GRADUATE TRAINING SECTION REPORT

NAME : Galiwango Isaac

UNIQUE NUMBER : U2310007

Email : isaac.galiwango@umeme.co.ug

STATION : Lugogo

SECTION : Transformers

SUPERVISOR : Mr. Muligi Ronald

DURATION : 25th March 2024 - 12th May 2024

Declaration
I, Galiwango Isaac, hereby declare to the best of my knowledge that the work presented in this
report has not been presented for any award in any institution and has never been published
anywhere. All the work is original unless otherwise stated.

Name : Galiwango Isaac

Designation : Graduate Trainee Engineer
Signature : ……………………………………………
Date : ……………………………………………

Name : Mr. Muligi Ronald

Designation : Engineer Substations
Signature : ……………………………………………
Date : ……………………………………………

Name : Mr. Charles Magembe

Designation : Senior Substations Engineer
Signature : ……………………………………………
Date : ……………………………………………

Name : Mr. Fred Wandira

Designation : Principal Engineer Substations
Signature : ……………………………………………
Date : ……………………………………………

2|Page-
Acknowledgement
My training within the Transformers section has not been due to only my efforts but because of a
committed resilient team that has offered me endless technical support in all section activities. I
have learned from everyone and you have added a pillar to my career life which can’t go unnoticed.

Much more gratitude goes to Mr. Wandira Fred, Mr. Magembe Charles, Mr. Kaweesi Derrick, Mr.
Muligi Ronald, Mr. Kalule Edward, Mr. Lutaaya Ronald, Mr. Nathan Odeke, Mr. Ssebagala Titus
for their tremendous support throughout my entire training cycle. You offered me guidance , and
training and shared with me the different skills for the works executed within the section, and also
ensured all the necessary support was available to maneuver any huddles within the section.

I would like to also thank the entire primary plant section of Umeme Limited, it has been a
wonderful experience and I pray God grants all of you your hearty desires in whichever
undertakings you are involved in.

3|Page-
Table of Contents
Declaration..................................................................................................................................2

Acknowledgement ......................................................................................................................3

List of Figures .............................................................................................................................6

List of Tables ..............................................................................................................................7

Acronyms ...................................................................................................................................8

1.0 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................9

1.1 Substation ..........................................................................................................................9

1.1.1 Components of a Substation ........................................................................................9

1.1.2 Importance of a Substation ........................................................................................ 10

2.0 Literature Review ................................................................................................................ 11

2.1 Principle of Operation of a Transformer ........................................................................... 11

2.2 Classification of Transformers ......................................................................................... 12

2.2.1 Classification Based on Voltage Level....................................................................... 12

2.2.2 Classification Based on the core material used........................................................... 13

2.2.3 Classification Based on the point of Application ........................................................ 13

2.3 Parts of a transformer ....................................................................................................... 15

2.4 Losses in Transformers .................................................................................................... 19

2.4.1 Core Losses ............................................................................................................... 19

2.4.2 Copper Losses ........................................................................................................... 20

2.4.3 Dielectric Losses ....................................................................................................... 20

2.5 Transformer Cooling ........................................................................................................ 20

2.5.1 Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN) ............................................................................... 20

2.5.2 Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF) ................................................................................. 21

2.5.3 Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF) .................................................................................. 22

4|Page-
 2.5.4 Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF) ............................................................................. 22

2.6 Protection of Transformer ................................................................................................ 23

2.7 Protection Scheme in Transformers .................................................................................. 23

2.8 Transformer Properties ................................................................................................ 26

2.9 Test Processes of Transformers ........................................................................................ 28

2.9.1 Types of transformer Tests ........................................................................................ 28

3.0 Practical Work Done ........................................................................................................... 32

3.1 Testing and Inspection of Distribution Transformer at stores premises ............................. 32

3.1.1 Lessons Learnt .......................................................................................................... 34

3.2 Routine Maintenance of Power and Auxiliary Transformers ............................................ 34

3.2.1 Lessons Learnt .......................................................................................................... 35

4.0 Challenges, Recommendations and References.................................................................... 36

4.1 Challenges ....................................................................................................................... 36

4.2 Recommendation ............................................................................................................. 36

4.3 References ....................................................................................................................... 36

5|Page-
List of Figures
Figure 1-2: Classification of transformers. ................................................................................. 12
Figure 2-2: Step-up and step-down transformer windings respectively. ..................................... 12
Figure 2-3: Core type transformers. ........................................................................................... 13
Figure 2-4: Shell-type transformers. .......................................................................................... 13
Figure 2-5: Auto-Transformer. .................................................................................................. 14
Figure 2-6: Parts of a power transformer. .................................................................................. 15
Figure 2-7: Transformer tank..................................................................................................... 17
Figure 2-8: On-load tap changer. ............................................................................................... 18
Figure 2-9: Buchholz relay. ...................................................................................................... 18
Figure 2-10: Silica gel Breather. ................................................................................................ 19
Figure 2-11: ONAN heat dissipation mechanism. ...................................................................... 21
Figure 2-12: ONAF heat dissipation mechanism. ...................................................................... 21
Figure 2-13: OFAF heat dissipation mechanism. ....................................................................... 22
Figure 14: OFWF heat dissipation mechanism. ......................................................................... 22
Figure 2-15: Differential protection of transformers. ................................................................. 24
Figure 2-16: Buchholz relay configuration. ............................................................................... 25
Figure 2-17: An ‘ideal’ insulation resistance (IR) value. ........................................................... 29
Figure 2-18: IR trends for ‘good’ and ‘poor’ insulation. ............................................................ 30
Figure 3-19: Carrying out Insulation Resistance Test................................................................. 33

6|Page-
List of Tables
Table 2-1: Parts of the transformer named. ................................................................................ 16

7|Page-
Acronyms
CT Current Transformer

LV Low Voltage

AC Alternating Current

DC Direct Current

SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

ONAN Oil Natural Air Natural

ONAF Oil Natural Air Forced

OFWF Oil Forced Water Forced

HV High Voltage

IR Insulation Resistance

OLTC On Load Tap Changer

8|Page-
1.0 Introduction
Transformers is a section within primary plants and systems tasked with maintaining, servicing,
and repairing both power and distribution transformers at the substations, testing distribution
transformers in the stores, and ensuring proper ambiance within the substation.

1.1 Substation
A substation is an integral part of an electrical power system where voltage levels are transformed
controlled and distributed to consumers. The primary function of a substation is to convert the high
voltage of power generated at a power plant or received from a transmission line to lower voltages
suitable for distribution to consumers. Substations also play a crucial role in maintaining the
stability and reliability of the power grid. They house various equipment devices, such as power
transformers, switchgear, and relays, which are responsible for transforming voltages and
detecting and isolating faulty sections of the network to prevent widespread power outages.

1.1.1 Components of a Substation

1. Power transformers: This is a static device used for stepping up voltage for transmission
or down voltage for distribution systems.
2. Station Supply Transformer: it’s a static device for stepping down voltages such that
various equipments at the station have access to power such as the bulbs, sockets and so
on.
3. Instrument transformers: These are used for stepping down current and voltages to
measurable values. They are used to provide standardized, usable levels of current and
voltage for monitoring and measurement applications.
4. Circuit Breakers: These are used to open and close circuits under normal or abnormal
conditions. Circuit breakers are used for both switching and protection of electrical
equipment.
5. Isolators: These are used for disconnecting the network to create a visible gap for
maintenance and switching purposes. Isolators are operated offload because of the lack of
a quenching medium thus protecting the contacts.

9|Page-
 6. Earth switches: its main function is to isolate a circuit from the power source and earth it
for safety purposes. The earth switches are generally used to discharge the residual voltages
within the equipment to provide safety during operation.
7. DC power supply: These are used to feed essential services such as circuit breakers, trip
coils, associated relays, SCADA, and communication equipment.
8. Bus bars: These are very low impedance and high current carrying capacity conductors
having multiple numbers of incoming and outgoing lines electrically connected and
operating at the same voltage.
9. Protective relays: These are electronically operated switches which are used to control the
operation of the Circuit Breakers and other equipment within the substation.

1.1.2 Importance of a Substation

1. Voltage regulation: Substations facilitate the transformation of voltages from one level to
another.
2. Power distribution: Substations provide means of distributing power to different areas
through feeders
3. Load management: Substations provide means of monitoring and controlling the flow of
power, ensuring that the distribution is even to prevent overloading or power outages.
4. Fault detection and Isolation: Substations are equipped with protective devices and
equipment to detect faults such as short circuits or overloads, in the electrical systems and
can further isolate the faulty equipment to avoid escalation to other parts of the network.

10 | P a g e -
2.0 Literature Review
This chapter gives a brief overview about transformers, their principal of operations, their modes
operations, and losses within the transformers.

2.1 Principle of Operation of a Transformer

Transformers are devices used to transfer electrical energy by means of electromagnetic induction
from one circuit to another. When one winding of the transformer is energized from an Alternating
Current (AC) source, an alternating magnetic field is established in the transformer core, producing
alternating magnetic lines of force called flux. When a second winding is wound around the same
core, a voltage is induced by the alternating flux lines hence a connection of a circuit to that
winding results in current flow.

Figure 2-1: Principle of transformer operation.

The total amount of voltage induced in each turn of the secondary winding will be the same as the
voltage across each turn of the primary winding thus the total amount of voltage induced will be
equal to the sum of the voltage induced in each turn. If the secondary winding has more turns than
the primary winding, a greater voltage will be induced in the secondary winding hence making a
step-up transformer while if the primary winding has more windings than the secondary winding,
it becomes a step-down transformer. The total induced voltage in each winding is proportional to
the number of turns in that winding. Therefore, If E 1 is the primary voltage and I1 is the primary
current, E2 is the secondary voltage and I2 is the secondary current, N1 is the primary number of
turns, and N2 is the secondary number of turns, then

𝐸1 𝑁1 𝐼2
= =
𝐸2 𝑁2 𝐼1

11 | P a g e -
This shows that if the voltage is stepped down, the current is stepped up thus the inverse relation.

2.2 Classification of Transformers

Transformers are broadly classified into different categories based on their working voltage range,
the medium used in the core, winding arrangement, and installation location as illustrated in the
figure below.

Figure 1-2: Classification of transformers.

2.2.1 Classification Based on Voltage Level

1. Step-Up transformers: These are commonly found at generating stations where power is
generated at low voltage and stepped up for transmission. The secondary output voltage is
always higher than the primary side because of the higher number of turns on the secondary
side than the primary side.
2. Step-Down Transformer: These are used to convert high voltage from the primary side
to low voltage on the secondary side. They have a higher number of turns on the primary
side than on the secondary side. These types of transformers are commonly used in
transmission and distribution substations.

Figure 2-2: Step-up and step-down transformer windings respectively.

12 | P a g e -
2.2.2 Classification Based on the core material used
1. Core-type transformer: In the core-type construction, the coils are wound around the two
limbs of a rectangular magnetic core. Each limb carries one-half of the primary and one-
half of the secondary winding to reduce the leakage reactance to the minimum possible
value. The LV winding is wound on the inside nearer to the core while the HV winding is
wound over the LV winding away from the core in order to reduce the amount of the
insulation materials required.

Figure 2-3: Core type transformers.

2. Shell-type transformer: In shell-type transformers, coils are wound on the central limbs
of a three-limb core. The entire flux passes through the central limb and divides into two
parts going to the side limbs. The cross-sectional area of the central limb is twice that of
each of the limbs. Sandwich-type winding is used in such construction.

Figure 2-4: Shell-type transformers.

2.2.3 Classification Based on the point of Application

1. Power transformers: These are used in generation, transmission, and distribution
substations. They are situated in designated points where High voltage values are
transformed to medium voltages which can easily be distributed to distribution

13 | P a g e -
 transformers. They can be either step-up or step-down transformers depending on the
voltages they are transforming.
2. Distribution Transformers: These are step-down transformers used in most distribution
systems to transform voltages from medium voltages to Low voltages. These are
distributed along the distribution lines depending on the load requirements and the
regulations.
3. Instrumentation transformers: These are used in AC systems for the measurement and
protection of electrical quantities such as voltage, current, power, energy, power factor,
and frequency. Instrumentation transformers are basically used to step down the AC
system voltage and current to values that can easily be measured. They are either current
or voltage transformers.
4. Auto Transformers: These are used extensively used in bulk power transmission systems
because of their ability to multiply effective kVA capacity of the transformer and also can
act as voltage regulators. They have only one winding wound over a laminated core where
the primary and secondary share the same coil. In Umeme, Auto Transformers are used
mostly for voltage regulation on feeders in substations such as Wabigalo, Busunju, and
Hoima.

Figure 2-5: Auto-Transformer.

14 | P a g e -
2.3 Parts of a transformer

Figure 2-6: Parts of a power transformer.

15 | P a g e -
 Table 2-1: Parts of the transformer named.
1 Oil Filter valve 9 BCT Terminal 17 Oil drain valve 25 Core
2 Conservator 10 Tank 18 Jacking boss 26 Terminal box for
protective devices
3 Buchholz Relay 11 De-energized tap 19 Stopper 27 Rating plate
changer
4 Oil Filter valve 12 Tap changer handle 20 Foundation bolt 28 Dial thermometer
5 Pressure relief 13 Fastener for coil 21 Grounding 29 Radiator
Vent and core terminal
6 High voltage 14 Lifting hook for 22 Skid base 30 Manhole
Bushing coil and core
7 Low voltage 15 End Frame 23 Coil 31 Lifting hook
bushing
8 Suspension Lug 16 Coil pressure bolt 24 Coil pressure plate 32 Dial-type oil level
gauge

Core: The core is used to support the windings. It is made up of laminated soft iron in order to
reduce eddy currents loss and hysteresis loss and provide a low reluctance path for flux current.
The diameter of the core is directly proportional to the copper loss and inversely proportional to
the iron loss.

Windings: Windings are made of several number of turns of copper conductors that is bundled
together and connected in series. The main function of windings is to carry current and produce
working magnetic flux and induce mutual Electro-Motive Force (EMF) for transformer action.
Windings can either be high or low voltage or they can be Primary or secondary windings.

Insulating Material: Insulating material such as paper and cardboard are used to isolate the
primary and secondary coils from each other as well as the transformer core. The main function of
the insulating material is to protect the transformer against short circuits by providing insulation
to windings so that it does not come in contact with the core and any other conducting material.

16 | P a g e -
Main Tank: The main tank is the robust part of transformer usually made of fabricated rolled
steel plates. It serves mainly to protect core and windings from the external environment and
provide housing for them and to work as a container for transformer oil and provides support for
all other external accessories of the transformer.

Figure 2-7: Transformer tank.

Terminals and Bushings: Terminals and bushings are used to connect incoming and outgoing
cables of supply and load respectively. These are connected with the ends of the windings
conductor. They are mounted over the tank and form a barrier between the terminals and the tank.
They provide safe passage for conductors connecting terminals to the windings.

Transformer Oil: The transformer oil, which is made of hydrocarbon mineral oil, is used to
provide insulation between the windings as well as cooling due to its chemical properties and very
good dielectric strength.

Tap Changer: The tap changer is used to regulate the output voltage by varying the number of
turns in the secondary side of the transformer. There are two types of tap changers; On-load and
off-load tap changers. With on-load tap changers, tap variation can be altered without isolating the
transformer while with offload tap changer, tap variation can be altered when the transformer is
disconnected from supply.

17 | P a g e -
 Figure 2-8: On-load tap changer.

Buchholz Relay: This is a gas-actuated relay mounted on the pipe connecting the main tank and
the conservator tank. The function of the Buchholz relay is to protect the transformer from all
internal faults such as short circuits, inter-turn faults, etc.

Figure 2-9: Buchholz relay.

Oil Conservator: The oil conservator is an airtight metal cylindrical drum mounted above the
transformer oil. The main function of the oil conservator is to provide adequate space for expansion
and contraction of transformer oil according to the variation in the ambient temperature of
transformer oil inside the main tank.

Breather: The breather is a cylindrical container filled with silica gel and directly connected to
the conservator tank of the transformer. The breaker supplies moisture-free air to the conservator
tank during the expansion and contraction of the transformer oil.

18 | P a g e -
 Figure 2-10: Silica gel Breather.

Explosion Vent: The explosion vent is a metallic pipe with a diaphragm at one end and is installed
on the main tank slightly above the conservator tank. The main function of the explosion vent is
to protect the power transformer against explosion during excessive pressure build-up in the main
tank due to severe internal faults. It acts as an emergency exit for oil and hot air gases inside the
main tank of the transformer.

Radiator Fins: Radiator fins are designed to provide a large surface area for heat dissipation
within the transformer oil across the transformer. They facilitate heat transfer either by natural
convection or with the aid of fans attached to the transformer fins.

2.4 Losses in Transformers

For an ideal transformer, the input and output power are the same hence no energy losses within
the transformer itself. However, in practice, both the input and output power of the transformer
will never be equal because of electrical losses within the transformer as discussed in the sub
sections below.

2.4.1 Core Losses

Since the magnetic lines of force in a transformer are constantly changing in value and direction,
heat is developed because of the hysteresis of the magnetic material (friction and molecules). This
heat must be removed, therefore, it represents an energy loss in the transformer. High temperatures
in a transformer will drastically shorten the life of the insulating materials used in the windings
and structures because, for every 8-degree Celsius temperature rise, the life of a transformer is cut

19 | P a g e -
by one-half hence maintenance of the cooling system is critical. Losses of energy, which appear
as heat due to both hysteresis and eddy currents in the magnetic path are known as core losses.

2.4.2 Copper Losses

There is some loss of energy in a transformer due to the resistance of the primary winding to the
magnetizing current, even when no load is connected to the transformer. This loss appears as heat
generated in the winding and must also be removed by the cooling system. When a load is
connected to a transformer and electrical currents exist in both primary and secondary windings,
further losses of electrical occur. These losses due to the resistance of the windings, are called
copper losses (or the I2R losses)

2.4.3 Dielectric Losses

This refers to the energy wasted as heat within the insulating materials separating the transformer’s
windings. While smaller than other transformer losses, they still contribute to reduced efficiency.

2.5 Transformer Cooling

As discussed in the previous section, heat is among the common destroyers of transformers. Heat
is caused by losses within the transformer due to loading, high ambient temperature, and solar
radiation thus the efficiency of heat removal from the transformer is very crucial. Different
mechanisms are used to facilitate heat removal from the transformer as described in the next sub-
sections.

2.5.1 Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)

In this method of cooling, the heat generated within the windings is dissipated through the oil in
which the windings are placed. During heat dissipation, heated oil moves above the cooler oil by
means of convection. When the heated oil moves upwards, it enters the cooling fins of the
transformer exposing it to a larger surface area for dissipation. The heat from the oil is dissipated
to the atmosphere by the natural air flow around the transformer. In this way, the oil in the
transformer keeps circulating due to natural convection and the heat is dissipated to the atmosphere
by radiation to the freely moving air around the body/fins.

20 | P a g e -
 Figure 2-11: ONAN heat dissipation mechanism.

2.5.2 Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)

In this mechanism, the heat generated across the windings still circulates in the oil by means of
convection. However, the heat dissipation from the surface of the transformer is improved by
applying forced air to the dissipating surface such as cooling fins. Commonly, the power
transformers used at substations are mounted with external fans near the radiator, and at a defined
rating the transformer automatically switches from ONAN to ONAF by turning on the fans.

Figure 2-12: ONAF heat dissipation mechanism.

21 | P a g e -
2.5.3 Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)
During this mechanism of cooling, the oil is forced to circulate within the closed loop of
transformer tank by means of oil pumps. The main advantage of OFAF is that it is a compact
system and for the same cooling capacity, OFAF occupies- much less space than the latter two
systems.

Figure 2-13: OFAF heat dissipation mechanism.

2.5.4 Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)

At ambient temperatures, water is much less than the atmospheric air in the same weather
conditions. So water is a better heat exchanger media than air. In the OFWF cooling system, the
hot oil is sent to an oil-water heat exchanger by means of an oil pump and there the oil is cooled
by applying sowers of cold water on the heat exchanger’s oil pipes.

Figure 14: OFWF heat dissipation mechanism.

22 | P a g e -
2.6 Protection of Transformer
Transformers are among the most expensive equipment on the network hence they are provided
with different protection schemes and devices which minimize the impact of faults and also reduce
the extent of damage to the transformer.

1. Surge Arrestors

These are devices that limit the extent of surges by providing or discharging the surge current to
the ground. The higher the arrestor ratings the more the capability of the arrester to survive on a
specific voltage impulse but a reduced margin of the protection provided for the insulation level
of the equipment it is protecting.
During their operation, when the voltages rise above certain levels, the arrestor conducts through
the semiconductors stacked between the conductive washers and flows to the ground. When the
voltages are lower than the specified pickup values, the surge arrestors act as insulators.

2. Arching Horns

These are conductors used to protect insulators and bushings on the medium voltage sides from
damage (flashover) and are normally paired on either side of the insulator, one connected to the
live end while the other to the ground/body. They form a gap across the insulator with a lower
breakdown voltage than the air along the insulator surface hence an overvoltage will cause the air
to ironize and an arc will form between the arcing horns thus diverting it. The clearance between
the gap and the insulator must not be less than one-third of the gap length so that the arc may not
reach the insulator and damage it.

3. Circuit Breakers and Fuses

These are basically used on mainly distribution transformers to protect the secondary part of the
transformer, in which a circuit breaker opens at both normal and abnormal conditions while fuses
just blow so as to open in case of any abnormal condition.

2.7 Protection Scheme in Transformers

There are different protection schemes that ensure the transformer can be isolated precisely in the
event of any fault. Several protection schemes are employed to protect the power transformer.

23 | P a g e -
They are zoned into main and backup schemes which work as per the grading set. The different
protection schemes used on the transformer include;

1. Differential Protection Scheme

This is used for protecting the transformer against phase-to-phase faults and phase-to-ground
faults. Principally, they operate based on the comparison of currents entering and leaving the
transformer. The differential relay operates only on internal faults within the transformer. The CTs
on the delta side of the transformer is connected in star and on the star side are connected in delta
to compensate for the phase shift between the primary and secondary which must be zero.

Figure 2-15: Differential protection of transformers.

2. Buchholz Relay

The Buchholz relay has two oil-filled chambers with floats and relays arranged vertically one over
the other. Each float is accompanied by a mercury switch. The mercury switch on the upper float
is connected to an alarm circuit and the one on the lower float is connected to an external trip
breaker. If high eddy currents, local overheating, or partial discharges occur within the tank,
bubbles of the resultant gas rise to the top of the tank. These bubbles rise through the pipe between
the tank and the conservator. As gas bubbles migrate along the pipe, they enter the Buchholz relay
and rise into the top chamber, it displaces the oil, which decreases the oil level. The top float
descends with the oil level until it passes a magnetic switch which activates the alarm. The float is
located slightly below the top of the pipe so once the top chamber is filled, additional gas goes into

24 | P a g e -
the pipe and continues up to the conservator. If the oil level falls low enough, the bottom float
activates the switch contacts in the bottom chamber.

Figure 2-16: Buchholz relay configuration.

3. Restricted Earth Fault

In the case of star-connected winding of a high impedance earthed neutral, conventional earth fault
protection using overcurrent elements fails to provide adequate protection for the transformer
windings. This is where we apply the Restricted Earth fault. In restricted Earth fault protection,
the earth faults on the primary or secondary, or tertiary winding are restricted to the respective
winding only. It does not affect the other side. When the winding is delta connected or has an
unearthed star point, then an earth fault relay is connected in parallel to the secondary of the CTs
to restrict the earth fault in the respective winding only. For external faults, the vector sum of the
line currents is equal to the current in the neutral thus relay will be inoperative. For internal faults,
the vector sum of the CTs output currents is different from the current in the neutral which causes
the residual relay to operate if the fault current exceeds the pickup value.

4. Oil Surge Relay

The protective Oil Surge Relay (OSR) operates on the principle of Oil turbulence. OSR is mounted
in the pipeline connecting conservator tank to On-Load tap changer (OLTC). It is used for
protecting the transformer from internal faults within the on-load tap changer tank by triggering
the tripping circuit when the oil flow exceeds the specified limits, thus isolating the transformer

25 | P a g e -
from fault. The mode of operation is that under normal operation, the oil surge relay reads normal
pressure since the relay is not active. When a heavy fault occurs inside the on-load changer, it
causes the incidental generation of pressure wave, oil surge, or causes oil movement in the
direction of the on-load tap changer tank. If the flow rate exceeds the operating threshold of the
damper, then the flap moves the flow direction, which causes actuation of the reed switch thus
activating the trip coil of the breaker.

5. Pressure Relief Value

The principle of operation is that when the pressure inside the power transformer rises above a
pre-set pressure limit, the pressure safety valve opens its valve clap, thus tripping the breaker, and
it is held by a spring to release the internal pressure until it has dropped to normal. When the
pressure has dropped, the pressure valve clap moves back to its original position and closes
completely. This device is used to protect the power transformer from internal pressure that arises
due to internal faults.

6. Thermal Overload and Temperature Relay

These relays sense the temperature of the transformer oil and windings, which are heated up
because of heat produced due to overload in the transformer winding. The technique employed for
measurement is called the thermal image technique. Depending upon the temperature of the oil
and winding, the relay controls the cooling pumps and fans as well as gives an alarm warning for
overheating. The relay trips the circuit breakers at a maximum temperature of about 95 oC, thus
acting as a source for the temperature indicators present on the control board.

2.8 Transformer Properties

1. Rating of Transformer

The capacity of a transformer (rating) is limited by the temperature that the insulation can tolerate.
Ratings can be increased by either reducing core and copper losses, increasing the rate of heat
dissipation (better cooling), or improving the transformer insulation so as to withstand high
temperatures. A transformer is only as strong as its weakest link, and the weakest link is the paper
insulation, which begins to degrade at around 100oC which means that the transformer must be
operated within the hottest spot cooler than this temperature or service life is greatly reduced.

26 | P a g e -
 2. Percentage Impedance
This refers to the rated voltage that’s required to circulate the rated current through the transformer
under short – circuit conditions. When one winding of the transformer is short-circuited, and just
enough voltage is applied to the secondary winding to create a full load current to flow through
the short-circuited winding, the applied voltage is called impedance voltage. The percentage
impedance expressed as a percentage of the rated voltage means the voltage drop that will be
experienced in the high-voltage winding due to the winding and core losses. The percentage
impedance of a transformer determines the maximum value of the current that will flow under
fault conditions. A high percentage impedance will lead to lower fault currents under short circuit
conditions while a lower percentage impedance will lead to a better voltage regulation because of
reduced voltage drop on the transformer windings.

3. Three winding Transformer

In addition to the usual primary and secondary transformer windings, a third tertiary winding is
added to each phase of a transformer to serve the following purposes;

1. Three windings allow for the connection of three systems together where each system has
a different operating voltage.
2. The third winding provides electrical isolation between dual input circuits or dual output
circuits having the same operating voltage.
3. If the third winding is connected, this can stabilize voltages, supply third harmonic currents
to magnetize the transformer core, filter third harmonics from the system and provide
grounding bank action when the primary and secondary windings are both Y-connected.

Sometimes a tertiary winding may sense more than one function at the same time.

4. Vector Group

The transformer vector group as indicated on the nameplate of the transformer indicates the phase
difference between the primary and the secondary sides introduced due to the particular
configuration of the transformer windings connections. The vector group of the transformer is very
important before connecting the transformers in parallel. This is because if two transformers of
different vector groups are connected in parallel, the phase difference exists between the secondary

27 | P a g e -
of the transformers and large circulating current flows between the two transformers which can
cause harm.

2.9 Test Processes of Transformers

For confirming the specifications and performances of both electrical power and distribution
transformers, it has to go through numbers of testing procedures. Some tests are done at
manufacturer premises before delivering the transformer. In addition to that some transformer tests
are also carried out at the consumer site before commissioning and also periodically in regular &
emergency basis throughout its service life

2.9.1 Types of transformer Tests

Type Tests

To prove that the transformer meets customer’s specifications and design expectations, the
transformer has to go through different testing procedures in manufacturer premises. Some
transformer tests are carried out for confirming the basic design expectation of that transformer.
These tests are done mainly in a prototype unit not in all manufactured units in a lot. Type test of
transformer confirms main and basic design criteria of a production lot.

Routine Tests

Routine tests of transformer are mainly for confirming operational performance of individual unit
in a production lot. Routine tests are carried out on every unit manufactured.

Special Tests

Special tests of transformer are done as per customer requirement to obtain information useful to
the user during operation or maintenance of the transformer.

Pre-Commissioning Tests

In addition to these, the transformer also goes through some other tests, performed on it, before
actual commissioning of the transformer at site. The transformer testing performed before
commissioning the transformer at site is called pre-commissioning tests of transformer. These tests
are done to assess the condition of transformer after installation and compare the test results of all
the low voltage tests with the factory test reports.

28 | P a g e -
Insulation Resistance Test/ Megger Test of Transformer

Insulation Resistance serves as a useful troubleshooting tool to monitor and respond to known
problems. Insulation Resistance testing can indicate whether an insulation fault is developing, and
whether a system might need maintenance or, in some cases, replacing. It should be noted that
repeated Insulation Resistance testing on a single system should be performed under the same test
conditions and test equipment if possible.

The simplest form of Insulation Resistance (IR) test is a constant voltage test performed for a
specified period and recording the IR at a set time. Choosing an ideal DC voltage and timescale
depends on the system at hand, such as the cable length and withstand voltage, and time constraints
the user may have.

The IR test time can be 60 second long, known as a ‘Spot Test’, or longer. A one-minute minimum
is advised intending to avoid effects from capacitive current, illustrated in the figure where the IR
increases rapidly in the first instance. Indeed, absorption currents will also be present. Spot testing
therefore only gives a rough idea of the insulation integrity. Increasing the test time, however, can
improve accuracy, known as a ‘time-resistance’ test.

Figure 2-17: An ‘ideal’ insulation resistance (IR) value.

Figure below demonstrates a time-resistance test for ‘good’ insulation where the IR continues to
increase due to the slow discharge of absorption current and low leakage current. For ‘poor’
insulation one might observe an IR decrease. For ‘poor’ insulation the initial absorption currents
will be smaller and the leakage current higher or even increasing with time, leading to an IR
decrease.

29 | P a g e -
 Figure 2-18: IR trends for ‘good’ and ‘poor’ insulation.
Further to observing IR trends, quantitative measures can be obtained to determine the possible
condition of the insulation. The Dielectric Absorption Ratio (DAR) is one of them, which describes
the ratio of two time-resistance values,

1Minute Value
Dielectric Absorption Ratio =
15Sec.Value

A DAR < 1 indicates that the IR at a larger timescale is smaller than that at a shorter timescale.
This means that absorption current is masked by leakage current in turn indicating poor insulation.

Note: The higher the DAR the better the insulation integrity due to a high absorption current.
Similar to Spot Tests, DAR values offer a rough indication of insulation integrity. Some would
argue that retrieving a DAR at 10 mins:1 min would be more accurate, also known as the
Polarization Index (PI),

10Minute Value
Polarization Index = ≥2
1Minute Value

30 | P a g e -
Procedure of Insulation Resistance Test of Transformer

1. First disconnect all the line and neutral terminals of the transformer.
2. Megger leads to be connected to LV and HV bushing studs to measure insulation resistance
IR value in between the LV and HV windings.
3. Megger leads to be connected to HV bushing studs and transformer tank earth point to
measure insulation resistance IR value in between the HV windings and earth.
4. Megger leads to be connected to LV bushing studs and transformer tank earth point to
measure insulation resistance IR value in between the LV windings and earth.

Note: it is unnecessary to perform insulation resistance test of transformer per phase wise in three
phase transformer. IR values are taken between the windings collectively as because all the
windings on HV side are internally connected together to form either star or delta and also all the
windings on LV side are internally connected together to form either star or delta.

Measurements are to be taken as follows:

For auto transformer: HV-IV to LV, HV-IV to E, LV to E. for two winding transformer: HV to
LV, HV to E, LV to E. Three Winding Transformer: HV to IV, HV to LV, IV to LV, HV to E, IV
to E, LV to E.

Oil temperature should be noted at the time of insulation resistance test of transformer. Since the
IR value of transformer insulating oil may vary with temperature. IR values to be recorded at
intervals of 15seconds, 1 minute and 10 minutes.

With the duration of application of voltage, IR value increases. The increase in IR is an indication
of dryness of insulation.

1Minute Value
Absorption coefficient =
15Sec.Value

10Minute Value
Polarization Index = ≥2
1Minute Value

31 | P a g e -
3.0 Practical Work Done
The fo1lowing are some of the activities that I participated in during my time in the transformer
section.

3.1 Testing and Inspection of Distribution Transformer at stores premises

This was assigned to us through our senior substation engineer after him receiving a Work Order
from the store section indicating the number of distribution transformers to be tested and
inspected with their respective serial number.

Under the supervision of either the substation engineer or maintenance technician, I participated
in testing and inspection of both the new and repaired transformers bought at stores.

We filled in the transformer test report as below

1. We filled in the dates when the testing and inspection of the distribution transformer was
being carried out, filled the serial number of the Works Order.

2. With the help of the name plate of the transformer, we filled the report regarding the
make/type, size/phase, Voltage, Impedance voltage, Serial Number/ Umeme Number and
Year of Manufacture.

3. We also carried out visual inspection depending on the general appearance/ visual test of
the distribution transformer by observing the conditions of the bushings, arching horns and
the oil tank to check if they are in a proper working condition such as is there any leakages
or not, are the bushing burnt or not and are the arching horns present or not.
4. We also recorded the color of the silica gel conditions within the transformer test report.
5. With the help of the insulation resistance testing machine, we injected a DC voltage of
5KVDC and then readings for the HV-LV, HV-E & LV – E were read off in an interval of
fifteen seconds, the transformer only passes the insulation test provided that its values are
≥ 500𝑀Ω.
6. The transformer oil tank level status is recorded plus also the smell of the transformer as
per the test report.

32 | P a g e -
 Figure 3-19: Carrying out Insulation Resistance Test.

Figure 3-2: Transformer Test Report.

33 | P a g e -
3.1.1 Lessons Learnt
1. How to use the insulation resistance machine via carrying out various tests for different
cases i.e. HV-LV, HV-E & LV-E.
2. I learnt how a transformer test report is written, after testing and inspections are done.

3.2 Routine Maintenance of Power and Auxiliary Transformers

Routine maintenance of the power and Auxiliary transformers at the substation is always
performed to ensure proper functionality of these equipment and also monitor their operations
within the given period of time. This helps clear anomalies, identify new anomalies and lubricate
other moving parts while checking the status of the insulation and oil.

Procedures of Routine Maintenance

1. We obtain a shutdown, performed risk analysis and totally Isolated the transformers from
service to make them safe for operation.
2. We then removed the cables from the transformer terminals to make it totally isolated from
the circuit for performance of different tests on the equipment.
3. From there we perform insulation resistance tests on the different windings such as HV-
LV, HV-E, and LV-E and noted the resistance. This is to ensure that the windings are still
properly insulated by the oil from each other and the transformer body.
4. Then we further carried winding continuity tests between the HV and the LV windings to
ensure that there is continuity between these windings.
5. We noted the oil level indicators on the conservators of the main tank and the tap changer
tank to make sure that the oil is at an appropriate level or not such that if its not we make
an addition.
6. We then performed trip tests for the different schemes from winding and oil temperature,
Buchholz, and then pressure relief by simulating them locally and noting if the breakers
were tripping.
7. After all the tests, we cleaned the insulators to remove the dirt on both the primary and the
secondary sides and also on the tertiary winding. We also checked on the cable terminals
to ensure there were no loose connections.
8. We then checked the condition of the silica gel breathers and replaced the ones that were
not in good condition on both the main tank and tap changer

34 | P a g e -
 9. Then we checked on the conditions of gaskets and seals to ensure there is no leakage on
the transformer.
10. For the On Load Tap Change (OLTC) we tested and inspected the following its conservator
to find out if its breathers, silica gel, Surge relay and air relief values are in a good working
condition, contacts in order to find out those that have worn out and can be easily replaced,
transition resistors for which we carried out different measurements per phase and also
check for the firm connectivity and lastly was the drive mechanism of the motor for which
we checked the heating element functionality, V-belt for tightness, contacts for burning,
functionality of the motor as in protective switch, moving mechanism etc.

Figure 3-3: Cleaning power transformer bushings.

3.2.1 Lessons Learnt

1. The relevance of both on load and off load tap changer on power and distribution
transformers regarding voltage regulation.
2. The various tests that are carried out on both power and distribution transformers especially
during maintenance and these include insulation resistance, insulating oil dielectric
strength, earth resistance and the continuity test.

35 | P a g e -
4.0 Challenges, Recommendations and References
4.1 Challenges
1. Lack of spare parts for the various parts of the transformers such as the gaskets for which
we had to improvise making us deliver work which wasn’t to the required standards.
2. Limited time during the maintenance of these transformers basically caused by delayed
switching by the district teams resulting into frustrations of customers due to delayed
restoration of supply.

4.2 Recommendation
1. The company should purchase more spare parts and should be made readily available to
the transformer team when needed.
2. Earlier arrangements between controllers and the district teams.

4.3 References
 Notes taken from the training.
 Power Transformer Hand Book by John J. Winders Jr., et al.

36 | P a g e -