Module-3: DC Machines and Transformers

Module-3: DC Machines and Transformers

1. Construction of DC Machines

The construction of DC machine mainly consists of two parts i.e. are stator and rotor stator
consists of Yoke, Field System (Pole core, pole shoes & field coil), and rotor consists of
Armature (Armature core, Armature winding/conductor), commutator, brushes & bearings.

Fig1.1: Construction of DC machine

A. STATOR
1. Yoke or Frame

The yoke is the outer frame of the DC machine. It is made up of such materials that have high
permeability and high mechanical strength. In practice, the yoke of DC machine is made up of
cast steel.

The yoke or frame of the DC machine serves the following main purposes −

 It protects the internal machine parts like armature, windings, field poles, etc. against
mechanical damages.
 The yoke houses the magnetic field system.
 It provides a low reluctance path to the working magnetic flux.
 It supports the rotor or armature through bearings.

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 Module-3: DC Machines and Transformers

2. Field System

Field system is the part of a DC machine which produces the working magnetic flux in the
machine. It is basically a system of electromagnets which is excited by a DC supply. In case of
DC machine, the field system is a stationary part of the machine and it is bolted to the yoke or
frame of the machine. There are three main parts of a field system in dc machines namely pole
core, pole shoes, and field coils.

 The pole core is made up of thin steel laminations. One end of the pole core is bolted
to the frame and other end has pole shoe. The pole core carries the field winding.
 The pole shoe is a projected part of the pole core and has a large area of cross-section.
Pole shoes help in spreading the magnetic flux uniformly in the air gap, and offers low
reluctance path to the magnetic flux. Also, it supports the field winding.
 The field coil or winding is made up of copper wire. The field winding is former wound
and inserted around the pole core. When field windings are excited by DC supply, they
become electromagnets and produce magnetic flux in the machine.

B. ROTOR

1. Armature

In DC machines (motor or generator), armature is a system of conductors or coils that can rotate
freely on the supporting bearings. The working torque and EMF are developed in coils of the
armature. The armature consists of two main parts namely, armature core and armature
winding.

 The Armature core is a solid cylindrical structure, made up of high permeability thin
silicon steel laminations. On the outer periphery of the core slots are cut to carry the
armature winding.
 The Armature winding is made up of copper wires. The armature winding of DC
machine is generally former wound. Depending upon the end connections of the
armature conductors, the armature winding may be of two types namely lap
winding and wave winding. The type of winding decides the voltage and current rating
of the machine. In case of the lap winding, the number of parallel paths (A) for current
to flow are equal to the number of poles (P) in the machine. On the other hand, for wave
winding, the number of parallel paths (A) are equal to 2.

2. Commutator

The commutator is one of the important parts of the DC machine. It is basically mechanical
rectifier. It is a cylindrical shaped device and is made up of copper. The outer periphery of the
commutator has V-shaped slots to carry commutator segments. Where, the commutator
segments are copper bars inserted in the slots. These segments are insulated from each other
by mica. The commutator is mounted on the shaft of the DC machine on one side of the
armature. The armature conductors are connected to the commutator segments with the help of
copper lugs.

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The commutator performs the following two major functions −

 In a DC generator, it collects the current from the armature conductor. In a DC motor,

it supplies the current to the armature conductors.
 It converts the alternating current of the armature into unidirectional current in the
external circuit with the help of brushes, and vice-versa.

3. Brushes

Brushes are used to make an electrical connection with the rotating commutator. These collect
(or supply) current from (or to) the moving commutator. Brushes are usually made up of
carbon. They are housed in brush holders and are in contact with the commutator surface with
the help of spring pressure.

4. Bearings

Bearings are used in the DC machine to reduce the frictional losses. Thus, the main function
of bearings in the DC machine is to support the machine shaft with minimum friction. In DC
machines, ball bearings or roller bearings are commonly used.

2. Working of DC Machines

2.1 DC Generator:

The working principle of DC generator is based on the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic

induction. According to this law, when the magnetic flux liked to a conductor or coil changes
an EMF is induced in the conductor or coil. The magnitude of this induced EMF is given by,

𝑑∅
𝑒=𝑁
𝑑𝑡

Where, 𝜙 is the flux linkage of the coil and N is the number of turns in the coil.

In case of a DC generator, the magnetic flux (𝜙) remains stationary and the coil rotates. The
EMF induced where the coil is rotating and flux is stationary, is known as dynamically induced
EMF.

In order to understand the working principle of a DC generator, we consider a single loop DC

generator (i.e. N = 1) as shown in below figure. Here, the coil is rotated by some prime mover
(a source of mechanical energy), and there is a change in the magnetic flux linkage to the coil.

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Let ϕ be the average magnetic flux produced by each magnetic pole of the machine, then the
average induced EMF in the generator is given by,

Eav=dϕ/dt=Flux cut per sec by the coil

⇒Eav=Flux cut in one rotation × No. of rotations per sec
⇒Eav =(Flux per pole × No. of poles ) × No. of rotations per sec
∴Eav=ϕ×P×n⋅⋅⋅(2)

Where, P is the total number of poles in the generator and n is the speed of the coil in rotation
per second. The expression in the Equation-(2) gives the average induced EMF in a single
loop DC generator.

The following points explain the working principle of a DC generator −

 Position 1 − The induced EMF is zero because, the movement of coil sides is parallel
to the magnetic flux.
 Position 2 − The coil sides are moving at an angle to the magnetic flux, and hence a
small EMF is generated in the loop.
 Position 3 − The coil sides are moving at right angle to the magnetic flux, therefore the
induced EMF is maximum.
 Position 4 − The coil sides are cutting the magnetic flux at an angle, thus a reduced
EMF is induced in the coil sides.
 Position 5 − No flux linkage with the coil side and the coil sides are moving parallel to
the magnetic flux. Therefore, no EMF is induced in the coil.
 Position 6 − The coil sides move under a pole of opposite polarity and hence the
polarity of induced EMF is reversed. The maximum EMF will induce in this direction
at position 7 and zero when it is at position 1. This cycle repeats with rotation of the
coil.

In this way, EMF is induced in a DC generator. Though, this induced EMF is alternating in
nature, which is then converted in the unidirectional EMF by using a device
called commutator.

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The direction of induced EMF in the armature conductor of the DC generator is determined by
the Fleming’ right hand rule (FRHR) which we discussed in the module-2 (basic concepts).

2.2 DC Motor

DC Motor Working: The working principle of a DC motor is based on the law of

electromagnetic interaction. According to this law, whenever a current carrying conductor or
coil is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor or coil experiences an electromagnetic force.

The magnitude of this force is given by,

F=BIL

Where,

 B is the magnetic flux density,

 I is the current flowing in the conductor or coil, and
 L is length of the conductor.

When terminals of this DC motor are connected to an external source of DC supply, the
following two phenomenon happen inside the machine −

 The field electromagnets are excited developing alternate N and S poles.

 The armature conductors carry electric currents. Where, conductors under N-pole carry
currents in one direction (say inside of the plane of the paper), while conductors under
S-pole carry currents in the opposite direction (say outward of the plane of the paper).

Since, in this case, each conductor is carrying a current and is placed in a magnetic field. Due
to the interaction between the current and magnetic field, a mechanical force acts on the
conductor.

By applying Fleming’s left hand rule, it is clear that the mechanical force on each conductor is
tending to move the conductor in the anticlockwise direction. The mechanical forces on all the
conductors add together to produce a driving torque that sets the armature rotating.

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When the conductor moves from one pole side to the other, the current in that conductor is
reversed due to commutation action, and at the same time, it comes under the influence of the
next pole of opposite polarity. As a result, the direction of the force on the conductor remains
the same. In this way, the armature of a DC motor rotates continuously in one direction.

3. EMF equation of DC generator

The expression which gives the magnitude of EMF generated in a DC generator is called EMF
equation of DC generator. We shall now drive the expression for the EMF induced in a DC
generator.

Let,

 ϕ = flux per pole

 P = number of poles in the generator
 Z = no.of armature coductors
 A = no.of parallel paths
 N = speed of armature in RPM
 E = EMF generated

Thus, the magnetic flux (in weber) cut by a conductor in one revolution of the armature is
given by,

𝑑∅ = 𝑃 × ∅
If N is the number of revolution per minute, it makes N revolutions in one minute, it makes
N/60 revolutions in one second. then time (in seconds) taken complete one revolution is,

60
𝑑𝑡 =
𝑁
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the EMF induced per conductor is
given by,

𝑑∅ 𝑃∅ 𝑃∅𝑁
𝑒= = =
𝑑𝑡 60⁄ 60
𝑁

The total EMF generated in the generator is equal to the EMF per parallel path, which is the
product of EMF per conductor and the number of conductors in series per parallel path as the
armature has Z number of conductors and A is number of parallel path then,net emf generated
in dc machine is given by

E = emf per conductor × number of conductors in series per parallel path

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𝑍 𝑃∅𝑁𝑍
=𝑒 × ( ) = … … … … (1)
𝐴 60𝐴

Equation (1) is called the EMF equation of DC generator.

For wave winding,

Number of parallel paths, A=2

𝑃∅𝑁𝑍
∴𝐸 =
120
For lap winding,
Number of parallel paths, A=P
∅𝑁𝑍
∴𝐸 =
60

For a given DC generator, Z, P and A are constant so that the generated EMF (E) is directly
proportional to flux per pole (ϕ) and speed of armature rotation (N).

Back EMF
When the current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, the torque induces on the
conductor, the torque rotates the conductor which cuts the flux of the magnetic field. According
to the Electromagnetic Induction Phenomenon “when the conductor cuts the magnetic field,
EMF induces in the conductor”. the direction of the induced emf is opposite to the applied
voltage. Thereby the emf is known as the counter emf or back emf.
The magnitude of the back emf is given by the same expression shown below:
𝑃∅𝑁𝑍
𝐸𝑏 =
60𝐴
A simple conventional circuit diagram of the machine working as a motor is shown in the
diagram below:

Since Back emf opposes the applied voltage across the armature, the net voltage acting in the
armature circuit is the difference between the two (i.e. 𝑉 − 𝐸𝑏 ).

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4. Classification of DC Motor
4.1 Separately Excited DC Generator
A DC generator whose field winding or coil is energised by a separate or external DC source
is called a separately excited DC Generator. The flux produced by the poles depends upon the
field current with the unsaturated region of magnetic material of the poles. i.e. flux is directly
proportional to the field current. But in the saturated region, the flux remains constant.

Fig 4.1: Separately Excited DC motor

4.2 Shunt Wound Motor

This is the most common types of DC Motor. Here the field winding is connected in parallel
with the armature as shown in the figure below:

Fig 4.2: DC shunt wound motor

In shunt wound DC motor, this current supply will divide into two different ways like Ia, &
Ish, where ‘Ia’ will supply all through the ‘Ra’ resistance armature winding. Similarly, ‘Ish’
will supply through the ‘Rsh’ resistance field winding.
The total current from supply is I = Ish + Ia
V
Current through shunt field winding is Ish =
Rsh

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The supply voltage is given by;

𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
We know that back emf ;
𝑃∅𝑁𝑍
𝐸𝑏 =
60𝐴

Mechanical power developed is given by;

𝑃𝑚 = 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎
4.3 Series Wound Motor

In the series motor, the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding. The
connection diagram is shown below:

Fig 4.3: DC Series wound motor

The total current from supply is I = Ise = Ia

The supply voltage is given by;

𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑠𝑒 )
We know that back emf ;
𝑃∅𝑁𝑍
𝐸𝑏 =
60𝐴
Mechanical power developed is given by;

𝑃𝑚 = 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎

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4.4 Compound Wound Motor

A DC Motor having both shunt and series field windings is called a Compound Motor. The
connection diagram of the compound motor is shown below:

Fig 4.4: DC compound motor

The compound motor is further subdivided as Cumulative Compound Motor and Differential
Compound Motor.
 In a cumulative compound motor, the flux produced by both the windings is in the same
direction, i.e.

 In differential compound motor, the flux produced by the series field windings is
opposite to the flux produced by the shunt field winding, i.e.

5. Characteristics of DC Motors
Generally, three characteristic curves are considered important for DC motors which are,
(i) Torque vs. armature current (T⁄Ia )
(ii) Speed vs. armature current (N⁄Ia )
(iii) Speed vs. torque. (N⁄T)

5.1 Characteristics of DC Shunt Motors

a) Torque vs. armature current (𝐓⁄𝐈𝐚 )
In case of DC shunt motors, we can assume the field flux ɸ to be constant. As we are
neglecting the change in the flux ɸ, we can say that torque is proportional to armature

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 Module-3: DC Machines and Transformers

current. Hence, the Ta-Ia characteristic for a dc shunt motor will be a straight line
through the origin.

Fig.5.1(a) Torque vs. armature current (T⁄Ia ) characteristics

b) Speed vs. armature current (𝐍⁄𝐈𝐚 )

As flux ɸ is assumed to be constant, we can say N ∝ Eb. But, as back emf is also almost
constant, the speed should remain constant. But practically, ɸ as well as Eb decreases with
increase in load. Back emf Eb decreases slightly more than ɸ, therefore, the speed
decreases slightly. Generally, the speed decreases only by 5 to 15% of full load speed.
Therefore, a shunt motor can be assumed as a constant speed motor. In speed vs.
armature current characteristic in the following figure, the straight horizontal line
represents the ideal characteristic and the actual characteristic is shown by the dotted line.

Fig.5.1(b) N⁄Ia characteristics

c) Speed vs. torque. (𝐍⁄𝐓)

This characteristic is also called as mechanical characteristic. From the above
two characteristics of DC shunt motor, it can be found that, the speed decreases slightly,
when torque increases.

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Fig.5.1(c) N⁄T characteristics

5.2 Characteristics of DC Series Motors

a) Torque vs. armature current (𝐓⁄𝐈𝐚 )
In DC series motor the torque is directly proportional to the product of armature current
and field flux, Ta ∝ ɸ.Ia. In DC series motors, field winding is connected in series with
the armature, i.e. Ia = If. Therefore, before magnetic saturation of the field, flux ɸ is
directly proportional to Ia. Hence, before magnetic saturation Ta α Ia2. Therefore, the Ta-
Ia curve is parabola for smaller values of Ia.

Fig.5.2(a) T⁄Ia characteristics

b) Speed vs. armature current (𝐍⁄𝐈𝐚 )

We know the relation, N ∝ Eb/ɸ

For small load current (and hence for small armature current) change in back emf Eb is
small and it may be neglected. Hence, for small currents speed is inversely proportional
to ɸ. As we know, flux is directly proportional to Ia, speed is inversely proportional to Ia.
Therefore, when armature current is very small the speed becomes dangerously high. That
is why a series motor should never be started without some mechanical load.

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Fig.5.2(b) N⁄Ia characteristics

d) Speed vs. torque. (𝐍⁄𝐓)

This characteristic is also called as mechanical characteristic. From the above
two characteristics of DC series motor, it can be found that when speed is high, torque
is low and vice versa.

Fig.5.2(c) N⁄T characteristics

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Single phase Transformers

A transformer is a static electrical device that transmits AC power from one circuit to
another at a constant frequency, but the voltage level may be changed, implying that
voltage can be increased or decreased depending on the requirement.
A transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction to step up or step
down voltage. Transformer either increases AC voltage (Step-up transformer) or
decreases AC voltage (Step-down transformer). Transformer which is normally utilized
in the transmission and distribution of alternating current power is fundamentally a
voltage control device

Construction: A transformer consists of three major parts namely a primary winding, a

secondary winding and a magnetic core. The primary winding is one that used to input
the supply and secondary winding is one that used to take output. The magnetic core is
used to confine the magnetic flux to a definite path.
 Core: core is made up of thin Silicon steel laminations assembled together to provide
continuous magnetic path. Silicon Steel material used to minimize hysteresis loss and
laminations are provided to minimize eddy current loss, these laminations are insulated
from each other by a light coat of varnish or by an oxide layer on the surface. Thickness
of laminations varies for 0.35 mm to 0.5 mm for a frequency of 50 Hz.
 Windings: Basically a transformer consists of two inductive windings that are primary
winding and secondary winding, the primary winding is connected to supply and
secondary is winding is connected to load. These coils are insulated from each other as
well as from the steel core

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Working Principle: The basic principle behind working of a transformer is the

phenomenon of mutual induction between two windings linked by common magnetic flux.
The figure at right shows the simplest form of a transformer. Basically a transformer
consists of two inductive coils; primary winding and secondary winding. The coils are
electrically separated but magnetically linked to each other. When, primary winding is
connected to a source of alternating voltage, alternating magnetic flux is produced around
the winding. The core provides magnetic path for the flux, to get linked with the secondary
winding. Most of the flux gets linked with the secondary winding which is called as 'useful
flux' or main 'flux', and the flux which does not get linked with secondary winding is called
as 'leakage flux'. As the flux produced is alternating (the direction of it is continuously
changing), EMF gets induced in the secondary winding according to Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. This emf is called 'mutually induced emf', and the frequency of
mutually induced emf is same as that of supplied emf. If the secondary winding is closed
circuit, then mutually induced current flows through it, and hence the electrical energy is
transferred from one circuit (primary) to another circuit (secondary).

Types of transformers Transformers can be classified on different basis, like types of

construction, types of cooling etc. On the basis of construction, transformers can be
classified into two types as; (i) Core type transformer and (ii) Shell type transformer, which
are described below

(i) Core type transformer: In core type transformer, windings are cylindrical
former wound, mounted on the core limbs as shown in the figure above. The
cylindrical coils have different layers and each layer is insulated from each
other. Materials like paper, cloth or mica can be used for insulation. Low voltage
windings are placed nearer to the core, as they are easier to insulate.
(ii) Shell type transformer: The coils are former wound and mounted in layers
stacked with insulation between them. A shell type transformer may have simple
rectangular form (as shown in above fig), or it may have a distributed form

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EMF Equation of a Transformer

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer, alternating flux
ϕm sets up in the iron core of the transformer. This sinusoidal flux links with both primary and
secondary winding. The function of flux is a sine function.

Let

 ϕm be the maximum value of flux in Weber

 f be the supply frequency in Hz
 N1 is the number of turns in the primary winding
 N2 is the number of turns in the secondary winding

Let E1 be the emf induced in the primary winding

d∅
E1 = −N1 … … … (1)
dt
We know that, ∅ = ∅𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

Substituting value of ∅ in equation (1)

……..(2)

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So the induced emf lags flux by 90 degrees.

Maximum valve of emf will be

………. (3)

But w = 2πf

…….(4)

Root mean square RMS value is

…… (5)
Putting the value of E1max in equation (5) we get

……. (6)
Putting the value of π = 3.14 in the equation (6) we will get the value of E1 as

…….(7)
Similarly

….(8)

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Now, equating the equation (7) and (8) we get

The above equation is called the turn ratio (K), where 1/K is known as the transformation
ratio.

Losses in transformer

The following power losses may occur in a practical transformer:

1. Iron Loss or Core Loss
2. Copper Loss or I2 R Loss
3. Stray Loss
4. Dielectric Loss

1. Iron Loss or Core Loss: Iron loss occurs in the magnetic core of the transformer due to
flow of alternating magnetic flux through it. For this reason, the iron loss is also
called core loss. We generally use the symbol (Pi) to represent the iron loss. The iron
loss consists of hysteresis loss (Ph) and eddy current loss (Pe). Thus, the iron loss is
given by the sum of the hysteresis loss and eddy current loss, i.e.

Iron loss, Pi=Hysteresis loss(Ph)+Eddy current loss(Pe)

The hysteresis loss and eddy current loss (or iron loss) are determined by performing
the open-circuit test on the transformer.

The empirical formulae for the hysteresis loss and eddy current loss are given by,

𝑥
𝐻𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠(𝑃ℎ) = 𝑘ℎ 𝑓𝐵𝑚

2 2 2
𝐸𝑑𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠(𝑃𝑒) = 𝑘𝑒 𝐵𝑚 𝑓 𝑡

Where,

 The exponent of Bm, i.e. "x" is called the Steinmetz’s constant. Depending on the
properties of the core material, its value is ranging from 1.5 to 2.5.
 kh is a proportionality constant whose value depends upon the volume and quality of
the material of core.
 ke is a proportionality constant which depend on the volume and resistivity of material
of the core.

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 f is the frequency of the alternating flux in the core.

 Bm is the maximum flux density in the core.
 t is the thickness of each core lamination.

Therefore, the total iron loss or core loss can also be written as,
𝑥 2 2 2
𝑃𝑖 =𝑘ℎ 𝑓𝐵𝑚 + 𝑘𝑒 𝐵𝑚 𝑓 𝑡

2. Copper Loss or I2R Loss: Power loss in a transformer that occurs in both the primary and
secondary windings due to their Ohmic resistance is called copper loss or I2R loss. We usually
represent the copper loss by PC. Therefore, the total copper loss in a transformer is the sum of
power loss in the primary winding and power loss in the secondary winding, i.e.,

PC=Copper loss in primary+ Copper loss in secondary

⇒𝑃𝐶 = 𝐼12 𝑅1 + 𝐼22 𝑅2

3. Stray Loss: In practical transformer, a fraction of the total flux follows a path through air
and this flux is called leakage flux. This leakage flux produces eddy currents in the conducting
or metallic parts like tank of the transformer. These eddy currents cause power loss, which is
known as stray loss.

4. Dielectric Loss: The power loss occurs in insulating materials like oil, solid insulation of
the transformer, etc. is known as dielectric loss. The dielectric loss is significant only in
transformers working on high voltages.

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Numericals:

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