Operating System: Interview

Short Notes

Operating systems are the foundation of modern digital devices. These systems
determine how you see and interact with your machines. Operating systems
determine how we program an application, what software we can use, and how
hardware should be designed. Understanding operating systems is essential for
developers to ensure you’re designing programs that work to the strengths of a
particular operating system.
Today, we’ll break down the basics of operating system components and
functions, starting with the most basic kernel and ending with the more advanced
topic of virtualization. By the end of this article, you’ll have a solid foundation of
operating systems and be ready to jump into intermediate practice.

Here’s what we’ll cover:

Operating System: Interview Short Notes 1

 What is an operating system?

Popular operating systems for developers

What is a kernel?

Resource Management

What is a process?

What is a service?

Common Services

Program Execution

Input/Output I/O operations

File System manipulation

Communication

Error Detection

Resource Allocation

Protection

Types of operating system configurations

Network Operating System

Batch Operating System

Time-sharing Operating System

Distributed Operating System

Real-time Operating System

Advanced OS concepts

Process Scheduling

Shortest Remaining Time SRT

Round Robin Scheduling

Multiple-Level Queues Scheduling

First In, First Out FIFO

Operating System: Interview Short Notes 2

 Shortest Job Next SJN

Priority-based Scheduling

Threads and Multithreading

Processes vs. Threads

Virtualization

What is an operating system?

An operating system OS is the core software that contains a collection of
services essential for the machine to run programs. Think of this as the manager
of a computer’s memory and processes. An OS is how we can communicate
with a computer without understanding the same language. Without an OS, a user
would need to know dozens of command line statements to manually control
each part of a computer.
The most important function of an OS is to standardize and mediate programs
and the machine’s internal hardware. The OS is how a computer schedules
sequential tasks, completes tasks concurrently, and delegates resources. In other
words, the OS is to provide both the platform and resources needed for
programs to run.

Before operating systems were commonplace, developers had to design their

programs to work with individual pieces of hardware. However, it was impossible
to know what hardware your customers would have, so widely distributed
software was nearly impossible. Operating systems provide a standard medium
that developers can program. If the system can run the OS, it can run your
program.

Popular operating systems for developers

There are many operating systems out there, many that you probably haven’t
even heard of. They generally all provide the same base but have different

Operating System: Interview Short Notes 3

 functionalities such as support for hardware, security, intended user-base, or
regular updates. Today, the three most popular operating systems used by
developers are:
Linux:

This operating system is an open-source operating system available for all

computers. Linux’s open-source properties allow it to be highly customizable and
well suited for installing and running other open-source programs. This
combination of open-source technologies has allowed Linux systems to develop
far faster than Windows or macOS.
For this reason, Linux is the most popular OS for developers across the board,
particularly in cybersecurity fields.

However, Linux has a steep learning curve and can be difficult to pick up.

macOS

This operating system is developed by Apple and is available on Mac machines.

macOS is well-liked by developers for its Unix-based functions like built-in bash-
shell utilities and a simple Unix file system. However, many find that macOS
doesn’t have enough flexibility and instead opt for Linux.

Operating System: Interview Short Notes 4

 Windows:

This operating system is developed by Microsoft and is available on PC

machines. Windows is known for its ease of use and consistent functionality
across versions. Since Windows is simple, many developers use other operating
systems that have more built-in functions, like macOS, or that are more
changeable, like Linux.

Operating System: Interview Short Notes 5

 What is a kernel?
The kernel is the central core of an operating system that allows programs to
access hardware resources. A kernel is how a system starts up, translates input,
and outputs requests to the central processing unit GPU.

Each OS must have a kernel to function. As a result, the kernel is stored in

restricted memory space so it’s not accidentally overwritten. Developers working
on kernels aim to make it as small as possible without altering functionality so
that more memory is open to the user.

Kernels rarely change from version to version. In fact, the modern OS uses the
same versions from over 20 years ago with only minor updates or
modernizations.

Linux uses the Linux kernel

macOS uses the XNU kernel

Windows uses the Windows NT kernel

Resource management
Resource management is one of the most important services of a kernel. The
kernel delegates computer resources like memory and CPU to each process
being executed. By regulating processes, the kernel prevents greedy programs
from starving the system and slowing down other concurrent programs. This
service ensures that all processes have enough resources to function and that
each process makes use of all available resources.

What is a process?
A process is the basic unit of work in an executing program. The developer
doesn’t write processes. Instead, they write programs that become processes
when executed by the machine.

Each process moves through 5 steps:

Operating System: Interview Short Notes 6

  Start: The process is first created from a program.

 Ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor by the operating

system scheduler.

 Running: The process’ instructions are executed by the processor.

 Waiting: The process is set to waiting if it requires additional resources like

user input or file access.

 Terminated: After code execution, the process is moved to a terminated

state where it will eventually be removed from main memory.

How a process is executed depends on the type of operating system it is on.

Below we’ll see how each uniquely handles processes.

What is a service?
The kernel is our platform to run programs while services provide tools to the
program to do its job. A service is a built-in set of functions that programs can
use to implement common behaviors, like saving to files or sharing data. Without
services, developers would have to write the code for these behaviors in each
program that needs them.
Computer scientists working on OS systems quickly realized that many programs
would benefit from these behaviors and included them in the OS package. This
makes programming for an OS more convenient, as the developer can avoid
writing the most frequently needed behaviors from scratch each time.

Operating System: Interview Short Notes 7

 For example, a cloud storage application doesn’t need to include instructions on
how to write data to memory. Instead, the application simply calls the save
behavior included in the file system manipulation service.
Some services, like error detection, run at all times regardless of program calls.

Common services
The services included in an operating system vary based from OS to OS, but
some have become standard:

Program execution: This service allows the computer to load, execute, and
produce the output of a program.

Input/Output I/O operations: This service provides the ability to

communicate with standard devices like printers and keyboards. The device
can use this to make requests of the kernel or visa versa. Software to handle
specific devices is called a driver, that instructs the I/O operations service
how to interface with the new device.

File System manipulation: This service includes a standardized method of

navigating memory so we can create and place files within directories.
Programs can then navigate these directories, alter properties, or
access/create files. It also provides the interface for users to interact with
files through requests like create/delete and move .

Communication: The communication service enables links between individual

processes to share data or results. It also includes the framework for
distributed systems of multiple machines working together.

Error Detection: Error detection allows computers to scan all processes for
errors by monitoring progress and expected outcomes. This service can also
correct minor errors without user interference.

Resource Allocation: This kernel service allows the computer to grant and
free up resources dynamically as processes are added or completed. It also
allows the computer to create process sequences using CPU schedulers.

Protection: This service provides basic cybersecurity protection through

controlling system access, limiting I/O access to unrelated resources, and
password authentication.

Operating System: Interview Short Notes 8

 Keep learning about OS.
You can try Educative’s extensive operating systems course walks you through
the three core pillars of advanced OS use: Virtualization, Concurrency &
Persistence. Learn to implement each with hands-on practice.
Operating Systems: Virtualization, Concurrency & Persistence

Types of operating system configurations

Operating systems are used on every digital system and come in different types.
Linux, macOS and Windows are all just one type of OS, called a network
operating system. While these work great for computers, other systems like email
servers and air-traffic control systems have different needs.

Additional types of OS were invented to meet these needs. Each type has unique
strengths and processing algorithms to optimize the system for certain tasks.
Companies need developers to make programs tailored to the adopted type of
OS. It’s essential for you to know how each type of OS works and the unique
challenges each poses to a developer.
Below, we’ll explore the 6 types of OS, what tasks they’re used for, and how you
can optimize your programs for each.

Network operating system

Network Operating Systems run on a server and provide the server the ability to
manage networking functions like data, users, groups, security, and software
programs. These systems are designed to grant file sharing and printer access
among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area network LAN, a
private network, or other networks like the internet.
This is the most commonly used type of OS, found on home computers, and
on network management devices like routers and switches. Windows, macOS, and
Linux are all network operating systems as they must frequently use the Internet.
Advantages:

Operating System: Interview Short Notes 9

 Server stability and security are handled for the user

Easy to upgrade hardware and software

Server access can be achieved in many locations or devices

Disadvantages:

Expensive to buy and set up a local server

Relient on the central server to function

Requires regular updates and maintenance

Batch operating system

Batch operating systems are designed to speed up processing by “batching”

groups of tasks to be run later.
Users do not interact with the computer directly in a batched operating system.
Instead, tasks are drafted on separate offline devices and handed off to a
computer controller.
The controller runs the batch once they receive it at a specific time, like the end
of the workday, or when they get enough tasks to warrant execution. This speeds
up processing as similar processes can be completed at the same time.
Batch operating systems are often used in financial fields. Payroll and bank
statement processing systems are the two most common systems to implement

Operating System: Interview Short Notes 10

 batch operating systems. These systems are of an older style, with many
companies moving to convert them to time-sharing systems in recent years.

When designing programs for a batch system, minimize processing time as any
long process will slow down the work pipeline. However, your program can be
very resource-intensive as the device only runs one process at a time.

Advantages:

Always know when the process will be completed

Shareable by multiple workers

Can handle consistent large workloads

Disadvantages:

Efficiency depends on the efficiency of the operator

Difficult to debug

Expensive to set up

Failed jobs cause a backlog

Time-sharing operating system

Time-sharing operating systems allot a period of time, called a quantum, to work

on each user’s tasks and rapidly switch between each process until all are

Operating System: Interview Short Notes 11

 complete. While CPUs can only work on one process at a time, the rapid
switching simulates concurrent processing.
Time-sharing systems prioritize response time as processes are completed at the
same pace regardless of when they were issued. This avoids stacking response
time where the first process in a sequence is completed swiftly while the final
process is untouched until all others are complete.
Time-sharing systems are not widely used but are used to convert old batch OS
devices to be more responsive. Time-sharing is also used by Multics, an operating
system that defined modern multitasking systems and Unix, the basis for macOS.
This style of system is the backbone of multithreading techniques.
Advantages:

Ensures a consistently quick response time

Minimal CPU downtime

Disadvantages:

Prone to errors

Minimal security, malware processes will be completed like regular processes

Concurrent processes cannot easily share data

Distributed operating system

Operating System: Interview Short Notes 12

 Distributed operating systems use multiple connected computers, called nodes,
to handle user tasks. Each process is distributed to available devices for
individual completion and all pieces are combined once all nodes are finished.
The primary advantage of a distributed system is that it allows individual users to
concurrently use the processing power of many devices, resulting in faster
processing.

When designing programs for distributed operating systems, split the program
into smaller modular tasks to ensure the system can efficiently use its divide and
conquer structure.
Common examples of distributed operating systems can be found in large scale,
response-focused systems like email servers, cell phone networks, and electronic
banking systems.

Advantages:

Durable, the failure of one node will not interrupt other nodes

Data easily shareable across nodes

Fast computation due to resources of multiple nodes

Reduced load on each node

Operating System: Interview Short Notes 13

 Scalable, new nodes can be seamlessly added

Disadvantages:

Only works when connected to the node network

Expensive to set up

Real-time operating system

This operating system gives each program a given period, with any program that
would exceed that processing time being rejected. This maintains a strict
schedule of processes to ensure certain high importance tasks can always be
performed at a moment’s notice.
Real-time systems differ from time-sharing systems in how many processes can
be completed at once. Real-time operating systems complete only one process at
a time within a certain period. The process is interrupted if the processing time
exceeds its dedicated period. Time-sharing systems, on the other hand, switch
focus between multiple processes and are allowed to take multiple quantums to
complete.
These systems are widely used when responsiveness and strict schedules are
essential, such as in equipment for scientific experiments, air traffic control
systems, or defense systems.
When writing programs for a real-time system, you must know how long each
period is in your system and ensure your program is small enough to complete

Operating System: Interview Short Notes 14

 within that period.
Advantages:

Optimal resource use for each process

Very fast response time, usually just 3 microseconds

Small program size allows them to be embedded within other systems

Few errors

Disadvantages:

Only runs one process at a time

Achieving maximum efficiency is resource-intensive

Difficult to program for, each program must have interruptor conditions

throughout the program that stop the process if the period ends

Advanced OS concepts
Process scheduling
The CPU scheduler component in the resource allocation service can use one of 6
algorithms to decide on which process completes first. Each of these algorithms
is either preemptive or non-preemptive.
Preemptive schedulers use a priority system to influence processing. High-priority
processes are scheduled as soon as they reach the ready stage, even if another
process is currently running. If this happens, the high-priority process overrules
the lower priority process.
Below are the 3 common preemptive scheduling algorithms:

Shortest remaining time SRT The processor prioritizes processes closest

to completion. If a new process is added that has a lower completion time
than the current process, the new process is executed first. This is often used
with batch OS systems.

Operating System: Interview Short Notes 15

 Round-robin scheduling: The processor rotates each process, allowing each
a quantum of time processing. The process is interrupted once the quantum is
over and is then preempted by the next process. This algorithm is the
foundation of time-sharing operating systems.

Multiple-Level Queues Scheduling: Processes are broken into separate

queues, each with different scheduling algorithms. The processor alternates
between each queue and assigns processes based on the algorithm of their
home queue. This is often used when one system handles vastly different
processes that each call for a unique algorithm.

Non-preemptive schedulers don’t allow interruptions. Instead, a process cannot

be preempted once it has started. They may still use a priority system but high-
priority processes must still wait until the current process is complete before
beginning.

First in, first out FIFO The processor completes processes in the order they
came in. This is the simplest algorithm to implement but also results in the
slowest average processing time.

Shortest job next SJN The processor always queues the next shortest job.
This algorithm produces a very low processing time but cannot be
implemented unless both the duration of CPU availability and the processing
time of each process are known. SJN is the non-preemptive equivalent of the
shortest remaining time and is also used in batch OS systems.

Priority-based scheduling: Each process is assigned a priority based on a

preset resource-based factor such as memory usage or processing time.
Processes are then completed by the CPU in order of their priority. If multiple
processes have the same priority, the CPU executes them using the FIFO
algorithm. This is one of the most widely used scheduling algorithms.

Threads and multithreading

A thread is the smallest sequence of programmed instructions and is the main
component of any process. Each thread completes a particular command. When
all threads are complete, the process has been fully executed.
Multiple threads can exist in one process and each share data and memory space
between all threads in the process. Threads can be completed one at a time or

Operating System: Interview Short Notes 16

 concurrently using either context switching or multiple CPU cores.

Processes vs. Threads

Processes Threads
S.No.

1. Processes are independent Threads are a subset of processes

Processes carry more unique information Multiple threads within a process share
2.
than threads resources

Processes have separate memory

3. Threads share their address space
addresses
4. Processes context switch relatively slowly Threads context switch quickly

Virtualization
Virtualization is the technique of making virtual objects that behave as hardware,
such as the switching ability of time-sharing operating systems. The time-sharing
OS can complete multiple processes simultaneously by switching between them
rapidly.
Normally, a computer would need two individual CPUs to complete processes
concurrently. As a result, a time-sharing OS achieves virtualization by using rapid
process switching to emulate an additional CPU.
Virtualization can simulate entire OS instances with individually assigned sections
of the host resources, data, and devices for each container. These containers are
isolated from the host machine and all other hosted virtual machines (VMs). This
larger scale of virtualization is called operating-system-virtualization or, more
commonly, containerization.

Programs run on these containers as though they are a true operating system.
They access resources allocated to the container and execute processes using a
containerized scheduler.
Virtualization, therefore, grants the ability to run multiple concurrent programs
in separate containers while all being hosted on the same physical machine.

Operating System: Interview Short Notes 17

 This gives developers a high level of control over OS container environments. By
controlling container environments, developers can test programs on different
kinds of operating systems or simulate hardware environments all on the same
machine. Also, programs are more efficient when using concurrent programs
across multiple VMs.
Advantages:

Access to multiple operating systems on the same physical machine

Isolated failure, the host system will continue to function even if one or more
of the hosted VMs crash

Virtual machines are secure, malware is quarantined to individual VMs and

cannot damage other OS containers

Lower maintenance cost than an equivalent number of physical machines

Disadvantages:

VMs are less efficient than equivalent physical machines as VMs must
indirectly request hardware use through the host OS

Resources are divided among different VMs meaning most machines can only
efficiently run a few at a time

Reference:
Educative.io
If you don’t know Educative is another online learning platform that is gaining a
lot of traction for its text-based, interactive learning courses. Reading is
generally faster than watching and If you prefer reading text than watching
videos then this is the platform to checkout.
If you are preparing/appearing for interviews, then I would highly recommend
Grokking the Coding Interview: Patterns for Coding Questions.

Operating System: Interview Short Notes 18