Experiment no 1

Familiarization with Analog, Digital Multimeters, Function

Generator and Oscilloscope

OBJECTIVES:

 To study about Digital and Analog Multimeters.

 To study about Function Generator.
 To study about Analog Oscilloscope and observe basic waveforms on CRO

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

 Digital Multimeter
 Analog Multimeter
 Function Generator
 Bread Board
 Probes for Oscilloscope and Function Generator
 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

INTRODUCTION:

The purpose of this experiment is to become familiar with Analog and Digital Multimeter and
to use it to make voltage, current, and resistance measurements along with the understanding
of Function generator and Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) operation.

MULTIMETER:

All voltmeters, ammeters, and ohmmeters make measurements by means of a two terminal
connection to a circuit or circuit element under test. All voltmeters, ammeters, and ohmmeters
have at least two jacks into which only two test probes are inserted. If there are more than two
jacks on the face of a particular meter, there is usually an indication of some sort, next to each
jack, to inform the user which jacks to use to measure a particular quantity. Many times a
voltmeter, an ammeter, and an ohmmeter are combined into one package called a multimeter.

a b c

Figure 1: a) Analog Voltmeter b) Analog Ammeter c) Analog Ohmmeter

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Voltmeter:

A voltmeter measures electrical potential between its terminals. Voltmeters are always placed
in parallel with the circuit or circuit element where the voltage measurement is desired. Since
the voltage across two or more parallel elements is the same, the voltage measured by the meter
will be the same as the element to which the meter is connected. When using a non-auto-
ranging meter, select the highest possible range and reduce the range as necessary until the
desired level of accuracy is reached. Always start with a range higher than the expected value
to prevent damage to the meter.

Ammeter:

An ammeter measures the current that flows between its terminals. An ammeter is always
placed in series with the circuit or circuit element where the current flow is of interest. Since
the current in each element of a series circuit is the same, the current flow through the meter
will be the same as the current flow to the element of interest. Never connect an ammeter in
parallel unless you intend to measure the short circuit current of a circuit or circuit
element and you have made sure that destructive current levels won’t be reached. When
using a non-auto-ranging meter, select the highest possible range and reduce the range as
necessary until the desired level of accuracy is reached. Always start with a range higher than
the expected value to prevent damage to the meter.

Ohmmeter :

An ohmmeter measures the electrical resistance between its terminals. An ohmmeter is

connected to the circuit or circuit element of interest after the element of interest has been
isolated from the rest of the circuit. The element of interest has to be isolated from the rest of
the circuit so that its resistance value isn’t obscured by the resistance values of the other circuit
components connected to the element of interest.

Never connect an ohmmeter to an energized circuit or the meter could be destroyed. There
is an additional caveat for an analog ohmmeter; it has to be zeroed every time the resistance
range is changed. To zero the analog ohmmeter, touch its probes together (the needle will
deflect to approximately full scale, use the “zeroing” knob to adjust the needle to read zero.
The analog meter can now be used in this particular range.

Zeroing Needle-Indicating Meters:

Before meters with mechanical needle displays can used the displays need to be zeroed. This
procedure is performed with the piece of equipment turned off and the equipment placed in the
position where it will be used. Use a screw driver to turn the adjusting screw near the base of
the needle until the needle is on the zero mark.

Never connect any meter to any circuit before adjusting the function and range controls
appropriately.

Multimeters come in two flavors: analog and digital. Analog meters have a display that consists
of a needle which points to a number scale. These meters have function and range controls
which allow the user to select what kind of meter (voltmeter, ammeter, or ohmmeter) the
multimeter will be and what range of values the meter will read.

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 Figure 2: Analog Multimeter

Digital multimeters typically have a LCD or LED display and in many cases are auto-ranging.
That is, the meter will automatically select the most appropriate range for making the
measurement. In this lab either an analog or a digital meter can be used with little difference in
operation.

Figure 3: Digital Multimeter

Breadboard:

A breadboard is used to make up temporary circuits for testing or to try out an idea. No
soldering is required so it is easy to change connections and replace components. Parts will not
be damaged so they will be available to re-use afterwards.

Almost all the Electronics Club projects started life on a breadboard to check that the circuit
worked as intended. The photograph shows a typical small breadboard which is suitable for
beginners building simple circuits with one or two ICs (chips). Larger sizes are available and
you may wish to buy one of these to start with.

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 Figure 4: A Bread Board

OSCILLOSCOPE:

An oscilloscope is easily the most useful instrument available for testing circuits because it
allows you to see the signals at different points in the circuit. The best way of investigating an
electronic system is to monitor signals at the input and output of each system block, checking
that each block is operating as expected and is correctly linked to the next. With a little practice,
you will be able to find and correct faults quickly and accurately.

The function of an oscilloscope is extremely simple: it draws a V/t graph, a graph of voltage
against time, voltage on the vertical or Y-axis, and time on the horizontal or X-axis. The simple
graph of Oscilloscope tells us many things about the signal such as:

 The time and voltage values of a signal

 The frequency of an oscillating signal
 The “moving parts” of a circuit represented by the signal
 The frequency with which a particular portion of the signal is occurring relative to other
portions
 Whether or not a malfunctioning component is distorting the signal
 How much of a signal is direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC)
 How much of the signal is noise and whether the noise is changing with time

Figure 5: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

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Display Group:

This group is used to display and adjust the signal for optimal viewing. It consists of the
display screen, the intensity-control knob, the beam-find button, the focus-control knob,
and the power switch.

The display screen is laid out in a 8 by 10 centimeter grid. The oscilloscope draws a ‘trace’ or
graph by moving an electron beam across the phosphor coating on the inside of the cathode-
ray tube (CRT). The excited phosphorous glows for a short period of time, thereby tracing the
path of the beam.

The intensity-control knob is used to adjust the brightness of the trace. The level should be
set to the user's preference; however, increasing the intensity beyond a certain point will make
the trace "fuzzy." The intensity level should never be increased past the point where the trace
has sharply defined edges.

The beam-find button allows the user to locate the electron beam anytime it's off-screen. Push
the beam find button to temporarily reduce the vertical and horizontal deflection voltages so
that the beam always appears within the 8 by 10 centimeter screen.

The focus-control knob adjusts the electron beam for optimal trace resolution.

Vertical Group:

This group is used to adjust the vertical components (Y-axis) and the vertical position of the
signal. This group consists of the vertical-position knobs, channel-selector switch, volts-
per-division selector knobs, input-coupling switch, the channel-mode-selector switch, the
channel-2-invert switch, and the BNC connectors. Because the oscilloscope available in the
lab is a two channel oscilloscope, there is one set of switches for each channel.

 The vertical-position controls are used to vertically move the trace of one channel or
the other.
 The channel-selector switch, labeled ‘CH1/BOTH/CH2’, selects which channels are
displayed on the screen.
 The volts-per-division-selector knob sets the vertical scale for each channel's trace.
 Since a 10X probe is used in this lab, all readings should be made from the ‘10X’ box
on the knob.
 Each channel can have a different vertical scale.
 A division is one "block" on the screen.
 Each tick mark is one-fifth (0.2) of a division.
 This knob is marked in both volts and millivolts.
 The input-coupling switch, labeled ‘AC/GND/DC’, selects the coupling mode of that
channel's display. AC means that only the alternating portion of the signal is displayed.
DC will display both the alternating portion of the signal, plus any DC component.
GND shows the 0 V reference level.
 The trace-separation knob is used in conjunction with the horizontal-magnification
controls, to be discussed later.
 The channel-mode-selector switch, labeled ‘ADD/ALT/CHOP’, is activated only when
BOTH is selected on the channel-selector switch. ADD graphically adds the Channel 1
signal to the Channel 2 signal. If the channel-2-invert switch (‘NORMAL/INVERT’)

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 is set to INVERT, then ADD will in fact subtract the Channel 2 signal from the Channel
1 signal. ALT traces one channel, then the next. CHOP works like ALT, but jumps back
and forth between the two channels during a single trace.

Horizontal Control Group:

The Horizontal Control Group consists of the coarse and fine position knobs, the horizontal
magnification switch, the seconds-per-division-selector knob, and the magnification-scale-
selector switch.

 The coarse and fine-position-knobs allow the horizontal movement of the traces in a
rough manner and in a precise manner, respectively. These are used to position the
traces in a manner that makes measurement both more convenient and more precise.

The horizontal-magnification switch (‘X1/ALT/MAG’) selects the regular (X1) and/or a

horizontally magnified trace.

 The trace separation knob in the Vertical-Control Group allows for the vertical
separation of the X1 trace from the magnified trace when ALT is selected.
 If ALT or MAG is selected, then the magnification-scale-selector switch
(‘5X/10X/50X’) is activated.

The seconds-per-division knob sets the time base (horizontal) scale. It is marked in seconds,
milliseconds, and microseconds. Note: There is only one horizontal scale for both channels.

Trigger Group:

In order to display a signal, the oscilloscope must be able to ‘lock’ onto that signal; the
function of the triggering controls is to do just that. Triggering can be a complicated topic,
and is beyond the scope of this lab. For more details, the student is referred to the Tektronix
manual. The trigger group is made up of the trigger level knob, the rising/falling edge
switch, the trigger mode switch, the holdoff knob, the trigger source switches, and the
trigger coupling switch.

 The trigger-level knob sets the voltage level at which the oscilloscope will ‘trigger’.
If a signal is ‘running’ -- that is, not stable -- the trigger level may be too high or too
low for the oscilloscope to recognize the signal. Often you can lock in a running signal
by rotating this knob to the left and to the right. This adjustment provides a mechanism
for ignoring small (low voltage) signals that are well below the level of the signal you
ar interested in. This knob is not indexed.
 The rising/falling-edge switch selects whether the oscilloscope will trigger on the
positive (rising) or negative (falling) edge of the signal.
 The trigger-mode switch will normally be set to AUTO, but sometimes it is necessary
to use NORM. Other settings are not relevant to this lab.
 The holdoff knob affects the delay associated with triggering. The student should
consult the manual if more information is desired.
 The trigger-source switches select which signal the oscilloscope will attempt to lock
onto. Possible choices include CH1, CH2, VERT MODE, or EXTERNAL. Selecting
CH1 or CH2 will make the oscilloscope attempt to trigger on those channels. If no
input is available on that channel, there may be problems when attempting to view

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 both channels simultaneously. For this reason, it is recommended that this switch be
left on VERT MODE, which provides an automatic trigger on either CH1 or CH2.
 The trigger-coupling switch is another more complicated feature which will not be
discussed here. This switch should typically be set to AC

Setting Up / Calibrating an Oscilloscope for Nominal Operation:

First disconnect all input cables to your oscilloscope except the rear power cable.

Control Settings Notes

INPUTS DISCONNECTED
POWER ON Led Light is ON
INTENS(ITY) MID-RANGE
FOCUS MID-RANGE
(both knobs: A and B
Y-POS(ITION) MID-RANGE
channels)
X-POS(ITION) MID-RANGE
(fully clockwise) All 3
VAR(IABLE) CAL
knobs
HOLD OFF MIN(IMUM) (fully clockwise)
TRIG(GER) LEVEL MID-RANGE
LOCK OFF

Function Generator:

A function generator is a device that can produce various patterns of voltage at a variety of
frequencies and amplitudes. Most function generators allow the user to choose the shape of the
output from a small number of options.

Square wave - The signal goes directly from high to low voltage.
Sine wave - The signal curves like a sinusoid from high to low voltage.
Triangle wave - The signal goes from high to low voltage at a fixed rate.

The amplitude control on a function generator varies the voltage difference between the high
and low voltage of the output signal. The direct current (DC) offset control on a function
generator varies the average voltage of a signal relative to the ground. The frequency control
of a function generator controls the rate at which output signal oscillates.

Figure 6: Digital Function Generator 7

Readings and Exercises:

Task 1:

Measure the required DC Voltages and Resistance using Analog and Digital Multimeter

Measured with Analog Measured with

Sr. DC Voltages % Error
Multimeter DMM

1 5V

2 9V

3 12V

Measured with Analog Measured with

Sr. Resistances % Error
Multimeter DMM

1 1k Ohm

2 10k Ohm

3 100k Ohm

Task 2:

Calibrate the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope as per the procedure mentioned in the details before.
Sketch the Waveform in the Graph given below:

Volts/Div : _____________

Time/Div:______________

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Exercise:
Q.1: What is a Zero Error in measuring instruments?

Q.2: Define a term Calibration? Briefly describe the procedure for calibration of an
Oscilloscope

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 Lab Exercise and Summary
Summary should cover Introduction, Procedure, Data Analysis and Evaluation.

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Student’s Signature: ________________ Date: ________________

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 LABORATORY SKILLS ASSESMENT (Psychomotor)

Total Marks: 100

Criteria Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Score

(Max Marks) 0% ≤ S < 50% 50% ≤ S< 70% 70% ≤ S< 90% 90%≤ S ≤100% (S)
Procedural Selects Selects and Selects and applies Selects and
Awareness inappropriate applies the appropriate applies
(20) skills and/or appropriate skills strategies and/or appropriate
strategies and/or strategies skills specific to strategies and/or
required by the required by the the task without skills specific to
task task with some significant errors the task without
errors any error
Practical Makes several Makes few Makes some non- Applies the
Implementation critical errors in critical errors in critical errors in procedural
(30) applying applying applying knowledge in
procedural procedural procedural perfect ways
knowledge knowledge knowledge
Safety Requires Requires some Follows safety Routinely follows
(10) constant reminders to procedures with safety procedures
reminders to follow safety only minimal
follow safety procedures reminders
procedures
Use of Uses tools, Uses tools, Uses tools, Uses tools,
Tool/Equipment equipment and equipment and equipment and equipment and
(20) materials with materials with materials with materials with a
limited some competence considerable high degree of
competence competence competence
Participation Shows little Demonstrates Demonstrates Actively helps to
to Achieve commitment to commitment to commitment to identify group
Group Goals group goals and group goals, but group goals and goals and works
(10) fails to perform has difficulty carries out effectively to
assigned roles performing assigned roles meet them in all
assigned roles effectively roles assumed
Interpersonal Rarely interacts Interacts with Interacts with all Interacts
Skills in positively other group group members positively with all
Group Work within a group, members if spontaneously group members
(10) even with prompted and encourages
prompting such interaction in
others

Marks Obtained

Instructor’s Signature: ________________ Date: ________________

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 LABORATORY SKILLS ASSESMENT (Affective)
Total Marks: 40

Criteria Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Score

(Max. Marks) 0% ≤ S < 50% 50% ≤ S < 70% 70% ≤ S < 90% 90% ≤ S ≤ 100% (S)

Introduction Very little Introduction is Introduction is Introduction complete

(5) background brief with some nearly complete, and well-written;
information minor mistakes missing some minor provides all necessary
provided or points background principles
information is for the experiment
incorrect
Procedure Many stages of Many stages of The procedure could The procedure is well
(5) the procedure are the procedure be more efficiently designed and all stages
not entered on are entered on designed but most of the procedure are
the lab report. the lab report. stages of the entered on the lab
procedure are report.
entered on the lab
report.
Data Record Data is brief and Data provides Data is almost Data is complete and
(10) missing some significant complete but has relevant. Tables with
significant pieces information and some minor units are provided.
of information. has few critical mistakes. Graphs are labeled. All
mistakes. questions are answered
correctly.
Data Analysis Data is presented Data is Data is presented in Data are presented in
(10) in very unclear presented in ways (charts, tables, ways (charts, tables,
manner. Error ways (charts, graphs) that can be graphs) that best
analysis is not tables, graphs) understood and facilitate understanding
included. that are not clear interpreted. Error and interpretation.
enough. Error analysis is included. Error analysis is
analysis is included.
included.
Report Report contains Report is Report is well Report is well
Quality many errors. somewhat organized and organized and cohesive
(10) organized with cohesive but and contains no
some spelling or contains some grammatical errors.
grammatical grammatical errors. Presentation seems
errors. polished.

Marks Obtained

LABORATORY SKILLS ASSESSMENT (Cognitive)

Total Marks: 10
(If any)

Marks Obtained

Instructor’s Signature: ________________ Date: ________________

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