) juice treatment tanks,
(d) continuous clarifier, (e) filter.

• Three or four decades back the juice from the mill was weighed on platform weighing
scales which were manually operated. This system being less reliable and laborious to
operate suffered from the inaccuracies arising out of both human error and machine error,
and was replaced by automatic juice weighing equipment. The design of juice automatic
weighing scale incorporate—
(a) levers, and counterweights, or (b) pneumatic operation.
Juice Treatment: Equipment
• The raw juice from the mill is received in automatic weighing scale and thereafter sent to
clarification station. The entire clarification section comprises following units:
a) Juice weighing, (b) milk of lime preparation, (c) juice heaters, (d) juice treatment tanks,
(d) continuous clarifier, (e) filter.

• Juice Weighing: Three or four decades back the juice from the mill was weighed on
platform weighing scales which were manually operated. This system being less reliable
and laborious to operate suffered from the inaccuracies arising out of both human error and
machine error, and was replaced by automatic juice weighing equipment. The design of
juice automatic weighing scale incorporate—
(a) levers, and counterweights, or (b) pneumatic operation.
Juice Treatment: Equipment
Milk of Lime preparation:

• Since the lime is added to juice in the form of liquid calcium hydroxide slurry while the
lime is brought to factory and stored in the from of lumps or as powder, the preparation of
solution of lime known as milk of lime has to be carried out in the clarification station.

• In modern installations this station is located on the ground floor in close proximity to juice
treatment tanks.

Treatment Tanks:

• The old system of batch treatment of juice with lime, prevalent 3-4 decades back is now completely
replaced by continuous treatment tanks which are suitable for both defecation and sulphitation
processes of clarification.
Juice Treatment: Equipment
Juice Heaters:

• As the name suggests, the function of the juice heaters is to heat the juice to the desired
temperature. These are of three types
(i) tubular heaters, (ii) direct contact heaters, (iii) plate type heat
exchangers.
• The juice heating in clarification by defecation or sulphitation is carried out in two stages
viz. primary heating of mixed juice before treatment and secondary heating of treated juice
to the boiling point or slightly above that (100° - 103°C).

• The plate type heaters are employed only for clear juice heating before it enters the
evaporator (heating clear juice from 95 0C to operating temperature i.e. 1050C-1080C).
Juice Treatment: Equipment
Clarifier/Settlers:

• The function of the clarifier is to separate the precipitate and the clear juice from the treated
and boiled juice, employing the principle of subsidence and decantation.

• All modern multi-tray clarifiers are continuously operating type and despite their different
designs have some common features like withdrawal of juice from top sections of
compartments, and mud from bottom portion as also cylindrical construction.

• The compartments are formed by trays sloping either towards the centre or towards the
periphery. The muds settled on the trays are drawn by revolving scrapers towards mud
outlet. (Eg. Dorr clarifier, Graver subside etc.)
Juice Treatment: Equipment
Filters:
• The muds from settlers contain 5-7% precipitate in suspension and juice has to be recovered from
the same, by filtration.

• The filters perform the task of eliminating precipitated matter from the settlings of the clarifier,
with minimum loss of sugar, by separating the mud from feed and applying wash water.

• The muddy juice has to be at high temperature (above 80°C) since viscosity of juice is inversely
proportional to temperature and low viscosity favors filtration.

• Two types of filters are employed in mud filtration in cane sugar factories, viz.

(i) pressure type filters or filter presses, (ii) continuous vacuum filters

• Continuous vacuum filters type are most common in modern plants.

Juice Treatment: Evaporation ..(1/5)

• The clear juice contains about 83 to 85% water, the remaining portion being represented by the sugar and
impurities known as nonsugar components.

• Most of this water has to be removed for sucrose crystallization; but because of the economical
constraints, evaporating all the water in one go is practiced in industry.

• An ingenious method was evolved to first get rid of nearly 75% of the water in clear juice in the most
economic way and send the concentrated juice known as syrup with 25-35% water to pan station.

• The evaporator station which performs the function of concentrating the clear juice to syrup of 60-65%
solid content has the most important rote to play in the energy saving in the entire cane sugar
manufacturing process.

• The objective of evaporator station is to reduce the water content of clear juice to a level where the
sugars are still in the dissolved state i.e. the solution is unsaturated with respect to sucrose.
Juice Treatment: Evaporation ..(2/5)

• Before the advent of machine age, the sugar was crystallized from cane juice by boiling it in open pans
heated by fire.

• In 1812 and 1813, the use of steam and application of vacuum boiling to concentrate juice came in the
practice.

• In the next phase in 1833 Degrand in France, developed double effect evaporator in which latent heat
of vapour was used for boiling.

• The final phase of evolution of the evaporator system was marked by the revolutionary device of
multiple effect evaporation and use of vapours for pan boiling introduced in 1900, the credit for which
belongs to Robert Rillieux.

• Majority of modern sugar plants use multiple effect evaporators and the number of vessel being
usually 4 or 5.
Juice Treatment: Evaporation ..(3/5)

• In practice for the factory white sugar process the limit of evaporation corresponds with concentration
of juice to syrup of 65° Bx and usually the syrup proceeding from the evaporator stage has a brix of
60°-65°.

• Thus at evaporator stage, out of the water to be evaporated for sugar crystallisation nearly 80-85% is
removed.

“Principle:

In evaporation, as liquid molecules are constantly in motion; at the surface, some do escape into the air
while at the same time surface is being pressurized by atmospheric pressure.

And when heat is applied the molecules are put into more violent motion and in result more number of
liquid molecules overcome atmospheric pressure and leave the liquid surface.”
Juice Treatment: Evaporation ..(4/5)

• Water boils at 100°C under atmospheric conditions but with reduction of pressure i.e. by application of
vacuum the temperature of boiling is lowered and if the pressure is raised the boiling point rises.

• The boiling points of water at different temperatures and pressures are contained in the steam table.

• In the case of juice which can be considered to be a solution of sugar in water, the temperature of
boiling is somewhat higher than that of water under same conditions of pressure. This is referred to as
elevation of boiling point or boiling point rise (B.P.R.).

• This B.P.R. depends on concentration of sucrose as also the impurities contained in solution. In
general—
1. The B.P.R. rises with brix of juice or syrup.

2. The B.P.R. is higher, higher the impurity level i.e. as purity of sugar bearing material goes down, the boiling
point rise increases.
Juice Treatment: Evaporation ..(5/5)

• The hydrostatic head also has pronounced effect in the boiling of juices or syrups as the brix of material or
density goes on increasing progressively in boiling, particularly in the pan boiling the boiling point of liquid
increases with hydrostatic pressure.

• For example: in a well designed multiple effect evaporator, the juice is expected to boil throughout the
length of the tube, the juice layers at a depth of say half a meter will boil at temperature corresponding to the
pressure at the surface of the tube increased by the hydrostatic head equivalent to half a meter of juice
height.

• The total water to be evaporated in an evaporator can be calculated as per following:

Evaporation: Multiple Effect Evaporation ..(1/2)

• The concept of multiple effect evaporation developed in the early part of nineteenth century by
Robert Rillieux is based on the use of vapour of boiling juice for evaporating further the same juice
in another body. This way 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 vessels can be joined together with the first one heated with
steam.

• The pressure in each vessel in the series goes on gradually decreasing, whereby the boiling point of
juice is also diminishing progressively as we pass from first vessel to the last one which has its
vapour space connected to the vacuum system.

• Thus if the first vessel in a quadruple effect is heated by steam of 110°C, the vapours at about 100 -
103°C from this will be connected to the heating space of the second vessel which will have vacuum
around 200 mm Hg, in the same way the vapour of the second vessel boiling will be led to heat 3rd
body with around 400 mm Hg vacuum while the last body will be boiling at 650 mm Hg vacuum.
Evaporation: Multiple Effect Evaporation ..(2/2)

• In this way even though more boiling vessels have to be installed, the system offers three main
advantages viz.
1. Steam economy since one kg of steam is utilised for evaporating 4-5 kg of water from this
system.
2. Exposure of juice to high temperatures for longer duration is avoided, thereby reducing sucrose
destruction to minimum.
3. Vapour from any vessel can be robbed for heating of juice or pans, operation thereby reducing
the steam load in the process of sugar manufacture.

• Pressurized saturated steam is ideally suited for this heating in view of the good heat
transmission obtained (≤ 1 Kg/cm2, ≤ 1200C ). Nevertheless slight super heat would not affect
the heat transmission.

• The clear juice enters the first body heated by steam and gets progressively concentrated from
first to last body to syrup consistency, syrup being withdrawn from last body.
Syrup Treatment ..(1/2)

• The syrup from evaporator contains good amount of suspended matter (0.3 - 0.5% Bx) nearly four
to five times that in clear juice on 100 brix basis.

• Since in the production of plantation white sugar, sugar crystals are grown in syrup, some of the
suspended matter in syrup gets embedded in sugar crystals thus an ideal way would be to treat the
syrup further with chemicals followed by filtration for elimination of suspended matter and color
forming components.

• In a process introduced by Perk the concentrated juice from penultimate body of quintuple was
treated by sulphitation followed by filtration. The clear syrup was sent to the last body of
evaporator for further concentration. Similar principle of operation has been adopted in middle
juice carbonation.
Syrup Treatment ..(2/2)

• A new method introduced in recent years for syrup treatment which is practiced in some plants in
white sugar manufacture is the Tolodura process based on phosfloatation principle involving
treatment of syrup with lime and phosphoric acid which goes to aeration tank. Followed by mixing
of aerated syrup with flocculating agent ‘Tolodura’ and the sent to floatation clarifier. The principle
of this treatment is almost the same as phosfloatation of melt in refineries.

• Syrup bleaching by Hydrogen Peroxide is also practiced in some industries to replace sugar
sulphitation treatment. Syrup from evaporator gets treated with 1% hydrogen peroxide, the level of
hydrogen peroxide being maintained at 20 p.p.m. Hydrogen peroxide reduces colourant in syrup
by attacking the colour forming compounds like polyphenols.
Crystallization and Refining
Part 4 of Unit 2: Sugar Production
Sugar Boiling: Crystallization ..(1/3)

• This process involves formation (isolation) of sugar crystals from the syrup (majorly Water) which
usually takes place in simple effect vacuum pans.

• It is at the crystallization that the 50-60% of the total loss in manufacturing takes place and fate of
the quality of marketable sugar is decided.

• The syrup sent to first pan floor is of 55°-65° Bx, the upper limit being rarely crossed. The entire
process of crystallization on pan-floor is conducted in three or four stages, the mother liquor from
the final stage being discarded as final molasses.

• The feed material of the pans at second and later stages of boiling is of about 70° Bx.

• For recovering maximum sugar in crystalline form, high concentration of the massecuites under
vacuum is essential, consistent with the requirements of discharging the mass from the pans.
Sugar Boiling: Crystallization ..(2/3)

• The brixes of first grade massecuites i.e. 'A' strikes from which white sugar is produced are 92-94
while the final massecuites, whose mother liquor when separated is the final molasses are
concentrated to 100°-102° Bx.

• Concentrating beyond certain limits at any stage can cause unwanted secondary grain formation or
conglomerates besides affecting the fluidity of the massecuites.

• The white sugar produced for human consumption contains 99.9% sucrose.

• As syrups and molasses normally contain nearly 15-50% non-sucrose matter on brix basis; there is
influence of nonsucrose impurities on the physical properties of sucrose and also on the
crystallization of sugar.

• The plantation white sugar process involves use of syrups whose composition of impurities varies
widely in different parts of the season.
Sugar Boiling: Crystallization ..(3/3)

• The nonsucrose impurities in syrups or molasses exert adverse influence on the crystallization rate.

• Besides the concentration of impurities, the composition and nature of impurities decide the rate of
crystallization. Electrolytes in general have retarding effect on rate and similarly caramel and
carbohydrates considerably slow down the crystallization.

• The process of crystallization is carried out in 3 or 4 stages, the impurity content in mother liquor
progressively increasing from the first to the last stage.

• As purities of mother liquor i.e. molasses decrease, the degree of supersaturation increases for
boiling and in the final stage of crystallization the supersaturation coefficient is 1.5 or above and
thus gradual desugarisation of the syrup sent to pan floor is achieved by adopting 3 or 4 boiling
systems.
Crystallization: Crystal Growth ..(1/4)

• No sugar crystals can form or develop in a sugar solution unless the solution is
supersaturated. The state of supersaturation signifies more solute in solution than that
contained in a saturated solution and saturated solution is one in which no more solute can
go into solution at a particular temperature.

• Supersaturation being the main driving force in the crystallisation, the degree of
supersaturation/coeffiecient of supersaturation (s) of mother liquor in boiling pans
determines the rate of crystal growth.
Crystallization: Crystal Growth ..(2/4)

• Supersaturation curves showing relationship between sucrose concentration and temperature show
three zones viz.
1. Metastable zone of supersaturation coefficient 1 to 1.20 in which existing crystals grow but new
crystals are not formed.

2. Intermediate zone with supersaturation coefficient 1.2 - 1.4 represents a phase in which existing
crystals grow and new ones are also formed.

3. In Labile Zone of supersaturation coefficient exceeding 1.4 spontaneous nucleation of sucrose will
take place.

• For practical pan boiling the useful range of supersaturation is 1.25 to 1.4 depending on the grade
or stage of boiling.

• With lower purities of solutions the degree of supersaturation has to be higher for crystallization.
Crystallization: Crystal Growth ..(3/4)

Mechanism
• Follows two steps which are
1. Transfer of sucrose molecules from the bulk of solution to the surface of crystal.
2. Incorporation of these molecules in the crystal lattice.
• In the case of a sucrose crystal suspended in a supersaturated sugar solution sucrose molecules
from the bulk of solution will be transported to the crystal face by diffusion as the film near the
face of crystal will be thin.
• The supersaturation is the main driving force which increases the rate of diffusion of sucrose
molecules to the crystal surface and thus the role of growth of crystals will be determined mainly
by the degree of supersaturation of the sugar solution.
• The rate of crystallization in pure and impure sugar solutions like molasses increases with
temperature at high degree of supersaturation.
Crystallization: Crystal Growth ..(4/4)

False Grain
• In pan boiling once seed is drawn in the pan no new grains are allowed to be formed which
means that no new nucleation should occur since the grains provided by the seed have to be
developed, which requires the concentration of mass to be so controlled as to avoid the
labile or intermediate zone maintaining the state of supersaturation in the metastable zone.

• In practice at certain stage of boiling the concentration of the massecuite exceeds a certain
limit when fresh grains appear as tiny crystals known as false grains.

• If allowed to grow the false grain will constitute another crop of crystals of smaller size
rendering the massecuite full of different sized crystals which retard the passage of
molasses through the crystals in centrifugal separation thereby giving poor quality sugar.
Crystallization: Crystal Separation
• The various grades of massecuites after completion of the sugar cystallisation process
contain sugar crystals together with the mother liquor and the next logical step is to
separate the crystalline sugar, from the molasses which is a thick liquid.

• This separation known as purging or 'curing' is effected in centrifugal machines.

• In the process of white sugar manufacture from cane, the sugar separated from first or 'A'
massecuite is steam or air dried and conveyed to packing house while the sugars from the
remaining masscuites are put back in process either in the form of seed magma or as melt.

• The final molasses i.e. the mother liquor from final massecuite is sent out of the process
house after weighing for storage away from the plant while the molasses from the other
massecuites are pumped to pan floor for reboiling in vacuum pans.
Crystallization: Refining of Sugars ..(1/5)

• Cane sugar mills traditionally produce raw sugar, which is sugar that still contains
molasses, giving it more colour (and impurities) than the white sugar which is normally
consumed in households and used as an ingredient in soft drinks and foods.

• Sugar refinery processes raw sugar from cane or sugar extracted from beets into white
refined sugar.

• This is sugar in its most pure crystalline form, and it has a white lustre and is transparent.
This sugar is manufactured to an industrial scale for a huge variety of uses. It typically has
a minimum polarisation of 99.7 degrees and contains up to 0.3% of non-sucrose
substances.

• Refining of sugars follows a series of steps as discussed next:

Refining of Sugars: Steps ..(2/5)
1. Raw sugar arrives: The raw sugar that arrives at the refinery has already been through the first
stage of purification at a mill. It has been crushed, soaked, boiled, and spun, but still contains
impurities. Sugar at this stage is not food grade as it still consists of impure sucrose crystals and
molasses. In general terms, it is classified as having a polarization below 99.5 degrees.

2. Melting: The first process the raw sugar undergoes is melting. The sugar is stirred and dissolved
in hot water to the right concentration, whilst brushes and strainers remove impurities and
coloration. The resulting product is sugar syrup.

3. Carbonation: Calcium hydroxide, called milk of lime, is added to the liquid sugar mixture and
heated to boiling point in carbonators. The vessel, which is designed for the purpose, bubbles
carbon dioxide through the mixture. The gas reacts with the lime to form fine crystalline particles
of calcium carbonate, which occludes – or shuts out – organic impurities, such as amino acids,
wax, and gums.
Refining of Sugars: Steps ..(3/5)

4. Filtration: The mixture, which is now a brown or honey-coloured liquid, is filtered to

become bright or pale yellow in colour. The suspended calcium carbonate, along with
additional impurities, are removed by pressure filters and de-sugarising filters. The by-
product of press-cake with a low sugar content is formed at this time, while the filtrate
(sweet water) continues on to the next stage of refinement.

5. Decolourisation: The sweet water runs through filters of small granules of bone char or
natural charcoal to further purify it and shift inorganic debris. This process also
‘decolourises’ it so the sugar is now clear and lightly coloured and is ready for further
refinement.
Refining of Sugars: Steps ..(4/5)

6. Evaporation: The liquid now flows into vacuum pans for concentration and
crystallisation. It is pumped through a series of evaporators to achieve a state of
supersaturation. Fine seed crystals are added to initiate the crystallisation process, which
is carried out in three stages. When the crystals reach the desired size, the process is
stopped. The first crystallisation, called A strike, produces crystallised sugar and a
residual mother liquid, referred to as A molasses. This is concentrated even more to yield
a B strike and a corresponding B grade molasses. This is repeated to create a C grade
sugar and a final molasses, known as blackstrap. This is a heavy and dark liquid from
which can no further be crystallised economically by the usual methods.
Refining of Sugars: Steps ..(5/5)

7. Crystallization: Crystals and mother liquid are separated in basket-type centrifuges at high
speeds. The liquid is spun off the crystals and they are washed by water jets. The mother syrup is
then filtered out and used to produce Golden Syrup and other lower grade sugar products.

8. Drying, Screening and Conditioning: The wet sugar is dried with a blast of warm air in a
granulator. This is a long and rotating cylindrical machine and forces the sugars to tumble
through a continuous draft of hot air to dry and cold air to cool. The dry sugars are weighed and
sorted by size through vibrating screens and placed into storage holds and any dust that has been
produced is removed using a vacuum. They are kept here to allow the residual moisture in the
sugar crystals to come to equilibrium with the humidity in the surrounding air, and this prevents it
from becoming lumpy. This process is known as curing.
Industrial factors affecting Sugar Production
• Control on various industrial factors in the process of sugar manufacture is aimed at
attaining highest possible efficiencies and recovering maximum sugar from the raw
material which exhibits, varying compositions from period to period as well as from field
to field in a crushing campaign, while at the same time maintaining the desired rate of
production.

• These factors are as following:

1. Milling

2. Sampling and Analyses

3. Imbibition:

4. Special equipment and instruments

Industrial factors affecting Sugar Production
• These factors are as following:
5. Mill Sanitation: Since the cane juice provides ideal media for the growth of innumerable types of
microorgranisms, it is pertinent to expect deterioration of cane juice in its passage through the milling
process resulting in loss of sugars. These loss can not be recorded in manufacturing reports. Several
pockets of fermentation are formed in mill gutters, juice strainers, bagasse carriers, juice tanks etc.,
wherever bagasse or juice stagnates. Yeast and invertase convert sucrose into reducing sugars, while
lactic acid bacteria generate acids thereby increasing acidity in juice. The extent of loss in sugar can be
assessed by determining the acidity and reducing sugar/brix ratio in primary and mixed juices.

This loss though not completely avoidable can be controlled and minimised, to a considerable extent
by maintaining sanitary conditions around the mills for which— (i) steaming, and (ii) spray of bactericides
are the common measures advocated.

6. Clarification
Industrial factors affecting Sugar Production
• These factors are as following:
7. Evaporation

8. Crystallization

9. Centrifugal Separation

10. Miscellaneous: Sugar quality, Records etc.

Sugar production process: Block diagram
Sugar production: Milling

Mill station
Sugar production: Evaporation
Sugar production: Refined Sugar

..end of Unit 2