Unit 02: DC Circuits

Current-voltage relations of the electric network by mathematical equations to analyze the network,
(Thevenin’s theorem, Norton's Theorem,), Simplifications of networks using series-parallel, Star/Delta
transformation. (Numerical Treatment: Thevenin’s Theorem, Star-Delta Transformation)

Ohms Law:
Ohm’s law states the relationship between electric current and potential difference. The current that
flows through most conductors is directly proportional to the voltage applied to it. Georg Simon Ohm,
a German physicist was the first to verify Ohm’s law experimentally.

Ohm’s Law Explanation

Georg Simon Ohm, a German physicist

Definition: Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly
proportional to the current flowing through it, provided all physical conditions and
temperatures remain constant.
Mathematically, this current-voltage relationship is written as

In the equation, the constant of proportionality, R, is called Resistance and has units of ohms,
with the symbol Ω.
The same formula can be rewritten in order to calculate the current and resistance respectively as
follows:

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Ohm’s Law Equation: V = IR, where V is the voltage across the conductor, I is the
current flowing through the conductor and R is the resistance provided by the conductor
to the flow of current.
Ohm’s Law Pie Chart
To better understand the relationship between various parameters, we can take all the
equations used to find the voltage, current, resistance and power, and condense them
into a simple Ohm’s Law pie chart as shown below.

Ohm’s Law Applications

The main applications of Ohm’s law are:
• To determine the voltage, resistance or current of an electric circuit.
• Ohm’s law maintains the desired voltage drop across the electronic components.
• Ohm’s law is also used in DC ammeter and other DC shunts to divert the
current.

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Limitations of Ohm’s Law:
• Ohm’s law is not applicable for unilateral electrical elements like diodes and
transistors as they allow the current to flow through in one direction only.
• For non-linear electrical elements with parameters like capacitance, resistance
etc. the ratio of voltage and current won’t be constant with respect to time making
it difficult to use Ohm’s law.

Thevenin’s theorem:
Statement: Thevenin’s theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear
circuit, irrespective of how complex it is, to an equivalent circuit with a single
voltage source and a series resistance.

Figure: Thevenin’s Theorem

A Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in the image. In the image, we see that multiple
resistive circuit elements are replaced by a single equivalent resistance Rs and multiple
energy sources by an equivalent voltage source Vs.
Thevenin Theorem Applications
• Thevenin’s theorem is used in the analysis of power systems.
• Thevenin’s theorem is used in source modelling and resistance measurement
using the Wheatstone bridge.
Thevenin Theorem Limitations
• Thevenin’s theorem is used only in the analysis of linear circuits.
• The power dissipation of the Thevenin equivalent is not identical to the power
dissipation of the real system.
Dr. Pravin G. Dhawale (8208242880)
Q1. What is Thevenin’s Theorem?
Ans: Thevenin’s theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit,
irrespective of how complex it is, to an equivalent circuit with a single voltage source
and a series resistance.
Q2. What is Thevenin Voltage?
Ans: The open-circuit voltage that appears across the two terminals is the Thevenin
voltage.
Q3. Where is Thevenin’s Theorem used?
Ans: Thevenin’s theorem is used in the analysis of power systems.
Q4. Is Thevenin’s Theorem applicable to non-linear circuits?
Ans: No, Thevenin’s Theorem is not applicable to non-linear circuits.
Q5. Is Thevenin’s Theorem applicable to AC circuits?
Ans: Yes, Thevenin’s theorem applies to AC circuits.

Q. Find VTH, RTH and the load current IL flowing through and load voltage across
the load resistor in the circuit below using Thevenin’s Theorem.

Solution:
Step 1: Remove the 5 kΩ from the circuit.
Step 2: Measure the open-circuit voltage. This will give you the Thevenin’s voltage
(VTH).
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Step 3: We calculate Thevenin’s voltage by determining the current that flows through
12 kΩ and 4 kΩ resistors.
As both the resistors are in series, the current that flows across them can be calculated
as follows:
I = 48 V /(12 kΩ + 4 kΩ) = 3 mA
The voltage across the 4 kΩ resistors can be calculated as follows:
3 mA x 4 kΩ = 12 V
As there is no current flowing through the 8 kΩ resistor, so there is no voltage drop
across it and hence the voltage across the terminals AB is same as the voltage across the
4 kΩ resistor. Therefore, 12 V will appear across the AB terminals. Hence, the
Thevenin’s voltage, VTH = 12 V.
Step 4: Short the voltage sources as shown in the figure below:

Step 5: Calculate the Thevenin’s Resistance

By measuring the open circuit resistance, we can measure Thevenin’s resistance.
We notice that the 8 kΩ resistor is in series with the parallel connection of 12 kΩ and 4
kΩ resistors. Therefore, the equivalent resistance or the Thevenin’s resistance is
calculated as follows:
8kΩ + (4k Ω || 12kΩ)
RTH = 8 kΩ + [(4 kΩ x 12 kΩ) / (4 kΩ + 12 kΩ)]
RTH = 8 kΩ + 3 kΩ

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RTH = 11 kΩ
Step 6: Now, connect the RTH in series with Voltage Source VTH and the load resistor as
shown in the figure.

Step 7: For the last step, calculate the load voltage and load current using Ohm’s law
as follows:
IL = VTH / (RTH + RL)
IL = 12 V / (11 kΩ + 5 kΩ) = 12 V/16 kΩ = 0.75 mA
The load voltage is determined as follows:
VL = 0.75 mA x 5 kΩ = 3.75 V

Norton's Theorem Statement

It states that: "Any two terminal linear bilateral network containing a number of voltage
sources and resistances can be replaced by a simple equivalent circuit consisting of a
current source IN in parallel with a resistance RN.
Where,
IN or ISC = The short circuit current is supplied by the source. It is also called Norton's
current
RN = The equivalent resistance of the network as seen from the two terminals A and B.
It is also called Norton's resistance.
RL = Any load resistance.
Dr. Pravin G. Dhawale (8208242880)
Norton's analogous circuit is made up of Norton's resistance, RN, and Norton's current
source, IN. The current source is in parallel to the current source and resistor. Hence,
Norton's circuit can be described as similar to the current source.

The below figure shows the Norton's Theorem Equivalent Circuit Diagram obtained
from the simplification of any circuit by Norton's Theorem.

Norton’s Theorem and the Norton Equivalent Circuit

Norton’s theorem states that all linear circuits can be simplified to an equivalent circuit
with a single current source in parallel with a single resistor connected to a load.
• Step 1: Remove the load resistor and replace it with a short circuit.
• Step 2: Calculate the Norton current—the current through the short circuit.
• Step 3: Replace the power sources. All voltage sources are replaced with short
circuits, and all current sources are replaced with open circuits.
• Step 4: Calculate the Norton resistance—the total resistance between the open
circuit connection points after all sources have been removed.
• Step 5: Draw the Norton equivalent circuit, with the Norton current source in
parallel with the Norton resistance. The load resistor re-attaches between the
two open points of the equivalent circuit.
• Analyze the voltage and current for the load following the rules for parallel
circuits.

Dr. Pravin G. Dhawale (8208242880)

Q.1. Find Norton’s Equivalent resistance and Norton Current

Figure 1.
Step 1: Remove the Load Resistor
The first step is to identify the load resistance and remove it from the original circuit,
as shown in Figure.

Figure 2
Step 2: Calculate the Norton Current
To find the Norton current (for the current source in the Norton equivalent circuit), place
a direct wire (short circuit) connection between the load points and determine the
resultant current (Figure).

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Note that this step is opposite the respective step in Thevenin’s theorem, where we
replaced the load resistor with a break (open circuit) and calculated the voltage.
The current calculation is relatively straightforward for the circuit of the figure since
the node between R1 and R3 is now shorted to the negative terminal of both batteries.
Using Kirchhoff's current law (KCL), we know that:

Now, applying Ohm’s law to each of the individual branch currents:

We can solve for the short circuit current:

Step 3: Replace the Power Sources

To find the Norton resistance for our equivalent circuit, we can now replace the power
sources from our circuit in Figure 3, as shown in Figure.

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 Figure 4
The voltage sources are replaced with short circuits, and the current sources are replaced
with open circuits. This process of replacing the power supplies is identical to that used
for the superposition theorem and Thevenin’s theorem.
Step 4: Calculate the Nortan Resistance
After replacing the two voltage sources, the total resistance measured at the location of
the removed load is equal to R1 and R3 in parallel, as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5.
The Norton equivalent resistance is calculated as:
Dr. Pravin G. Dhawale (8208242880)
This value of 0.8 Ω is our Norton resistance (RNorton).
Step 5: Draw the Norton Equivalent Circuit
The simplified Norton equivalent circuit, shown in Figure 6, can now be used for
calculations for any linear load device connected between the connection points.

Figure 6. Norton equivalent circuit.

In this figure, we reattached our 2 Ω load resistor from the original circuit.
Using the Norton Equivalent Circuit
After following all of those steps, we can next analyze the Norton circuit, shown in
Figure 7, to determine the current through the load resistor and the voltage drop across
it. This is now simply two resistors in parallel, so we can determine the total resistance
seen by the Norton current source as follows:

Dr. Pravin G. Dhawale (8208242880)

Using the Table Method, we can plug the value for the total resistance into Table 1 and
then fill out the rest of the table. The load resistor has a current of 4.0 A and a voltage
drop of 8 V.

Example 2: In the network shown in figure, calculate the current through the load
resistor RL by using Norton’s Theorem.

Dr. Pravin G. Dhawale (8208242880)

Dr. Pravin G. Dhawale (8208242880)
Dr. Pravin G. Dhawale (8208242880)
Star/Delta transformation

STAR CONNECTION:

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DELTA CONNECTION:

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Q.1.

Dr. Pravin G. Dhawale (8208242880)

Dr. Pravin G. Dhawale (8208242880)
Dr. Pravin G. Dhawale (8208242880)
Dr. Pravin G. Dhawale (8208242880)
Dr. Pravin G. Dhawale (8208242880)
.

Dr. Pravin G. Dhawale (8208242880)