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Unit 1 (Coa) Notes

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UNIT-1(COA)-NOTES

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UNIT-1
What is Computer Architecture and Organization?
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In general this document
terms, the architecture of a computer system can be considered as a catalogue of tools or
attributes that are visible to the user such as instruction sets, number of bits used for data, addressing

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techniques, etc.

Whereas, Organization of a computer system defines the way system is structured so that all those
catalogued tools can be used. The significant components of Computer organization are ALU, CPU,

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memory and memory organization.
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Digital Computers:

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A Digital computer can be considered as a digital system that performs various computational tasks.

The first electronic digital computer was developed in the late 1940s and was used primarily for
numerical computations.
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By convention, the digital computers use the binary number system, which has two digits: 0 and 1. A
binary digit is called a bit.

A computer system is subdivided into two functional entities: Hardware and Software.
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The hardware consists of all the electronic components and electromechanical devices that comprise
the physical entity of the device.

The software of the computer consists of the instructions and data that the computer manipulates to
perform various data-processing tasks.

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o The Central Processing Unit (CPU) contains an arithmetic and logic unit for manipulating data,
a number of registers for storing data, and a control circuit for fetching and executing
instructions.
o The memory unit of a digital computer contains storage for instructions and data.
o The Random Access Memory (RAM) for real-time processing of the data.
o The Input-Output devices for generating inputs from the user and displaying the final results to
the user.
o

o The Input-Output devices connected to the computer include the keyboard, mouse, terminals,
magnetic disk drives, and other communication devices.

Computer organization :Computer organization is concerned with the way the hardware
o

components operate and the way they are connected together to form the computer system. The
o

variousThe
components are assumed
Central Processing to be contains
Unit (CPU) in place an
and the taskand
arithmetic is to investigate
logic the organizational
unit for manipulating data,
o
structure to verify that the computer parts op erate as intended.
a number of registers for storing data, and a control circuit for fetching and executing
o
instructions.
Computer design :Computer design is concerned with the hardware design of the computer. Once
the computer specifications
The memory unit of a are formulated,
digital computeritcontains
is the task of thefor
storage designer to develop
instructions hardware for the
and data.
system. Computer design is concerned with the determination of what hardware should be used and
The Random Access Memory (RAM) for real-time processing of the data.
how the parts should be connected. This aspect of computer hardware is sometimes referred to as
Theimplementation.
computer Input-Output devices for generating inputs from the user and displaying the final results to
the user.
The Input-Output devices connected to the computer include the keyboard, mouse, terminals,
magnetic disk drives, and other communication devices.

Computer organization :Computer organization is concerned with the way the hardware
components operate and the way they are connected together to form the computer system. The
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various components are assumed to be in place and the task is to investigate the organizational
structure to verify that the computer parts op erate as intended.

Computer design :Computer design is concerned with the hardware design of the computer. Once
the computer specifications are formulated, it is the task of the designer to develop hardware for the
Blockdiagramofadigitalcomputer:
system. Computer design is concerned with the determination of what hardware should be used and
how the parts should be connected. This aspect of computer hardware is sometimes referred to as
computer implementation.

Random-accessMemory
(RAM)

CentralProcessingUnit
(CPU)

Input Input-OutputProcessor Output

devices (IOP) devices

Computer architecture :Computer architecture is concerned with the structure and behavior of the
computer as seen by the user. It includes the information formats, the instruction set, and techniques
for addressing memory. The architectural design of a computer system is concerned with the
specifications of the various functional modules, such as processors and memories, and structuring
them together into a computer system.

Computer Architecture VS Computer Organization

Computer Architecture Computer Organization

Computer Architecture is concerned with Computer Organization is concerned

the way hardware components are with the structure and behaviour of a
connected together to form a computer computer system as seen by the user.
system.

It acts as the interface between hardware It deals with the components of a

and software. connection in a system.

Computer Architecture helps us to Computer Organization tells us how

understand the functionalities of a exactly all the units in the system are
system. arranged and interconnected.

A programmer can view architecture in Whereas Organization expresses the

terms of instructions, addressing modes realization of architecture.
and registers.

While designing a computer system An organization is done on the basis

architecture is considered first. of architecture.

Computer Architecture deals with high- Computer Organization deals with

level design issues. low-level design issues.

Architecture involves Logic (Instruction Organization involves Physical

sets, Addressing modes, Data types, Components (Circuit design, Adders,
Cache optimization) Signals, Peripherals)

Register Transfer Language

A digital computer system exhibits an interconnection of digital modules such as registers, decoders,
arithmetic elements, and Control logic.

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These digital modules are interconnected with some common data and control paths to form a
complete digital system.

Moreover, digital modules are best defined by the registers and the operations that are performed on
the data stored in them.

The operations performed on the data stored in registers are called Micro-operations.Stay

The internal hardware organization of a digital system is best defined by specifying:

o The set of registers and the flow of data between them.

o The sequence of micro-operations performed on the data which are stored in the registers.
o The control paths that initiates the sequence of micro-operation

The Register Transfer Language is the symbolic representation of notations used to specify the
sequence of micro-operations.

In a computer system, data transfer takes place between processor registers and memory and
between processor registers and input-output systems. These data transfer can be represented by
standard notations given below:

o Notations R0, R1, R2..., and so on represent processor registers.

o The addresses of memory locations are represented by names such as LOC, PLACE, MEM, etc.
o Input-output registers are represented by names such as DATA IN, DATA OUT and so on.
o The content of register or memory location is denoted by placing square brackets around the
name of the register or memory location.

Register Transfer
The term Register Transfer refers to the availability of hardware logic circuits that can perform a given
micro-operation and transfer the result of the operation to the same or another register.

Most of the standard notations used for specifying operations on various registers are stated below.

o The memory address register is designated by MAR.

o Program Counter PC holds the next instruction's address.
o Instruction Register IR holds the instruction being executed.
o R1 (Processor Register).

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o We can also indicate individual bits by placing them in parenthesis. For instance, PC (8-15), R2
(5), etc.
o Data Transfer from one register to another register is represented in symbolic form by means
of replacement operator. For instance, the following statement denotes a transfer of the data
of register R1 into register R2.

R2 ← R1

o Typically, most of the users want the transfer to occur only in a predetermined control
condition. This can be shown by following if-then statement:
If (P=1) then (R2 ← R1); Here P is a control signal generated in the control section.
o It is more convenient to specify a control function (P) by separating the control variables from
the register transfer operation. For instance, the following statement defines the data transfer
operation under a specific control function (P).

P: R2 ← R1

The following image shows the block diagram that depicts the transfer of data from R1 to R2.

Here, the letter 'n' indicates the number of bits for the register. The 'n' outputs of the register R1 are
connected to the 'n' inputs of register R2.

Bus and Memory Transfers

A digital system composed of many registers, and paths must be provided to transfer information
from one register to another. The number of wires connecting all of the registers will be excessive if
separate lines are used between each register and all other registers in the system.

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A bus structure, on the other hand, is more efficient for transferring information between registers in
a multi-register configuration system.

A bus consists of a set of common lines, one for each bit of register, through which binary information
is transferred one at a time. Control signals determine which register is selected by the bus during a
particular register transfer.

The following block diagram shows a Bus system for four registers. It is constructed with the help of
four 4 * 1 Multiplexers each having four data inputs (0 through 3) and two selection inputs (S1 and
S0). 271Difference between JDK, JRE, and JVM

We have used labels to make it more convenient for you to understand the input-output
configuration of a Bus system for four registers. For instance, output 1 of register A is connected to
input 0 of MUX1.

The two selection lines S1 and S0 are connected to the selection inputs of all four multiplexers. The
selection lines choose the four bits of one register and transfer them into the four-line common bus.

When both of the select lines are at low logic, i.e. S1S0 = 00, the 0 data inputs of all four multiplexers
are selected and applied to the outputs that forms the bus. This, in turn, causes the bus lines to
receive the content of register A since the outputs of this register are connected to the 0 data inputs
of the multiplexers.

Similarly, when S1S0 = 01, register B is selected, and the bus lines will receive the content provided by
register B.

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