Explaining

Common Logarithms of Numbers

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 0000 0043 0086 0128 0170 0212 0253 0294 0334 0374
11 0414 0453 0492 0531 0569 0607 0645 0682 0719 0755
12 0792 0828 0864 0899 0934 0969 1004 1038 1072 1106
13 1139 1173 1206 1239 1271 1303 1335 1367 1399 1430
14 1461 1492 1523 1553 1584 1614 1644 1673 1703 1732
15 1761 1790 1818 1847 1875 1903 1931 1959 1987 2014
16 2041 2068 2095 2122 2148 2175 2201 2227 2253 2279
17 2304 2330 2355 2380 2405 2430 2455 2480 2504 2529
18 2553 2577 2601 2625 2648 2672 2695 2718 2742 2765
19 2788 2810 2833 2856 2878 2900 2923 2945 2967 2989

Logarithms
20 3010 3032 3054 3075 3096 3118 3139 3160 3181 3201
21 3222 3243 3263 3284 3304 3324 3345 3365 3385 3404
22 3424 3444 3464 3483 3502 3522 3541 3560 3579 3598
23 3617 3636 3655 3674 3692 3711 3729 3747 3766 3784
24 3802 3820 3838 3856 3874 3892 3909 3927 3945 3962
25 3979 3997 4014 4031 4048 4065 4082 4099 4116 4133
26 4150 4166 4183 4200 4216 4232 4249 4265 4281 4298
27 4314 4330 4346 4362 4378 4393 4409 4425 4440 4456
28 4472 4487 4502 4518 4533 4548 4564 4579 4594 4609
29 4624 4639 4654 4669 4683 4698 4713 4728 4742 4757
30 4771 4786 4800 4814 4829 4843 4857 4871 4886 4900
31 4914 4928 4942 4955 4969 4983 4997 5011 5024 5038
32 5051 5065 5079 5092 5105 5119 5132 5145 5159 5172
33 5185 5198 5211 5224 5237 5250 5263 5276 5289 5302
34 5315 5328 5340 5353 5366 5378 5391 5403 5416 5428
35 5441 5453 5465 5478 5490 5502 5514 5527 5539 5551
36 5563 5575 5587 5599 5611 5623 5635 5647 5658 5670

A Progression of
37 5682 5694 5705 5717 5729 5740 5752 5763 5775 5786
log ( x * y) = log x + log y 38
39
5798 5809 5821 5832 5843
5911 5922 5933 5944 5955
5855
5966
5866
5977
5877
5988
5888
5999
5899
6010
log ( x / y) = log x – log y
40 6021 6031 6042 6053 6064 6075 6085 6096 6107 6117
41 6128 6138 6149 6160 6170 6180 6191 6201 6212 6222
42 6232 6243 6253 6263 6274 6284 6294 6304 6314 6325
43 6335 6345 6355 6365 6375 6385 6395 6405 6415 6425

Ideas Illuminating an
44 6435 6444 6454 6464 6474 6484 6493 6503 6513 6522
45 6532 6542 6551 6561 6571 6580 6590 6599 6609 6618
46 6628 6637 6646 6656 6665 6675 6684 6693 6702 6712
47 6721 6730 6739 6749 6758 6767 6776 6785 6794 6803
48 6812 6821 6830 6839 6848 6857 6866 6875 6884 6893
49 6902 6911 6920 6928 6937 6946 6955 6964 6972 6981
50 6990 6998 7007 7016 7024 7033 7042 7050 7059 7067
51 7076 7084 7093 7101 7110 7118 7126 7135 7143 7152

Important Mathematical
52 7160 7168 7177 7185 7193 7202 7210 7218 7226 7235
53 7243 7251 7259 7267 7275 7284 7292 7300 7308 7316
54 7324 7332 7340 7348 7356 7364 7372 7380 7388 7396

Concept 4
y=x
3

y=b
x logb b x = x
1 y = logb x
b>1
b>1

–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 3 4
–1

–2 by = x is equivalent to y = logb x

blogb x = x

logq x
log b m = m log b logp x =
logq p

By Dan Umbarger
www.mathlogarithms.com
 Dedication

This text is dedicated to every high school mathematics teacher whose high standards and sense of
professional ethics have resulted in personal attacks upon their character and/or professional integrity.
Find comfort in the exchange between Richard Rich and Sir Thomas More in the play A Man For All
Seasons by Robert Bolt.

Rich: “And if I was (a good teacher) , who would know it?”

More: “You, your pupils, your friends, God. Not a bad public, that …”

In Appreciation

I would like to acknowledge grateful appreciation to Mr. (Dr.?) Greg VanMullem, who authored the
awesome freeware graphing package at mathgv.com that allowed me to communicate my ideas through
many graphical images. A picture is truly worth 1,000 words.

Also a big “Thank you” to Dr. Art Miller of Mount Allison University of N.B. Canada for explaining
the “noninteger factoring technique” used by Henry Briggs to approximate common logarithms to any
desired place of accuracy. I always wondered about how he did that! Four colleagues, Deborah Dillon,
Hae Sun Lee, and Fred Hurst, and Tom Hall all graciously consulted with me on key points that I was
unsure of. “Thank you” Paul A. Zoch, author of Doomed to Fail, for finally helping me to understand the
parallel universe that we public high school teachers are forced to work in. “Thank you” Shelley Cates of
thetruthnetwork.com for helping me access the www. And the biggest “Thank you” goes to John Morris
of Editide (info@editide.us) for helping me to clean up my manuscript and change all my 200 dpi figures
to 600 dpi. All errors, however, are my own.

Copyright © 2006 by Dan Umbarger (Dec 2006)

Single copies for individuals may be freely downloaded, saved, and printed for non-profit educational purposes only.
Donations welcome!!! Suggested donation $6 students ages 1-18, $12 adults 19 and above. See mathlogarithms.com.

Single and multiple bound copies may be purchased from the author at mathlogarithms.com

or Dan Umbarger
7860 La Cosa Dr.
Dallas, TX 75248-4438
 Explaining
Logarithms
A Progression of
Ideas Illuminating an
Important Mathematical
Concept

By Dan Umbarger
www.mathlogarithms.com

Brown Books Publishing Group

Dallas, TX., 2006

John Napier, Canon of Logarithms, 1614

“Seeing there is nothing that is so troublesome to mathematical practice, nor doth more molest and hinder calculators, than
the multiplications, divisions, square and cubical extractions of great numbers, which besides the tedious expense of time are
for the most part subject to many slippery errors, I began therefore to consider in my mind by what certain and ready art I
might remove those hindrances….Cast away from the work itself even the very numbers themselves that are to be multiplied,
divided, and resolved into roots, and putteth other numbers in their place which perform much as they can do, only by addition
and subtraction, division by two or division by three.”

As quoted in “When Slide Rules Ruled” by Cliff Stoll, Scientific American Magazine, May 2006, pgs. 81-83
 Table of Contents

Foreword.............................................................................................................ii

Note to Teachers................................................................................................. v

Chapter 1: Logarithms Used to Calculate Products............................................ 1

Chapter 2: The Inverse Log Rules ...................................................................... 9

Chapter 3: Logarithms Used to Calculate Quotients ........................................ 20

Chapter 4: Solving for an Exponent—The General Case................................. 25

Chapter 5: Change of Base, e, the Natural Logarithm...................................... 29

Chapter 6: “When will we ever use this stuff?” ............................................... 36

Chapter 7: More about e and the Natural Logarithm........................................ 55

Chapter 8: More Log Rules .............................................................................. 65

Chapter 9: Asymptotes, Curve Sketching, Domains & Ranges ....................... 68

Chapter 10 … Practice, Practice, Practice ........................................................ 75

Appendix A: How Did Briggs Construct His Table of Common Logs? .......... 84

Appendix B: Cardano’s Formula—Solving the Generalized Cubic Equation . 92

Appendix C: Semilog Paper ............................................................................. 93

Appendix D: Logarithms of Values Less than One.......................................... 94

Appendix 2.71818 Euler’s Equation, An Introduction………………………95

i
 Foreword
Many, if not most or all, high school math and science teachers have had the experience of hearing a
student exclaim something equivalent to the following: “234 × 4,192 = 8,219 because the calculator said
so.” Clearly the magnitude of such a product should have at least 5 places past the leading digit, 200 ×
4,000 = 800,000 … 2 zeros + 3 zeros = 5 zeros, etc. That’s not “rocket science.” While only an idiot
savant can perform the exact calculation above in their heads most educated people can estimate simple
expressions and “sense” when either bad data was entered into the calculator (GIGO—garbage in,
garbage out) or that the order of operation for an expression was incorrectly entered. Similarly I have
read of an experiment whereby calculators were wired to give answers to multiplication problems that
were an order of magnitude off and then given to elementary students to see if they noticed the errors.
They didn’t.
What is happening here? Many people would say that the culprit is the lack of number sense in our
young people. They say that four-function calculators are given to students too early in the grade school
before number sense is developed. There is a school of thought that abstraction, a component of number
sense, must be developed in stages from concrete, to pictorial, to purely abstract. Learning that 5 + 2 = 7
needs to start with combining 5 coins (popsicle sticks, poker chips, etc.) with 2 coins resulting in 7 coins.
From that experience, the student can proceed to learn that the photographic/pictorial images of 5 coins
(popsicle sticks, poker chips, etc.) combined with the photographic/pictorial images of 2 coins results in 7
coin images. Similarly, 5 tally marks combined with 2 tally marks results in 7 marks. Finally, one
internalizes the abstraction 5 + 2 = 7 … concrete, pictorial, abstraction … concrete, pictorial, abstraction.
Giving calculators too early in an attempt to shortcut the learning progression robs the student of the
chance to learn or internalize number sense. The result of not being required to develop number sense and
not memorizing the basic number facts at the elementary school level manifests itself daily in upper
school math and science classrooms. There are people responsible who should know better. An “expert”
for math curriculum for a local school district attaches the following words of wisdom to every email
message she sends: “Life is too short for long division!!” … but I won’t even go there.
Calculators make good students better but they do not compensate for a lack of number sense
and knowing the basic number facts from memory. They do not make a poor math student into a
good one!
The introduction of the handheld “trig” calculator (four operations combined with all the trig and log
and exp functions) into the math curriculum has had similar impact on the student’s ability to learn
concepts associated with logarithms. Thank the engineers at HP and TI for that! Life is too short to spend
on log tables, using them to find logs and antilogs (inverse logs), and interpolating to extend your log
table decimal value from four positions out to five! Yuck! However, by completely eliminating the
traditional study of logarithms, we have deprived our students of the evolution of ideas and concepts that
leads to deeper understanding of many concepts associated with logarithms. As a result, teachers now
could hear
“(5.2)y = 30.47, y = 6.32 because the calculator says so,” (52 = 25 for goodness sakes!!)
or “y = log4.8 (714.6), y = 22.9 because the calculator says so.” (54 = 625, 55 = 3125!!)

ii
 Typically, today’s students experience teachers incanting: “The log of a product is the sum of the
logs.” “The log of a quotient is the difference of the logs.” The students see the rules

1.) log(a × b) = log a + logb or

⎛a ⎞
2.) log⎜ ⎟ = log a − logb or
⎝b ⎠
3.) logb m = mlogb

with little development of ideas behind them or history of how they were used in conjunction with log
tables (or slide rules which are mechanized log tables) to do almost all of the world’s scientific and
engineering calculations from the early 1600s until the wide-scale availability of scientific calculators in
the 1970s. All three of these rules were actually taught in Algebra I, but in another format. Little effort is
made in textbooks to make a connection between the Algebra I format (rules for exponents) and their
logarithmic format. It is just assumed that the student sees and understands the connection. With the use
of log tables and slide rules there was a daily, although subtle, reminder of the connection between these
three rules and their parallel Algebra I “Rules of exponents.” “Black-box” calculator programming has
obscured much of this connection. As a result, the progression of ideas associated with logarithms that
existed for hundreds of years has been abbreviated. For really bright students, the curricular changes have
not been a problem. For some students, however, the result has been confusion.
Let me give you a specific example. The following quote is taken verbatim from
http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/55522.html (website viable Nov., 2007)
The Math Forum, “Ask Dr. Math.” “I have a bunch of rules for logs, properties and suchlike, but I find it
hard to remember them without a proof. My precalculus book has no proof of why logs work or even what
they are, nor does my calculus book. I understand what logs are … but I don’t understand why they are
what they are. Please help me.” This plea for help is from a calculus student who (presumably) has credit
on their transcript for mastery of precalculus!! Yet, clearly he or she does not even know enough about
logarithms to articulate a question regarding what they would like to know.
My all time favorite magic log formulas are :

1.) logb b = x
x

log x
and 2.) b b = x

iii
Where did those formulas come from? There is some pretty simple logic behind these mysterious
identities but teachers are always in a hurry to get to the “good stuff” … applying the rules to solve
exponential equations with variable exponents. They don’t have time or take the time to develop and
explain these “rules”. And most books are not helpful with their terse presentation of these ideas. These
formulas are still vital even today. The calculator has not made them obsolete in the way that the four
function calculator has rescued us from the tyranny of the log tables and all the drudgery associated with
them. Without these formulas, however, we cannot knowledgeably use our scientific calculators to solve
equations of the form (5.2)y = 30.47 or y = log4.8 (714.6). If the student does not understand the log rules,
then he or she can still apply them and “get answers” just like the teacher. But unlike the teacher, some
students really do not understand what is happening. If they make a severe error in their work they do not
have the number sense that will enable them to catch unreasonable answers and they will be baffled in a
later math class when the topic comes up again.
All the formulas shown above just seem to appear in the math books like “Athena jumping out of the
head of Zeus” … deus ex machina!!! There is none of the development of ideas and evolution of thought
that used to exist in the high school curriculum. The high school pre-calculus teacher may understand
fully what is going on with these formulas and ideas and the class genius may also but Joe Shmick and
Betty Shmoe do not! Many students are just sitting there working with abstractions that have not been
developed and fully understood. It’s all magic … magic formulas and magic transformations. They are
building “cognitive structures” without proper foundations.
When students do not fully understand mathematical ideas they tend to quickly forget all the
tricks that got them past their unit test and that “knowledge” is not there when a later math teacher
asks them to recall and apply it. Also they do not have the number sense to know when their
answers are not reasonable.
Mathemagic is the learning of tricks that help a student to pass the immediate unit test. Mathemagic is
confusing and quickly forgotten. Mathemagic is rigid. All problems that a student can solve using
mathemagic must be in the exact same format as the problems the teacher used when teaching the unit.
Mathematics is the learning and understanding of ideas, theories, and rules that stay with you for years
or even decades and allow you to attack and solve problems that are not in the exact same format as the
problems the teacher solved when teaching the material. Mathematics is a disciplined, organized way of
thinking.
If a student fully understands the ideas behind working with logarithms, then correct answers, comfort
with logarithmic situations, and multiyear retention will result. This is not an if-and-only-if relation. If a
student can get correct answers on her/his immediate unit test that does not mean that s/he understood the
concepts or that retention will occur so that the necessary recognition and skills will be there for the
student should a future occasion (math, science, and business classes) require them.
The omnipresence of scientific calculators today means that even most teachers have not experienced
the joys ☺ of working with log tables or working with a slide rule ☺. For the most part that is good. I
would not wish my worst enemy to have to learn about logarithms the way I did, using log tables to find
logs and anti-logs and interpolating to tweak out one more decimal value for both. There was also the
special case situation of using a log table to determine the log of x where 0 < x < 1. All the preceding was
a real a “pain in the patootie” which we are spared today. The calculator allows us to concentrate on the
application and not be distracted by the mechanics and minutia of the arithmetic! I do feel, however, that
in the education world there is a need to develop the ideas and history associated with logarithms prior to
expecting the students to work with them. Doing so will replace the mystery of the study of logarithms
with a deep appreciation and understanding of log ideas and concepts that will stay with the student for an
extended period of time. That is the motivation behind this material.

iv
 Note to Teachers
This text is not written for you. With the exception of parts of chapters 5, 6, and 7 and Appendix A, I
assume that you already understand all the ideas presented. This is a book written for students who do not
understand logarithms even if they can apply the rules and get correct answers. However, it would
greatly gratify me if a teacher were to tell me that he or she enjoyed my organization and presentation.
I am a high school math teacher, not a mathematician. As such, I live and work in a world where
sequence and progression of concepts leading to key ideas, along with pacing, “anticipatory sets,”
evolution and organization of ideas, reinforcement, examples and counterexamples, patterns, visuals,
repeated threading and spiraling of concepts, and, especially, repetition, repetition, and repetition are all
more important than rigor. It has always seemed ironic that authors and teachers, so knowledgeable about
mathematical sequences, could be so insensitive and clumsy about the sequencing of curriculum … how
they could be so knowledgeable about continuity of functions but so discontinuous in their writing.
There are plenty of materials available on teaching logarithms that are mathematically rigorous. I
believe that “rigor before readiness” is counter-productive for all but the most gifted students. As such, I
present many, many examples to help the student to see patterns and only then do I present the abstraction
which will allow for generalization to all cases. Induction is a powerful teaching tool. Because of
economy imposed by the publisher or perhaps because the material is so “obvious” to the authors most
textbooks present the abstraction (generalization) first with little attempt to develop the rationale behind it
or to connect the material to previous material such as the Algebra I Laws of Exponents or the history of
logarithms. Those texts then proceed hurriedly to applying the abstraction to specific situations.
I believe that the best way to introduce a new idea is to somehow relate it to previous ideas the student
has been using for some time. Using this approach, new concepts are an extension of previous ideas … a
logical progression. Logarithms are a way to apply many of the laws of exponents taught in Algebra I. It
is important that the students understand that!! I also believe in introducing an idea in one chapter and
revisiting that idea repeatedly in different ways throughout the book.
The materials presented here are usually spread over two years of math instruction: precalculus and
calculus. Doing so, however, separates ideas and examples that are helpful in the synthesis that leads to a
deeper understanding of logarithms. For example, most high school text books seem to shy away from a
meaningful discussion of why scientists and other professionals prefer to work with base e, the natural
log, rather than the more intuitive common base, base 10. They do so because the pre-calculus student has
not yet been exposed to the ideas that are necessary to justify the use of base e. If the goal is “rigor” then
indeed many ideas associated with e must be postponed until calculus. But if your goal is to create
familiarity with logarithms and appreciation of the number e, I do not believe that all that rigor is
required. I have tried to bring all those ideas down to the pre-calculus level. I hope that I have done so.
My approach, however, has been done at the expense of rigor. If I get consigned to one of the levels of
Dante’s Inferno because of my transgression it will be worth it if I am able to help young students past
what, for me, was an unnecessarily difficult multiyear journey. When I did make an attempt at “rigor,” I
chose the formal two column proof over the abbreviated paragraph proof.
I see three different audiences for this text: 1.) students who have never worked with logarithms
before, 2.) those students in calculus or science who did not manage to master logarithms during their
algebra/pre-calculus instruction, and 3.) summer reading for students preparing for calculus. The former
students will need to receive instruction, but the second and third group of students, if sufficiently
motivated, should be able to read these materials on their own with little or no help. There are questions at
the end of each chapter to use to evaluate student understanding. Heavy emphasis is placed upon
practicing estimation skills!!!

v
 Chapter 1: Logarithms Used to Calculate Products 1

Chapter 1: Logarithms Used to Calculate Products

For hundreds of years scientists and mathematicians did their calculations using the standard approach
currently taught in elementary school.
361 5 3 .1 1 7 etc.
× 25 17 9 0 3 .0 0 0
1805 8 5
722 5 3
9025 5 1
2 0
1 7
3 0
1 7
1 3 0
1 1 9
1 1 etc.
Not only were all these calculations tedious and prone to error, but the time spent in doing those
calculations took away from the tasks requiring those calculations … astronomy, navigation, etc. People
were always looking for a way to aid in the calculation process.

For now, define logarithms as a technique developed to aid in the drudgery of doing long and tedious
calculations. In 1614, a Scottish mathematician, John Napier (1550–1617), published his table of
logarithms and revolutionized the calculation process. (Joost Burgi, a Swiss watchmaker who interacted
and worked with the famous astronomer Johann Kepler, also seems to have independently discovered
logarithms, but Napier was the first to publish and he is usually given credit for their discovery and
development.) For reasons that are distracting to the flow of ideas in this book, we will instead focus on
the approach to logarithms by English mathematician Henry Briggs (1561–1630) who consulted with and
was inspired by Mr. Napier’s insight and original ideas.

The term logarithm is a portmanteau word … a word made of two smaller words. In this case,
logarithm is made of two Greek words (logos, ratio and arithmos, number). In brief, a logarithm is
nothing more than an exponent. In the equation 5y = 10 the “y” is a logarithm.

Logarithms Used to Multiply

For years, mathematicians had noticed a certain pattern held for sequences of exponentials with fixed
bases.
For example:
Exponential 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 210
Exponent 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Value 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1,024
Notice that 8 × 32 = 256
3 5
2 × 2 = 256
or 23 × 25 = 28
 Chapter 1: Logarithms Used to Calculate Products 2
or

Exponential 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
Exponent 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Value 1 3 9 27 81 243 729 2,187 6,561
Notice that 9 × 243 = 2,187
32 × 35 = 2,187
2 5
or 3 × 3 = 37

From before 23 × 25 = 28
and now 32 × 35 = 37

By induction, we move from the specific to the general case

b m × b n = b(m+n) Product of Common Base Factors Rule

Another way to think of this rule is to apply the definition of exponentiation ….

64 m4times
7448
Definition of exponentiation: b = b × b × b × L × b
m
(b times itself m times)
4 3
For example: b × b =
(b × b × b × b) × (b × b × b) = (definition of exponentiation)
b×b×b×b×b×b×b = (associative property of multiplication)
b7 (definition of exponentiation)

By transitive b 4 × b 3 = b 7 or b m × b n = b(m+n) Product of Common Base Factor Rule

When monomials with the same base are multiplied, one can obtain the result by adding the respective
exponents. Napier (and later Briggs) saw from this pattern the possibility of converting a complicated,
difficult multiplication problem into an easier, far less error-prone, addition problem. For example:

4,971.26 × 0.2459 =
10m × 10n =10(m + n)
Where 3 < m < 4 and –1 < n < 0
4
Because 10 = 10,000 and 100 = 1
10m = 4,971.26 and 10n = 0.2459
103 = 1,000 and 10–1 = 1/10 = 0.1

This approach follows immediately from the pattern noted before

bm × bn = b(m+n) Product of Common Base Factors Rule

 Chapter 1: Logarithms Used to Calculate Products 3
Mr. Briggs devoted a great deal of the last 20 years of his life to identifying those values of y whereby
10 = x. In the equation 10y = x, the exponent y came to be know as the logarithm of the number x using a
y

base of 10, y = log10 ( x ). Hence 10y = x is equivalent to y = log10 x . For example, 10 = 10(1/ 2) = 10 0.5 =
3.162277. In English … “0.5 is the base 10 logarithm of 3.162277.”

10y = x is equivalent to y = log10 x Equivalent Symbolism Rule

Appendix A goes into detail about some of the ingenious techniques Mr. Briggs used to develop his
logarithmic information. The curious reader is referred there because a discussion of those ideas here
would distract from the more important goal of explaining how logarithms were used to convert tedious
multiplication problems into simpler addition problems.

Mr. Briggs organized his work into tables. Discussing that organization and adding the new
vocabulary words (characteristic, mantissa, antilogarithm) necessary to use the table would also distract
from the discussion at hand and is mostly omitted from this book. See Appendix A, pg. 1 for a hint.
Suffice to say that in the table of logarithms that Mr. Briggs developed was information comparable to the
following:

Logarithm Exponent Form Number

0 100 1
0.08720 100.08720 1.222 (log10 1.222 = 0.087)
0.39076 100.39076 2.459 (log10 2.459 = 0.39076)
0.69644 100.69644 4.971 (log10 4.971 = 0.69644)
1 101 10
Thus, the problem originally posed can be evaluated as follows:

4,971.26 × 0.2459 =
4.97126 × 103 × 2.459 × 10(–1) = (scientific notation)
100.69644 × 103 × 100.39076 × 10(–1) = (exponent values taken from table)
m n o p
103.08720 = (b b b b = b(m+n+o+ p) )
103 × 100.08720 = (see 100.08720 in box above)
1,000 × 1.222 = 1,222
By calculator 4,971.26 × 0.2459 = 1,222.432834 which compares very favorably with the answer
obtained using Mr. Briggs’ logarithm technique. Three additional thoughts here: 1.) Mr. Briggs’ log table
had as many as 13 decimal places (more than a TI-83 calculator), which would have made our work
greatly more accurate had we used his raw data. 2.) Scientists and engineers are usually happy with
“close” answers as long as the answers are close enough for the work they are doing to succeed. The
number 1.414213562 would make most engineers very happy, but for the mathematician only the 2
would be acceptable. 3.) There are complications involved in using a log table when finding the log of x
when 0 < x < 1. Fortunately, the scientific calculator saves us from having to deal with those
complications. See Appendix D if you are curious about this matter.
 Chapter 1: Logarithms Used to Calculate Products 4
Notice the relationship between Briggs’ logarithmic approach to multiplying numbers and the form of
math called scientific notation.
Multiply Avogadro’s number by the mass of an electron. (It’s probably not good science, but it is
good math.)
Avogadro’s number × mass of an electron
600,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 × 0.0000000000000000000000000000009 =
6 × 1023 × 9 × 10(–31) =
54 × 10(–8) =
5.4 × 10(–7) = 0.00000054 kg

Your turn. Use your scientific calculator to evaluate the following product using the logarithmic
technique shown on the previous page. Use the × button on your calculator to check your work.
274,246 × 0.0005461 =
10m × 10n =
10log 274246 × 10log 0.0005461 = (using calculator twice for log m and log n)
10(log 274246 + log 0.0005461)
= Product of Common Base Factors Rule
bm × bn = b(m+n)
etc., use your calculator to finish and check
(Using a log table to obtain the log of a number less than one (1) involves some ideas that used to be very important but which
are all dealt with now by the black-box code inside those marvelous scientific calculators. For a more complete discussion,
please see Appendix D.)

Evaluate using the rule bm × bn = b(m + n). Use a calculator to determine necessary logs. Check your work.
1.) 3,451,234 × 9,871,298,345 =
2.) 56,819,234,008 × 0.004881234 =
3.) 0.00003810842 × 0.000000089234913 =
It is important to make a connection between the Product of Common Base Factors Rule and a new rule
that will be called the Log of a Product Rule:

bm × bn = b(m+n) Product of Common Base Factors Rule

and log(x × y) = log x + log y Log of a Product Rule

These rules are two different forms of the same idea. The latter simply states that if two numbers x and y
are being multiplied, they can both be expressed as exponentials with a common base. Once the exponents
of the respective factors are added, the resulting exponent can be used to determine the result of the
original problem by using that exponent sum as a power (antilog or inverse) of the common base. On the
calculator, the antilog or inverse button is marked 10x. We use symbols to avoid convoluted statements
like these!

a ×b = 10(loga+logb)
 Chapter 1: Logarithms Used to Calculate Products 5

By Product of Common Base Factors Rule By Log of a Product Rule

5 × 7 = x 5 × 7 = x
0.69897 0.84509
10 × 10 = x log (5 × 7) = log (x) iff Log Rule
(m = n) iff (log m = log n)
101.54406 = x log 5 + log 7 = log (x) Log of a Product
34.99935 = x 0.69897 + 0.84509 = log (x)
1.54406 = log (x)
Applying the intuitive rule m = n iff 10m = 10n
10(1.54406) = 10log (x)
Finally applying the decidedly nonintuitive Antilog
(Inverse) Log Rule … 10log x = x (discussed later in
chapter 2) on the right side and a calculator on the left
side 34.99935 = x (by calculator)

(Note to the reader. For all my work to fit on the page I restricted my precision to 5 decimals. Be assured that the use of 10
decimals does result in a product of 35 as would the use of Mr. Briggs’ 13 place log tables.)

With practice, the steps shown at the right to calculate 5 × 7 can be shortcut as follows:
To multiply two numbers add their respective logs and take the antilog of the sum.
4971.26 × 0.2459 = antilog (log 4,971.26 + log 0.2459)
Shortly after the appearance of log tables, two English mathematicians, Edmund Gunter and William
Oughtred, had the insight to mechanize the process of obtaining log and antilog values. This picture
shows a modern slide rule. The magic behind how the slide rule multiplies values is the rule
a × b = antilog (log a + log b).

Source: The Museum of HP Calculators http://www.hpmuseum.org

 Chapter 1: Logarithms Used to Calculate Products 6
Chapter 1 Summary—From the early 1600s to the late 1990s, one of the main applications of
logarithms was to obtain the result of difficult or tedious multiplication problems through the
easier, less error-prone operation of addition. Using log tables, one could multiply two
numbers by adding their respective logs and taking the antilog of the sum. (Do you see how
awkward the wording of the procedure to use logarithms to multiply two numbers is? That is why
we use rules. The use of symbolic rules allows us to focus on the process and ideas without
getting confused with words). In the words of John Napier, “Cast away from the work itself
even the very numbers themselves that are to be multiplied,… and putteth other numbers in their
place which perform much as they can do, only by addition…” Source: John Napier, Cannon
of Loagarthms in “When Slide Rules Ruled”, by Cliff Stoll, Scientific American, May, 2006, pg.
83

Symbolically

a × b = antilog (log a + log b) or a × b = inverse log of (log a + log b)

(the antilog button is marked 10x on some calculators and “inv log” on others)

123 × 4,567 = 10(log 123 + log 4567) or 123 × 4,567 = inverse log of (log 123 + log 4,567)

The Algebra I rule bm × bn = b( m + n ) and the log rule

log (a × b) = log a + log b are two different forms of the
same idea. Although it is not proved they work for
both integer and real values.

Just in case it slipped by you, the function y = log10 x is the inverse of the function y = 10x
and the function y = 10 x is the inverse of the function y = log10 x .

1.) The function y = log10 x is the inverse of exponential function y = 10 x .

2.) The function y = 10 x is the inverse of the log function y = log10 x .

There is much, much more on this in chapter 2! The entire chapter 2

is written to clarify and emphasize these last two ideas!!

Log Rules through chapter 1

bm × bn = b( m +n ) Product of Common Base Factors Rule

log(x × y) = log x + log y Log of a Product Rule

m = n iff b m = b n iff Antilog (10x) Rule

m = n iff log m = log n iff Log Rule

b y = x is equivalent to y = log b x Equivalent Symbolism Rule

 Chapter 1: Logarithms Used to Calculate Products 7
Chapter 1 Exercises
1.) Approximate log10 285,962 by bracketing it between two known powers of 10 as shown in
chapter 1.

10? = _________

10? = 285,962

10? = _________

2.) Approximate log10 0.000368 by bracketing it between two known powers of 10 as shown in
chapter 1.

10? = _________

10? = 0.000368

10? = _________

3.) Mentally approximate using the Equivalent Symbolism Rule, 10 y = x is equivalent to

y = log10 x . Check yourself using a calculator.

e.g., log10 200 ≈ 2–3 because 102 = 100 < 200 < 1,000 = 103

a.) log10 56 b.) log10 687 c.) log10 43,921

d.) log10 0.0219 e.) log10 0.0000038 f.) log10 0.00007871

(There are special case ideas associated with using a log table to find the log of a number x,
where 0 < x < 1. These ideas used to be important, but they are all dealt with by the black-box
code inside those wonderful scientific calculators. See Appendix D if you are curious.)

4.) Using your calculator to obtain log values, multiply the following numbers using the technique
a × b = 10(log a + log b). Show each step as you would have had to do before calculators. Use your
calculator, however, to obtain the necessary log and antilog values. Check yourself using the ×
button on your calculator.

a.) 4,526 × 104,264 =

b.) 0.061538 × 40,126.7 =

c.) 0.015872 × 0.000000183218 =

 Chapter 1: Logarithms Used to Calculate Products 8

5.) The Equivalent Symbolism Rule was presented as follows:

10 y = x is equivalent to y = log10 x Equivalent Symbolism Rule

In this case, the base of the exponentiation is 10. In practice, it could be any number. More generally, the
rule would look like the following:

b y = x is equivalent to y = log b x
Generalized Form Equivalent Symbolism Rule

Use the Generalized Equivalent Symbolism Rule to change each of the following equations into its
“equivalent form.”

a.) y = 3x f.) y = log8 x

b.) 5 = 2x g.) y = log3 x
c.) y = 7x h.) y = log7 x
d.) y = pq i.) 8 = log2 x
e.) g = w3.2 j.) 9 = logx 11
 Chapter 2: The Inverse Log Rules 9

Chapter 2: The Inverse Log Rules

There is no escaping it … one must learn and feel comfortable applying several math rules when
working with logarithms. These rules symbolize in abstract form very sophisticated ideas that cannot
easily be put into a few words. We have already seen, discussed, and applied several. They are reviewed
here along with a new one, the iff Log Rule (if and only if Log Rule)

Log Rules through chapter 1

bm × bn = b( m + n ) Product of Common Base Factors Rule

log(x × y) = log x + log y Log of a Product Rule

m = n iff b m = b n iff Antilog Rule

m = n iff log m = log n iff Log Rule

b y = x is equivalent to y = log b x Equivalent Symbolism Rule

Two more rules, I call the Inverse Log Rules, are presented in most textbooks with only very terse
explanation or clarification:

1.) log b b x = x and Inverse Log Rule #1 (Log of an Exponential Rule)

2.) b log b x = x Inverse Log Rule #2 (Power of a Base Rule)

There are several ideas that build to an understanding of these Inverse Log Rules. For those readers
who already know all this material, please skip ahead. I am not writing this material for you.

Idea #1: A function refers to two sets, called domain and range, together with a rule that matches each
member of the domain to exactly one member of the range. (“Domain” refers to allowable x
values while “range” refers to allowable y values.)
Rule
6 y = 3x + 1
y = 3x + 1 5
4
x y
(domain) (range) 3
–2 –5 2
–1 –2 1
0 1
—5 —4 —3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 4 — 1
2 7 —2
—3
—4
 Chapter 2: The Inverse Log Rules 10
Idea #2: An inverse function, if it exists, of a given function can be found by exchanging the x and y
variables in the given function. For y = 3x + 1, we get x = 3y + 1. We then traditionally solve this
new equation for y … y = (x – 1)/3. There is an interesting geometric relationship between the
graph of the original function and the graph of it’s inverse function. Both graphs are symmetric
around the line y = x. If you fold the graph along the line y = x the graph of both functions fall
upon each other.

e.g., Original function y = 3x + 1 y = 3x + 1

6
Inverse function x = 3y + 1
5
or x–1 = 3y y=x
4
or 3y = x–1
or y = (x – 1)/3 3 (x-1)
2
y= 3
x y 1
(domain of (range of inverse
inverse function) function) —5 —4 —
3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
— 1
–5 –2 —2
–2 –1 —3
1 0 —4
4 1
7 2

Placing the table of (x, y) values for the original function … y = 3x + 1 … side by side with the table of

x −1
(x, y) values of the inverse function … y = we notice that the x and y values of each pair have been
3
exchanged.

Original function Inverse function

x −1
y = 3x + 1 y=
3

x y x y
(domain) (range) (domain) (range)
–2 –5 ⇐compare⇒ –5 –2
–1 –2 ⇐compare⇒ –2 –1
0 1 ⇐compare⇒ 1 0
1 4 ⇐compare⇒ 4 1
2 7 ⇐compare⇒ 7 2

This should not be surprising. The inverse function was formed by exchanging the x and the y in the
original function. This is what causes the two graphs to be symmetric around the line y = x.
 Chapter 2: The Inverse Log Rules 11
Idea #3 The exponential equation y = bx is a function. 8
x
e.g., y = 2 (base b > 1) 7
6 y = 2x
x Y 5
¼
–2 4
½
–1 3
0 1 2
1 2 1
2 4
3 8 —2 —1 1 2 3 4

Idea # 4 Exchanging the x and y values in the exponential equation y = bx results in its inverse x = by. For
graphing purposes, we traditionally solve equations for y. You enter graphing mode by pressing
the “y = ” button, right? You specify the graph you want graphed by filling in the “y = ” field
that results, right? We solve for y using techniques taught in Algebra I: 1.) the
Addition/Subtraction Property of Equality, 2.) the Multiplication/Division Properties of
Equality, 3.) a combination of the Addition/Subtraction Properties of Equality with the
Multiplication/Division Properties of Equality, 4.) raising both sides of an equation to a power,
and 5.) taking the root of both sides of an equation.

6.) How do we solve for y in the equation x = by? The techniques that we learned to solve for y in
Algebra I all fail to solve an equation for “y” when it is an exponent.

(Sub. Prop. Of Eq.) (Div Prop. of Eq.) (Sub. & Div. Prop. Of Eq.)

1.) x = y+2 2.) x + 2 = 3y 3.) x = 3y + 2

x–2 = y+2–2 x+2 3y x – 2 = 3y
=
x–2 = y 3 3 x −2 3y
=
y = x–2 x+2 3 3
y =
3 x −2
y =
3
(Square both sides) (Take the sq. root both sides) (How to solve for y?)

4.) x–1 = y 5.) y2 = x – 5 6.) x = by

(x – 1)2 = ( y )2 (y 2 ) = (x − 5) ?
y = ????
y = (x – 1)2 y = ± (x − 5)

This problem of solving for y in equation #6 above is overcome by what is essentially a definition.
“y” is defined to be the exponent of a base (b) which results in a desired value (x). Hence, x = by is
equivalent to y = logb x. In this book, this is known as The Equivalent Symbolism Rule.

by = x is equivalent to y = logb x Equivalent Symbolism Rule

When you graph by = x (a.k.a. y = logb x) you are basically graphing bx = y but with all the ordered
pairs exchanged.
 Chapter 2: The Inverse Log Rules 12
The graph at the right below shows the graphs of two functions—y = 2x and its inverse, x = 2y—both
plotted on the same x–y axis. Again notice that folding the graph along the line y = x causes the two
inverse functions to match up with each other. The two functions are symmetric around the line y = x.
Notice the domain and range of y = 2x and notice that the domain and range restrictions have been
exchanged for x = 2y (a.k.a. y = log2 x) 8
y = 2x (base b > 1) x = 2y or y = log2x (base > 1) 7 y = 2x
6
y=x
x y x Y 5
1 1
–2 /4 /4 –2 4
1 1
–1 /2 /2 –1 3 x = 2y
x
0 1 1 0 (y = 2 (y = log2x
domain: all real 2 domain: x > 0
1 2 2 1 range: y > 0) 1 range: all real)
2 4 4 2
3 8 8 3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4

Think of the graph by = x (a.k.a. y = logb x) as graphing bx = y but with all the ordered pairs
exchanged.

Ideas #3 and #4 for base < 1

x 3 y=x
y = 1- ⎛ 1 ⎞y
2 x =⎜ ⎟
domain: all real 2 ⎝2⎠
range: y > 0 ⎛ ⎞
⎛ 1 ⎞x
1 y =⎜ ⎟ ⎜ y = log 1 x ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

—4 —3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x y x Y
–2 4 4 –2
—1
y = log1-x
–1 2 2 –1
—2
2
(x = -y)
1 0 1 1 0
1 1
2
1 /4 /4 1
domain: x > 0 1 1
—3 range: all real 2 /2 /2 2

Think of the graph by = x (a.k.a. y = logb x) as graphing bx = y but with all the ordered pairs
exchanged.

Repeating for emphasis:

1.) For the graph y = bx, the domain is all real numbers and the range is positive.

2.) For the graph x = by (a.k.a. y = logb x), the domain is positive

and the range is all real numbers.

 Chapter 2: The Inverse Log Rules 13
Idea #5 As we are discussing restrictions on the domain and range for the exponential and log functions,
this would be a good time to discuss the restrictions on b … namely b > 0. What would it mean
to have a function y = bx with b < 0? Let’s experiment for y = (–2)x. Recall that raising a negative
number to an even power results in a positive value whereas a negative number raised to an odd
power results in a negative result.
5
y = (–2)x 4
3 y = (—2)x
x Y
¼ 2
–2 x is an integer
1
–1 –1/2
0 1 —2 —1 1 2 3 4
1 –2 —1
2 4 —2
3 –8

Is this function continuous? How do you connect these points? The chart above only shows x for
selected integer values. The domain for y = bx is all real. What if we had fractions and decimals and
irrational numbers for x in the chart of x–y values? Let’s try an experiment.

Enter (–2)(3/2) or (–2)(1.5) or (–2)π into your calculator. Be sure to place parenthesis about the (–2). The
TI-83 Plus gives ERR: Non-Real Answer. Now since the log function y = log(–2) x is the inverse function
of y = (–2)x, what does all this discussion mean for our log function? Maybe we should just avoid the
whole situation by requiring our base, b, to be nonnegative. What if b = 0? e.g., y = 0x? Well, you can
actually raise 0 to positive powers but 00 is not defined and for negative powers, 0–1 = 1/(01) = 1 / 0, you
get division by zero!! So clearly b must be positive in the two functions y = bx and y = logb x.

What about b = 1? b must be positive and we have seen graphs x=1

for both y = bx with 0 < b < 1 and y = bx for b > 1. What would the 3 y=x
graphs of y = 1x and its inverse y = log1 (x) look like? y = 1x would 2
actually be OK although it would be written more simply as y = 1, y=1
the special case horizontal line. For y = 1x exchange x and y 1
resulting in x = 1y (a.k.a. y = log1 x) or more simply, x = 1. Notice -2
that x = 1 is a vertical line and therefore not a function. A function -2 -1 1 2 3 4
cannot have more than one y value for any given x value. Obviously -1
y = log1 (x) fails the vertical line test and cannot be a function. -2

Conclusion: For y = bx, b > 0. For y = logb x, b > 0 and b ≠ 1.

 Chapter 2: The Inverse Log Rules 14
One last thing!! The equation y = bx for b < 0 is 4
not allowed, but that is not the same thing as y = 2x
3
y = –(bx) for b > 0. y = –(bx) is a reflection of y = bx 2
about the x axis and is allowed. There will be more 1
on this in chapter 9. Stay tuned.
—6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4
—1
—2
—3 y=—(2x)
—4
Let’s review: Idea #4 … the domain for the exponential function is all real, the range for the
exponential function is y > 0 … the domain for the log function is x > 0, the range for the log function is
all real …. Idea #5 … the base requirement for the exponential function is b > 0, the base requirement for
the log function is b > 0, b ≠ 1. These ideas are all important, but they can be confusing. Let’s use a chart
to summarize and review them.

Function Domain Range Base (b)

y = bx –∞ < x < ∞ y>0 b>0
y = logb (x) x>0 –∞ < y < ∞ b > 0, b ≠ 1

5 y = 2x 5 For both functions

4 for both functions 4 domain: x > 0
range: all real
3 domain: all real 3
range: y > 0 y = log2x
2 2
1x
1 y = -2 1

—2 —1 1 2 3 4 —1 1 2 3 4
—1
—2 y = log1-x
2
—3

The fact that b > 0 for both the exponential and the log functions gives us another way to understand
the domain and range restrictions on both those functions. For y = bx, we see a positive number b (b > 0,
remember?) raised to a power. Since exponentiation is repeated multiplication and the set of positive
numbers is closed under multiplication, bx must be positive. Therefore, the range (y values) of the
exponential function is positive. For y = logb (x) the base is also a positive number, b > 0, b ≠ 1. It follows
that by = x means that a positive number is repeatedly multiplied so by > 0. Therefore, the domain (x
values) of the function y = logb x must be positive.
 Chapter 2: The Inverse Log Rules 15
Idea #6: Composition of functions occurs when the result of one function is used as input to another.

e.g., f(x) = 2x + 1 g(x) = 3x – 1

x f(x) g(f(x)) g(x) f(g(x))
–1 –1 –4 –4 –7
0 1 2 –1 –1
1 3 8 2 5
* *
Compare
g(f(x)) ≠ f(g(x))

5
y=x
Idea #7: The order of composition of functions is important. 4
g(f(x)) might not equal f(g(x)). 3
In the chart above compare g(f(x)) with f(g(x)). 2
y = 2x + 1 1
Also notice in the graph at right that the graphs of
g(f(x)) and f(g(x)) do not match up when folded across —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4 5 6
—1
the line y = x. y = 3x —1
—2
—3
—4
Idea #8: Sometimes the graphs of f(x) and g(x) do match y = 3x + 1
up when folded across the line y = x. 6
5
y=x
x −1 4
f (x) = 3x +1 g(x) =
3 3 (x-1)
f(x) g(f(x)) g(x) f(g(x)) y= 3
x 2
–1 –2 –1 –2/3 –1 1
0 1 0 –1/3 0
1 4 1 0 1 —5 —4 —
3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
— 1
—2
Compare
x =g(f(x)) = f(g(x)) —3
—4

Inverse functions are symmetric with the line y = x and composition of inverse functions will result in
x regardless of the order of composition. That is, x =f(g(x)) = g(f(x))
 Chapter 2: The Inverse Log Rules 16
Idea #9: The exponential function and the log function are inverse functions of each other. y = bx is an
exponential function … x = by the inverse …a.k.a. y = logb x, logarithmic form of the inverse

8
y = bx
7
b>1
6
5 y=x
4
3 y = logb x
2 b>1
1

—2 —1 1 2 3 4

Let f(x) = bx exponential function

and g(x) = logb x inverse of bx in log form

Then f(g(x)) = x (because they are inverse functions) and g(f(x)) = x (because they are inverse functions)
f(logb x) = x g(bx) = x
log x
b b = x Inverse Log Rule #2 logb bx = x Inverse Log Rule #1
(Power of a Base Rule) (Log of an Exponential Rule)

Restating the Inverse Log Rules together, we get

logb bx = x Inverse Log Rule #1 (Log of an Exponential Rule)

log x
and b b = x Inverse Log Rule #2 (Power of a Base Rule)

These rules pop up in the most unexpected situations. For example, refer back to the last few lines of
chapter 1.

5 × 7 = x
log (5 × 7) = log (x) iff Log Rule, m = n iff log m = log n
log 5 + log 7 = log (x) Log of a Product
0.69897 + 0.84509 = log (x) by calculator
1.54406 = log (x)
Applying the intuitive rule m = n iff 10m = 10n (equivalent to saying if 3 = 3 then 103 = 103)
10(1.54406804) = 10log (x)
***** And the decidedly nonintuitive Inverse Log Rule #2 … 10log x = x *****
34.99935 = x (using a calculator for 101.54406804)
 Chapter 2: The Inverse Log Rules 17
Following is an example of applying Inverse Log Rule #1, logb bx = x
10x = 35
log10 10x = log10 35 Taking the log of both sides, iff Log Rule … m = n iff log10 m = log10 n
x = log10 35 Inverse Log Rule #1 (Log of an Exponential Rule)
x = 1.54406 by calculator (ck: 101.54406 = 34.99935)
You should be aware that many textbooks and teachers will shortcut the previous work because they
expect that you have fully internalized the log rules and are prepared for shortcuts.
Compare the two following approaches to solve 10x = 35:

As presented here As frequently presented

1.) 10x = 35 1.) 10x = 35

2.) log10 10x = log10 35 2.) x = log10 35

3.) x = log10 35 3.) x = 1.54406

4.) x = 1.54406 (ck: 101.54406 = 34.99935171)

The problem 10x = 35 is actually a bit contrived. The solutions shown immediately above would not
be applicable if the problem had been 23x = 35.

23x = 35

log10 23x = log10 35

????

Here we can go no further as the Log of a Power Rule, logb bx = x, cannot be applied to the situation
log10 23x. The base of the log must be the same as the base of the log’s argument for the rule “logb bx = x ”
to work. In a later chapter, we will learn how to solve for an exponent in an equation where this
requirement is no longer necessary in order to solve for an unknown exponent (eg. . 23x = 35 ). That is
called solving for a “general case logarithm.”

Often when learning new rules, concepts, and ideas it is helpful to look at them in different ways. For
example, on previous pages the two inverse log rules were shown to hold by function composition:
f(g(x)) = x and g(f(x)) = x. Here is another way to look at those same two rules.

I y = y

by = by iff Antilog Rule m = n iff bm = bn

by = x arbitrary substitution, let x = by, you will see why in two more steps

y = logb x Equivalent Symbolism Rule by = x is equivalent to y = logb x

y = logb by back substituting x = by results in Inverse Log Rule #1

The Log of an Exponential Rule
 Chapter 2: The Inverse Log Rules 18

II x = x

logb x = logb x iff Log Rule Take the log of both sides. This is like saying
100 = 100 iff log 100 = log 100 (2 = 2)

logb x = y arbitrary substitution, let y = logb x, you will see why in two more steps

by = x Equivalent Symbolism Rule 10y = x is equivalent to y = log10 x

Finally b log b x = x back substituting y = logb x results in Inverse Log Rule #2

The Power of a Base Rule

All the rules learned to this point are gathered together and listed below for reference

bm × bn = b( m + n ) Product of Common Base Factors Rule

log(x × y) = log x + log y Log of a Product Rule

m = n iff b m = b n iff Antilog Rule

m = n iff log m = log n iff Log Rule

b y = x is equivalent to y = log b x Equivalent Symbolism Rule

log x
b b =x
logb bx = x Inverse Log Rule #1 (Log of an Exponential Rule)
log x
b b =x Inverse Log Rule #2 (Power of a Base Rule)

Chapter 2 Summary—People who write mathematics books have worked extensively over the years
with logarithms and they tend to forget that there are people who do not have their
background and familiarity with logarithms. The result is that they will omit steps in their
explanations because the step was “obvious,” expecting the reader to understand what was
done. This is particularly the case with the two iff Log rules and the two Inverse Log rules.

m = n iff bm = bn iff Antilog Rule

4 = 4 iff 104 = 104
m = n iff log m = log n iff log m = log n iff Log Rule
3 = 3 iff log 3 = log 3
logb bx = x and Inverse Log Rule #1 (Log of an Exponential Rule)
log x
b b =x Inverse Log Rule #2 (Power of a Base Rule)
These latter two rules hold true because they are inverses of each other and hence, by the
definition of inverse functions, f(g(x)) = g(f(x)) = x.
When reading passages talking about logarithms, one must constantly be on guard for
applications of one of these “stealth” Inverse Log and iff Log rules.
 Chapter 2: The Inverse Log Rules 19
Chapter 2 Exercises
1.) Given y = 2x + 5. Fill in the following chart and graph.

y = 2x + 5
x y
–2
–1
0
1
2

2.) Exchange the x and y variables in the equation y = 2x + 5 and solve for y. Use the values of y in
the previous chart as your x values in the chart below, complete the chart.

x = 2y + 5
x y

3.) Graph the relations for #1 and #2 above on the same x–y axis. What do you notice?

4.) Given r(x) and s(x) as inverse functions, complete the following statement.
r(s(x)) =
and
s(r(x)) =

5.) If two functions f(x) and g(x) are inverse functions then f(g(x)) = g(f(x)). Is this an “iff” (if and
only if) relation? That is, “If f(g(x)) = g(f(x)), are f(x) and g(x) inverse functions? Do their graphs
reflect about the line y = x?”
Hint: a.) Try with f(x) = 3x and g(x) = 3x.
b.) Try with f(x) = 2x and g(x) = 3x
c.) Try with f(x) = x2 and g(x) = x3.

6.) State the two Inverse Log Rules from memory.

7.) Given p = q state the iff Antilog Rule.

8.) Given p = q state the iff Log Rule.

9.) Convert each of the following using the Equivalent Symbolism Rule.
a.) y = (–5)x b.) y = log(–2) 7

10.) Use a scientific calculator to find the log of a number x, x > 1. Use the result as a power of
10. Repeat this activity a few times. What are you demonstrating?
 Chapter 3: Logarithms Used to Calculate Quotients 20

Chapter 3: Logarithms Used to Calculate Quotients

For hundreds of years scientists and mathematicians did their calculations using the standard approach
currently taught in elementary school.
361 5 3 . 1 1 7 etc.
× 25 17 9 0 3 . 0 0 0
1805 8 5
722 5 3
9025 5 1
2 0
1 7
3 0
1 7
1 3 0
1 1 9
1 1 etc.

The log tables and log rules that were so helpful in finding products can also be applied to quotients.

Logarithms Used to Find Quotients

For years, mathematicians had noticed a certain pattern held for sequences of exponentials with fixed
bases.

For example:

Exponential 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 210
Exponent 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Value 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024
Notice that 32 / 8 = 4
5
2 / 23 = 4
or 25 / 23 = 22

or

Exponential 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
Exponent 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Value 1 3 9 27 81 243 729 2187 6561
Notice that 2,187 / 27 = 81
37 / 33 = 81
or 37 / 33 = 34
 Chapter 3: Logarithms Used to Calculate Quotients 21
From before 25 / 23 = 22
and now 37 / 33 = 34
bm
By induction, we move from the specific to the general case: n
= b( m−n )
b
Another way to think of this rule is to apply the definition of exponentiation ….
64 m4times
7448
Definition of exponentiation: b = b × b × b × L × b (b times itself m times)
m

For example: b8 / b3 =
b⁄ × b⁄ × b⁄ × b × b × b × b × b
= (definition of exponentiation)
b⁄ × b⁄ × b⁄
b×b×b×b×b = b5

bm
By transitive b8 / b3 = b5 or = b( m−n ) Quotient of Common Bases Rule
bn

When monomials with the same base are divided, one can obtain the result by subtracting the respective
exponents. Napier (and later Briggs) saw from this pattern the possibility of converting a complicated,
difficult division problem into an easier, far less error-prone, subtraction problem. For example:

4,971.26 / 0.2459 =
10m / 10n =10(m - n)
Where 3 < m < 4 and –1 < n < 0
Because 104 = 10,000 and 100 = 1
10m = 4,971.26 and 10n = 0.2459
103 = 1,000 and 10–1 = 1/10 = 0.1

This approach follows immediately from the pattern noted before

bm
= b( m−n ) Quotient of Common Bases Rule
bn

From previous discussion and from Appendix A, we know that from a table of logarithms (or today from
a calculator) we can find the following information.

Logarithm Exponent Form Number

0 100 1
0.30568 100.30568 2.022 (log10 2.022 = 0.30568)
0.39076 100.39076 2.459 (log10 2.459 = 0.39076)
0.69644 100.69644 4.971 (log10 4.971 = 0.69644)
1 101 10
 Chapter 3: Logarithms Used to Calculate Quotients 22
Thus the problem originally posed

4971.26
=
0.2459
4.97126 × 103
=
2.459 × 10(–1)
100.69644 × 103
= (from the table on the previous page)
100.39076 × 10(–1)
103.69644
= Product of Common Bases Rule, bm × bn = b( m+ n )
10(–0.60924)
bm
10(3.69644 – (–0.60924)) = Quotient of Common Bases Rule, n
= b( m−n )
b
104.30568 =
104 × 100.30568 = 20,220 (100.30568 = 2.022 from the table on the previous page)

By calculator 4,971.26 / 0.2459 = 20,216.59211 which approximates the answer obtained using Mr.
Briggs’ logarithm technique. As stated before in chapter 1: 1.) Mr. Briggs’ log table had as many as 13
decimal places, which would have made our work greatly more accurate had we used his raw data.
2.) Scientists and engineers are usually happy with “close” answers as long as the answers are close
enough for the work they are doing to succeed. The number 1.414213562 would make most engineers
very happy, but for the mathematician only 2 would be acceptable. 3.) There are special-case
complications when using a log table to obtain the log of a number between 0 and 1. These issues are
dealt with by the black-box code inside scientific calculators. (See Appendix D.)
Once again, notice the relationship between Briggs’ logarithmic approach to dividing numbers and
scientific notation.
Divide Avogadro’s number by the mass of an electron. (It’s probably not good science, but it is good
math.)
Avogadro’s number / mass of an electron
600,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 / 0.0000000000000000000000000000009
(6 × 1023 ) / ( 9 × 10(–31) ) =
2
/3 × 1054 =
0.667 × 1054 = 6.667 × 1053 kg–1

Your turn. Use your scientific calculator to evaluate the following product using the logarithmic
technique shown on the previous page. Use the × button on your calculator to check your work.
274,246 / 0.0005461 =
10m / 10n =
10log 274246 / 10log 0.0005461 = (using calculator twice for log m and log n)
bm
10(log 274246 – log 0.0005461)
= Quotient of Common Bases Rule, n
= b( m−n )
b
etc., use your calculator to finish and check
 Chapter 3: Logarithms Used to Calculate Quotients 23
bm
Do the same for the following problems using the rule n
= b(m − n ). Use your calculator to obtain values
b
m and n and 10(m – n). Check yourself using the “/” operation on your calculator.
1.) 3,451,234 / 9,871,298,345 =
2.) 56,819,234,008 / 0.004881234 =
3.) 0.00003810842 / 0.000000089234913 =
It is important to notice that the two formulas,

bm
n
= b(m − n ) Quotient of Common Bases Rule
b
⎛ x⎞
and log⎜ ⎟ = log x − log y Log of a Quotient Rule,
⎝ y⎠

are two different forms of the same idea. The latter simply states that if two numbers x and y are being
divided they can both be expressed as exponentials with a common base. Once the exponents of the
respective factors are subtracted the resulting exponent can be used to determine the quotient of the
original problem by using that exponent difference as a power (antilog) of the common base. This
convoluted wording is a classic example of why we use symbols in math to communicate ideas.
a
= antilog(log a − log b)
b
a
= 10(log a−log b )
b
a
= inverselog(log a − log b) These rules apply to both integers and reals.
b
The example from chapter 1 is recycled here to demonstrate this: 5 / 7
By Quotient of Common Base Factors Rule By Log of a Quotient Rule
5 5
= x =x
7 7
10 0.69897 5
= x log = log (x) iff Log Rule
10 0.84509 7
(m = n) iff (log m = log n)
10(–0.14613) = x log 5 – log 7 = log (x) Log of a Product
0.7142824907 = x 0.69897 – 0.84509 = log (x)
–0.14613 = log (x)
Applying the intuitive rule m = n iff 10m = 10n
10(–0.14613) = 10log (x)
And the decidedly nonintuitive Antilog Log Rule
0.7142824907 = x (by calculator)
 Chapter 3: Logarithms Used to Calculate Quotients 24
With practice the steps shown above to calculate 5 / 7 can be shortcut as follows:

5 5
= antilog (log 5 – log 7) or = 10(log 5 – log 7) … inverse log (log 5 – log 7)
7 7

a a
= antilog (log a – log b) or = 10(log a – log b) … inverse log (log a – log b)
b b

To divide two numbers subtract their respective logs and take the antilog of the difference.

As stated in chapter 1, the development of the slide rule mechanized the process of obtaining logs and
antilogs. The magic behind how the slide rule divides values is the rule a / b = antilog (log a – log b).

Source: The Museum of HP Calculators http://www.hpmuseum.org

Chapter 3 Summary—From the early 1600s to the late 1990s, one of the main applications of
logarithms was to obtain the result of difficult division problems through the easier, less error-
prone operation of subtraction. To divide two numbers, subtract their respective logs and take
the antilog (10x) of the difference. In the words of John Napier, “Cast away from the work
itself even the very numbers themselves that are to be divided,… and putteth other numbers in
their place which perform much as they can do, only by… subtraction…” Source: “When Slide
Rules Ruled”, by Cliff Stoll, Scientific American, May, 2006, pg. 83

bm
The Algebra I Rule, = b( m−n ) , and the log rule,
bn
⎛x⎞
log⎜ ⎟ = log x − log y , are two different forms of the same idea.
⎝ y⎠
These rules apply to both integer and real numbers.

a a a
= antilog(log a − log b) = 10(log a−log b ) = inverselog(log a − log b)
b b b
Chapter 3 Exercises

1.) Using your calculator to obtain log values, divide the following numbers using the Rule to
a
Divide Using Logarithms, = 10(log a−log b ) . Check yourself using the / operator on your
b
calculator.
676 0.000000676 6.76
a.) b.) c.)
94283 94.283 0.94283

For each quotient above what do you notice about the pattern of significant digits. Explain.
 Chapter 4: Solving for an Exponent—The General Case 25

Chapter 4: Solving for an Exponent—The General Case

All the rules learned to this point are gathered together and listed below for reference

bm × bn = b( m + n ) Product of Common Base Factors Rule

bm
n
= b(m − n ) Quotient of Common Bases Rule
b
log(x × y) = log x + log y Log of a Product Rule
⎛ x⎞
log⎜ ⎟ = log x − log y Log of a Quotient Rule,
⎝ y⎠
m = n iff b m = b n iff Antilog Rule

m = n iff log m = log n iff Log Rule

b y = x is equivalent to y = log b x Equivalent Symbolism Rule

logb bx = x Inverse Log Rule #1 (Log of an Exponential Rule)

log x
b b =x Inverse Log Rule #2 (Power of a Base Rule)

x × y = 10(log x + log y ) Rule to Multiply Using Logarithms

x
= 10(log x − log y ) Rule to Divide Using Logarithms
y

In chapter 2, we showed how to solve for an exponent if the base was 10.

10x = 35
log10 10x = log10 35 Taking the log of both sides, iff Log Rule … m = n iff log10 m = log10 n
x = log10 35 Inverse Log Rule #1 (Log of an Exponential Rule)
x = 1.54406 by calculator
However, we were stymied, at that time, about how to solve for a general-case exponent.

23x =35 (231 = 23 so clearly 1 < x < 2 )

log10 23x = log10 35 What next?

1
Or even better, find 23 7 (i.e., 7
23 ). How do you proceed?
 Chapter 4: Solving for an Exponent—The General Case 26
As has been stated before, for hundreds of years one of the main uses of logarithms was to obtain the
answer of a difficult problem by somehow transforming the necessary calculation to an easier operation.
We have seen how to obtain the answer to difficult multiplication problems by the easier operation of
addition (of logarithms). We have seen how to obtain the answer to difficult division problems by the
easier subtraction (of logarithms) operation. We are now going to find how to evaluate exponential
situations by converting them to an easier multiplication operation. We start by reviewing the first log rule
we learned:

log(x × y) = log x + log y Log of a Product Rule

Everything about this rule screams out that it can be generalized as follows:
64 m4times
7448 64444m4times 7444448
log b = log(b × b × b × L × b) = log b + log b + log b + L + log b = m log b
m

By the transitive rule, log bm = m log b Log of a Base Raised to a Power Rule

The rules 1.) (bm)n = bmn and 2.) log bm = m log b

Are two different forms of the same idea!

They apply to both integer and real numbers.

Now this rule can be used to solve or evaluate the two problems posed on the previous page:

23x = 35
1
23 7 = x (i.e., 7
23 = ?)
log 23x = log 35
1
log ( 23 7 ) = log (x) take the log of both sides
1
x log 23 = log 35 /7 log 23 = log x log (x) Log of a Base…
log 35 1
x = log (x) = /7 log 23 Algebra Symmetry Rule
log23
1.544068044
x = log (x) = 1/7 (1.361727836) by calculator
1.361727836
x = 1.133903562 log (x) = 0.194532548 by calculator
Check
231.133903562 = 10log x = 100.194532548 taking the antilog of both sides
34.999999950
x = 1.565065608 left: Power of a Base, right: calculator
Check 23(1/7) = 1.565065608 by calculator
Your turn:

Solve or evaluate the following using logarithm skills. Check yourself using a calculator.

1.) 5.97x = 250. Solve for x.

2.) Find 5
824 3 . Recall that 5
b 3 = b 3 / 5 . Therefore x = 824(3/5)
 Chapter 4: Solving for an Exponent—The General Case 27

Chapter 4 Summary—In this chapter we learned a new log rule

log bm = m log b Log of a Base Raised to a Power Rule

(The formulas log bm = m log b and (bm)n = bmn are two different forms of the same idea.
They apply to both integer and real numbers. )

and used it in two ways:

1) we learned how to solve an equation with a variable exponent and arbitrary base. (This
skill is still very relevant today!!!) and

2) we learned how nth roots and fractional roots were extracted for hundreds of years until
the calculator gave us an alternative. In the words of John Napier, “Cast away from the
work itself even the very numbers themselves that are to be…resolved into roots, and putteth
other numbers in their place which perform much as they can do, only by… division by two or
division by three.” Source: Cannon of Logarithms by John Napier, 1614, as quoted by Cliff
Stoll, “When SlideRules Ruled”, Scientific American, May, 2006, pg. 83.

After chapter 2, we could only solve for variable exponents when the base was 10:

10x = 20.

We now have a way to solve for the exponent of all exponential equations, not just the ones
with a base of 10:

7x = 10.

Also we have learned how to use logarithms to extract any desired integer root, x1/5,
or rational root, x3/5. I won’t even attempt to put this process (algorithm) into words. That is
why we use symbols in math … to avoid having to put complicated ideas into words.
log y Recall the restrictions on b and log b
If bx = y then x=
log b
log 35
23x = 35 then x=
log 23
q ×log b
p p
b q =x then x = 10
7 × log
1 1
23 7 = x then x = 10 23
 Chapter 4: Solving for an Exponent—The General Case 28
Chapter 4 Exercises

1.) Approximate log4 200 by bracketing it between powers of 4 as shown in chapter 1 for powers of
10.
4? = _______
4? = 200
4? = _______

2.) Approximate the following problem using the iff Log Rule, m = n iff log m = log n and then
applying the Log of a Base Raised to a Power Rule.
10x = 14,290

3.) Approximate log17 14,290 by bracketing it between powers of 17 as shown in chapter 1 for
powers of 10.

17? = _______
17? = 14,290
17? = _______

4.) Attempt to solve 17x = 14,290 using the iff Log Rule, m = n iff log m = log n. What is the
problem with your approach?

5.) Solve the equation 17x = 14,290 using the iff Log Rule and the Log of a Base Raised to a Power
Rule. Is your answer consistent with the work you did in #3?

6.) Check your work in #5 using a calculator … 17your answer in #5 = ….

1
7.) Evaluate 5
621 using the logarithmic approach. Check yourself using a calculator … 621 5 .
7 7
8.) Evaluate 9
621 using the logarithmic approach. Check yourself using a calculator … 621 9 .
 Chapter 5: Change of Base, e, Natural Logarithm 29

Chapter 5: Change of Base, e, the Natural Logarithm

So far the impression has been given that logarithmic representation of values are
Change of Base always given with a base of 10. Working with a base of 10 is intuitive to most
people. For example, estimate log 450.

Since 100 < 450 < 1,000

2
10 = 100
x
102 < 10x < 103
10 = 450
then 2 < x < 3 …x = 2.something
103 = 1,000
102.something = 450

Working with powers of 10 is easy because of the relationship between the power of ten and the last
several digits of the result.

102 = 100, power of 10 = 2, 2 zeros after the 1

105 = 100,000, power of 10 = 5, 5 zeros after the 1

10–1 = 0.1, power of 10 = –1, no zeros before the one (abs (–1) – 1 = 0)
10–2 = 0.01 power of 10 = –2, 1 zero before the one (abs (–2) – 1 = 1)
10–3 = 0.001 power of 10 = –3, 2 zeros before the one (abs (–3) – 1 = 2)
However, the logarithmic base could be something other than 10. For example, you could use
logarithms with a base 5. To do so one would have to indicate the fact that you are using a different base
because the default base for working with logarithms is 10. For example, log 450 is understood to be
log10 450. If you wanted to let other people know that you were assuming a base of 5, you would have to
explicitly indicate the desired base as 5 somehow. The standard format to do so is log5 450.
Estimate log5 450

53 = 125 Since 125 < 450 < 625, and 53 < 5x < 54
5x = 450 then log5 450 = 3.something
54 = 625
53.something = 450
Exactly what is log5 450? Applying skills that have been developed in this book
5x = 450
log (5x) = log (450) taking the log of both sides, iff Rule of Logs
x log (5) = log (450) Log of a Power Rule
log 450
x =
log5
2.653212514
x = by calculator
0.6989700043
x = 3.795888948
Check: 53.795888948 = 450.000000691
log 450 log10 450
Summarizing, log5 450 = or = 3.795888948
log5 log10 5
 Chapter 5: Change of Base, e, Natural Logarithm 30
log 450 log10 450
Summarizing, log5 450 = or
log5 log10 5
log 450 log10 450
or generalizing, logp 450 (for any base p) = or
log p log10 p
log q x Change of Base Log Rule … change from base p into base q.
log p x = (Often, base q is either 10 or e.)
log q p

Now that we have seen that the choice of 10 as the base of a log function
e and the Natural Log is arbitrary and based upon our predilection of working with powers of
10, it is not so big a step to consider another base: e named after the famous Swiss mathematician, Euler.

e is an irrational number that begins as follows: 2.718281828.

Hence, while log (450) = 2.653212514 because 102.653212514 = 450,

loge (450) = 6.109247583 because 2.7182818286.109247583 = 449.999999642

Because e is used so often as a base for work with logarithms, there is special symbolism to indicate its
use … “ln.” We write “ln x” instead of “loge x.” In this case the omitted base of “ln x” is, by convention e,
just as the omitted base of “log x” is 10.

ln x = loge x and log x = log10 x

It is important to note that ln e = 1 because ln e = loge e and by the Equivalent Symbolism Law e1 = e.

Why use base e? It seems like a very curious choice. The short answer is that there are
numerous situations that arise in the physical world that involve e or that that involve a function
with a base of e. Following are a few examples.

1.) Continuous compound interest S = P ert

We could eliminate the e value and express this same idea in our comfortable base 10 as follows:
Set e = 10x
log e = log 10x taking the log of both sides, iff Log Rule
log e = x log (10) Log of a Power Rule
log e
x = log (e) by calculator … can you evaluate log 10 mentally?
log 10
x = 0.4342944819
Check: 10(0.4342944819) = 2.718281828
So now the original formula S = P ert could be rewritten with base 10 as
S = P (100.4342944819)rt
or S = P × 100.4342944819rt
 Chapter 5: Change of Base, e, Natural Logarithm 31
If we let k = 0.4342944819 then the equation S=P ert with e = 2.718281828

becomes S = P (10)krt with k = 0.4342944819

We have in effect exchanged one mysterious number (e = 2.718281828 …) with another

(k = 0.4342944819 …) which is itself derived from e. In other words the expression of many real
world phenomenon is dependent upon a sort of “universal constant” … e.

There are many quantities out there in the world that are
2.) Exponential Growth and Decay governed (at least for a short time period) by the equation,
f = i × akt,
where f represents the final quantity, i represents the initial quantity, k represents a constant of
proportionality, and t represents a unit of time. If k is positive, then the function will grow without bound
and is called the exponential growth equation. Likewise, if k is negative the function will die down to
zero and is called the exponential decay equation. Often the base (a) in such equations is the number
e. (see #3 and # 7 below!)

The formula for the bell curve is clearly dependent on the value of the
3.) Bell/Normal Curve
mysterious e.

−x 2
2
e
y=
2π

The shape of the bell curve is like the silhouette of a bell, hence the name.
0.40

0.35

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

-3.5 -3.0 -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
 Chapter 5: Change of Base, e, Natural Logarithm 32
A fast Fourier transform (FFT) is an efficient algorithm to compute
4.) Fast Fourier transform the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) and its inverse. FFTs are of
great importance to a wide variety of applications, from digital signal
processing to solving partial differential equations to algorithms for quickly multiplying large integers.
Let x0, …, xn–1 be complex numbers. The DFT is defined by the formula
n−1 2πi
f j = ∑ x ke
− jk
n
j = 0,…, n − 1.
k= 0

Note the e in this series definition.

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_Fourier_transform)

The equation for the logarithmic spiral is r = eat (polar form with
5.) Logarithmic spiral
“r” = radius, “a” being a constant, and “t” = theta.) Again notice the
base e.

Alternatively, since e = 100.4342944819, the equation could be written with a base of 10 as

r = 100.4342944819at. Notice the replacement of base e in the original formula results in a mysterious
0.4342944819 in the exponent. And, since that number is derived from solving e = 10x, then we have
just eliminated the mysterious number e by substituting another mysterious number derived from e.
6
5
4
3
2
r = e0.1 r = eat
1
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 or
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

r = 10(0.4342944819at)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
 Chapter 5: Change of Base, e, Natural Logarithm 33

e x + e−x When a flexible wire or chain is supported at each of its

6.) Catenary Curve, y = ends gravity will shape the wire or chain in what looks like a
2
concave up parabola, y – k = (x – h)2 but is actually a different
curve called a catenary … derived from the Latin word for chain. The equation for a catenary curve is
y = (ex + e–x) / 2. Notice the number e in the formula. e seems to be some sort of universal number built
into the design of the universe. The St. Louis Arch closely approximates an inverted catenary.

—3 —2 —1 1 2 3
—1

Newton’s Law of Cooling is used to model the temperature change

7.) Newton’s Law of Cooling of an object of some temperature placed in an environment of a
different temperature. A formula that grows out of Newton’s Law is

T(t) = Tm + (Ti – Tm) × e(–kt),

where T(t) is the temperature of the object at time t, Tm is the temperature of the surrounding medium,
Ti is the initial temperature of the object and k is a constant of proportionality. What this law says is that
the rate of change of temperature is proportional to the difference between the temperature of the object
and that of the surrounding environment. Notice the e in the formula.

Chapter 5 Summary—The reason that scientists and mathematicians prefer working with base
e is that it appears frequently in nature and its use makes for a simpler, more aesthetic equation
than would the same equation if it were written with a base of 10. Nicholas Mercator was the first
person to describe loge x (or ln x) as log naturalis. The number e seems to be a sort of universal
constant in the way that π (pi) and ϕ (phi) are. Simply put, e is somehow built into the fabric or
design of nature … of the universe. The function y = loge x (a.k.a. y = ln x) is said to be the natural
logarithm while the function y = log10 x is called the common logarithm. Since we can solve for x in
the equation e = 10x, we could replace the e values in each of the above situations involving e with an
equivalent form involving our more comfortable base 10. However, in doing so we will be replacing
one unfamiliar number, 2.71828, with another, 100.4342944819, which is dependent upon e to begin
with. A religious person might describe e as “God’s number.” As loge e = 1 is equivalent to ln e = 1
you can substitute 1 anywhere you see ln e.
 Chapter 5: Change of Base, e, Natural Logarithm 34

Chapter 5 Exercises
1.) Estimate each of the following for y. Justify your estimate.
a.) y = 52.7 b.) y = 8.642.13

2.) Obtain exact answers for the problems in #1. Compare with your estimates in #1.

3.) Estimate x for each of the following. Justify your estimate.

a.) 32.7 = 4x b.) 117 = 5x

4.) Solve for exact answers for the problems in #3. Compare with your estimates in #3.

5.) Estimate each of the following. Justify your estimate.

a.) 10 = x2.6 b.) 62.73 = x4.31

6.) Solve for exact answers for the problems in #5. Compare with your estimates in #5.

7.) Estimate each of the following values for x.

a.) 54.6 = 7x b.) 82.7 = 6x

8.) Solve for exact answers for the problems in #7. Compare with your estimates in #8.

9.) Estimate y for each of the following. Justify your estimate.

a.) y = log2 50 b.) y = log3 28.

10.) Solve for exact answers for the problems in #9. (Hint. Either change to equivalent exponential form
and solve for y or use the Change of Base rule to change the problem to one involving only log10.)
Compare with your estimates in #9.

11.) Estimate the following values of x. Justify your estimate.

a.) 6.1 = log2 x b.) log9 x = 5.1

12.) Solve for exact answers for the problems in #11. Compare with your estimates in #11.

13.) Estimate for x. Justify your estimate.

a.) 4.9 = logx 37.1 b.) logx 126.21 = 3.207

14.) Solve for exact answers in #13. Compare with your estimates in #13.
 Chapter 5: Change of Base, e, Natural Logarithm 35

15.) Given
0.40

−x 2 0.35

2
e 0.30
y= 0.25
2π
0.20

0.15
Without using a graphing calculator capability (only the 0.10
function/operation keys) find the two values of x that will result 0.05

in a y value of 0.2. Check using your graphing calculator

-3.5 -3.0 -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
(intersection of y = f1 and y = f2).

16.) Recall Newton’s Law of Cooling: T(t) = Tm + (Ti – Tm) × e(–kt)

A hard-boiled egg at temperature 90 °C is placed in water at 20 °C to cool. Three minutes later
the temperature of the egg is 60 °C.

Step 1: Use the given information to solve for k.

Step 2: Use the k that you solved for in Step 1 to determine when the egg will be 30 °C.

17.) The equation for the logarithmic spiral is

r = eat (polar form with r = radius,
a being a constant, and t = theta.) 6
For the spiral at right. Estimate theta 5
when r = 4. Solve for theta when 4
radius = 4. 3
2
r = e0.1
1
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

18.) The formula for calculating pH is:

,
where pH is the acidity of the solution and H+ is the hydrogen ion concentration.
a.) If Grandma’s lye soap has a hydrogen ion concentration of 9.2 × 10(–12) what is its pH?
b.) If the pH of a tomato is 4.2 what is its hydrogen ion concentration?
 Chapter 6: “When will we ever use this stuff?” 36

Chapter 6: “When will we ever use this stuff?”

All the rules learned to this point are gathered together and listed below for reference

bm × bn = b( m + n ) Product of Common Base Factors Rule

bm
= b(m−n ) Quotient of Common Bases Rule
bn
log(x × y) = log x + log y Log of a Product Rule
⎛ x⎞
log⎜ ⎟ = log x − log y Log of a Quotient Rule,
⎝ y⎠
m = n iff b m = b n iff Antilog Rule

m = n iff log m = log n iff Log Rule

b y = x is equivalent to y = log b x Equivalent Symbolism Rule

logb bx = x Inverse Log Rule #1 (Log of an Exponential Rule)

log x
b b =x Inverse Log Rule #2 (Power of a Base Rule)

log bm = m log b Log of a Base Raised to a Power Rule

x × y = 10(log x +log y ) Rule to Multiply Using Logarithms

x
= 10(log x− log y ) Rule to Divide Using Logarithms
y
log q x
log p x = Change of Base Log Rule … change from base p to q.
log q p
log y
If bx = y then x = Rule to Solve for an Exponent
logb

There many areas in science, sociology, economics, etc., that require knowledge of logarithms.

Compound interest, exponential growth and decay, pH, depreciation, measurement of the magnitude
of volume, of earthquakes, of sound, of the efficiency of algorithms and of fractional dimensions for
fractals are all examples of the need to be able to understand and work with logarithms. Use the
natural log function when working with an expression involving a base of e. Use the common
logarithm when the expression involves a base of “10.”
 Chapter 6: “When will we ever use this stuff?” 37
One application of logarithms is to work problems involving compound interest. Interest is a fee paid or
received for the lending of money. Interest is usually calculated in terms of percent. Say, for example, that
you wished to determine how long it would take $1,000 to double if invested at 20% interest compounded
annually.

Year Amount Interest = PRT at end of year (I = PR if T = 1)

0 $1,000 $200
1 1,200 240
2 1,440 288
3 1,728 345.6
4 ** 2,073.6 **

Apparently at 20% interest compounded yearly it will take almost four (4) years for the $1,000 to
double in value. What if you wished to compound the interest 1.) for more than 4 years or 2.) several
times a year for several years? What if, for example, you wished to compound (calculate interest and add
it to the principal) interest for 120 years? How much would the original amount of money be worth? We
would not want to develop the chart above to find out our answer as that would be 120 rows!! Let’s look
at the problem above again and see if we can see a pattern.

Let Pn = principal (amount of money) during year n. Therefore, for P0 (the first year of the loan) the
money involved was $1,000 … P1 (the second year of the loan) the principal was worth $1,200, etc.

P0 = $1,000

P1 = $1,200 = P0 (1 + 0.20)

P2 = $1,440 = P1 (1 + 0.20)
= {P0 (1 + 0.20)} (1 + 0.20) … substituting for P1
= P0 (1 + 0.20)2

P3 = $1,728 = P2 (1 + 0.20)
= {P0 (1 + 0.20)2} (1 + 0.20) … substituting for P2
= P0 (1 + 0.20)3

P4 = $2,073.6 = P3 (1 + 0.20)
= {P0 (1 + 0.20)3} (1 + 0.20) … substituting for P3
= P0 (1 + 0.20)4

This pattern suggests the formula Pf = P0 (1 + r)y where Pf = final principal after y years

P0 = initial principal
and r = interest rate of loan
and y = number of years of the loan.

Normally interest is not compounded yearly but for a smaller time interval … say quarterly. In this case
the formula that would be used would be
⎡⎛ r ⎞ k ⎤
y
where Pf = final principal after y years
Pf = P0 ⎢⎜1+ ⎟ ⎥ P0 = original principal
⎣⎝ k ⎠ ⎦ r = annual interest rate of loan
k = number of times per year that the interest is calculated
and compounded
y = number of years of the loan
 Chapter 6: “When will we ever use this stuff?” 38

⎡⎛ r ⎞ k ⎤
y
where Pf =final principal after y years
Pf = P0 ⎢⎜1+ ⎟ ⎥ P0 =original principal
⎣⎝ k ⎠ ⎦ r = annual interest rate of loan
k = number of times per year that the interest is calculated
and compounded
y = number of years of the loan

Here we have one equation with five different unknowns. If k and y are both known values as well as
any two of the remaining variables then, combining Algebra I skills with the power of a calculator, it is
not usually difficult to solve for whatever the remaining unknown is. However, if either k or y is unknown
then you will need to have knowledge of the log rules in order to solve for the unknown power.
How many years will be required for $1,000 to double if 5% interest is paid and interest is
compounded quarterly. Here Pf = 2,000, P0 = 1,000, r = 0.05, k = 4.
4y
⎛ 0.05 ⎞
2,000 = 1,000⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠

2 = 1 (1.0125)4y divide both sides by 1,000

log 2 = log (1.0125)4y take the log of both sides, iff Log Rule

log 2 = 4y log (1.0125) Log of a Base Raised to a Power Rule

0.3010299957 = 4y (0.0053950319) calculator values for log 2 and log (1.0125)

0.3010299957
4y = division property of equality
0.0053950319
y = 13.949 years by calculator

There is a part of the formula for compound interest y

that involves the compounding of interest for k time ⎡⎛ r⎞ ⎤
k

intervals over one year. It is shown in bold at the right. Pf = P0 ⎢⎜ 1 + ⎟ ⎥

⎢⎣⎝ k ⎠ ⎥⎦

⎛ 1⎞
10 Lets do an experiment. Let r = 1 in the subformula and
⎜1 + ⎟ = 2.593742460 let k get bigger and bigger. Watch what happens.
⎝ 10 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
100

⎜1 + ⎟ = 2.704813829 The fact that k gets larger and larger in the

⎝ 100 ⎠ formula above means that our formula is
⎛ 1 ⎞
1,000
compounding interest for more and more time
⎜1+ ⎟ = 2.716923932
⎝ 1,000 ⎠ intervals over one (1) year period of time. In
⎛ 1 ⎞
10,000
fact, as k approaches infinity we say that we are
⎜1+ ⎟ = 2.718145927
⎝ 10,000 ⎠ computing continuous compound interest.
⎛ 1 ⎞100,000
⎜1+ ⎟ = 2.718268237
⎝ 100,000 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞1,000,000
⎜1+ ⎟ = 2.718280469
⎝ 1, 000,000 ⎠
 Chapter 6: “When will we ever use this stuff?” 39
⎛ r ⎞k
Since for very large k and r = 1, ⎜1 + ⎟ = 2.71828 we can substitute e = 2.71828 … in the formula
⎝ k⎠
⎡⎛ r ⎞ ⎤ k y

Pf = P0 ⎢⎜1+ ⎟ ⎥ (assuming r = 1 and k is very large)

⎣⎝ k ⎠ ⎦
giving the formula
Pf = P0 [e]
y
(assuming r = 1), which would be the formula for computing continuous
compound interest at a 100% annual rate of interest. That would be a really nice
rate of return for the lender, but it’s hardly practical for the one borrowing
.
Lets do another experiment. Let r = 0.05 in the highlighted portion of the formula and let k get bigger
and bigger. Watch what happens.
⎛ r ⎞k
⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ k⎠
⎛ 0.05 ⎞10
⎜1+ ⎟ = 1.05114013
⎝ 10 ⎠
⎛ 0.05 ⎞100
⎜1+ ⎟ = 1.05125796
⎝ 100 ⎠
⎛ 0.05 ⎞
1,000

⎜1+ ⎟ = 1.05126978
⎝ 1,000 ⎠
⎛ 0.05 ⎞
10,000

⎜1+ ⎟ = 1.05127097
⎝ 10,000 ⎠
⎛ 0.05 ⎞
100,000

⎜1+ ⎟ = 1.05127108
⎝ 100, 000 ⎠
⎛ 0.05 ⎞
1,000,000

⎜1+ ⎟ = 1.05127109
⎝ 1,000, 000 ⎠

But since e = 2.71828 … and e0.05 = 1.051271096 it appears that

1, 000 , 000
⎛ 0.05 ⎞
⎜1 + ⎟ = 1.05127109 (from the table above) ≈ e0.05
⎝ 1,000,000 ⎠
By transitive
1, 000 , 000
⎛ 0.05 ⎞
⎜1 + ⎟ = e0.05
⎝ 1, 000 , 000 ⎠
⎛ r⎞ k
r
In other words ⎜1 + ⎟ = e
⎝ k⎠
So in the original formula we developed above
⎡⎛ r⎞ ⎤
k y

Pf = P0 ⎢⎜1 + ⎟ ⎥ =
⎣⎝ k ⎠ ⎦
Pf = P0 [e r ] =
y

Pf = P0e ry where Pf =final principal after y years

P0 =original principal
r = annual interest rate of loan
k = number of times per year that the interest is calculated
and compounded
y = number of years of the loan
 Chapter 6: “When will we ever use this stuff?” 40
Pf = P0e ry

Here we have one equation with five unknowns. If any four of the unknowns can be determined from
the problem conditions then the fifth can also be determined. Again, as before, if either of the exponents
is unknown, then knowledge of logarithms must be applied to solve the equation. Repeating the same
conditions as before (finding years necessary to double principal) for continuous compounding, we get

2,000 = 1,000 (e0.05y) substituting known values into appropriate formula

2 = e0.05y divide both sides by 1,000

ln 2 = ln e0.05y take the natural log of both sides, iff Log Rule

ln 2 = 0.05y (ln e) Log of a Base Raised to a Power Rule

0.05y = ln 2 reflexive property, and ln e = 1
0.05y = 0.6931471806 by calculator

y = 13.86294361 yrs divide both sides by 0.05

Continuous compounding doubles our money slightly faster than quarterly compounding.

When calculating compound interest one sees the result of a quantity

Exponential Growth growing larger and larger at predictable rates. This happens a lot in
mathematics and science. Let’s say that a colony of 100 bacteria grows 10
times larger every 5 days. In chart form, we get the following.

Day Number of bacteria

0 100 d0 = 100
5 1,000 d5 = 1,000 = 10 d0
10 10,000 d10 = 10,000 = d5 (10)1
= (10 d0) (10) … substituting for d5
= d0 (10)2
15 100,000 d15 = 100,000 = d10 (10)
= [d0(10)2) (10)] … substituting for d10
= d0(10)3

This is the classic pattern of what is known as a geometric progression: Each term in a sequence is a fixed
multiple of the previous term:

tn = 10 × t(n – 1)

Also, if you do not have access to the previous term’s value but do know the initial term and the
(n–1)
geometric ratio, you could have tn = t0 × r , where n is the term number and r is the ratio of change
from term to term
 Chapter 6: “When will we ever use this stuff?” 41
There are many quantities out there in the world that are governed (at least for a short time period) by the
equation,

f = i × rkt (or f = i × bkt with b = constant ratio of change),

where f represents the final quantity, i represents the initial quantity, k represents a constant of
proportionality (which varies from problem to problem) and t represents a unit of time. If k is positive,
then the equation will grow without bound and is called the exponential growth equation. Likewise, if k
is negative the equation will die down to zero and is called the exponential decay equation.

5 5
4 y = bkx 4 y = bkx
3 b > 1, k > 0 3 b > 1, k < 0
2 2
1 1

—2 —1 1 2 3 4 —2 —1 1 2 3 4

Short-term population growth is often modeled by the exponential growth equation and the decay of a
radioactive element is governed by the exponential decay equation.

Say the number of bacteria per square millimeter in a culture in a biology lab is increasing six-fold daily.
On Monday, there are 2,000 bacteria per square millimeter. On Wednesday, the number has increased to
4,500 per square millimeter.

a.) Use the given information to obtain the constant of proportionality, k.

f = i × bkt

f = i × 6kt

4,500 = 2,000 × 6k(2) (where t is in days) substituting given information into equation

4,500
= 62k division property of equality
2,000

log (9/4) = log 62k taking the log of both sides, iff Log Rule

log 2.25 = 2k (log 6) log bm = m log b rule

0.4525887711 = 2k using a calculator

k = 0.2262943855

Notice that if k = 1 in the equation i × 6kt then i × 6t and since t = 2 (Monday to Wednesday = 2)
then the number of bacteria would be f = 2000 * 62 = 72,000. (Monday = 2000, Tuesday = 12,000,
Wednesday = 72,000) However the number of bacteria is given to be 4,500 on Wednesday. The “k” or
constant of proportionality affects the rate of growth. Basically it allows for a fine tune modification on
the t in the equation. With k < 1 one should expect for fewer than i × 6t bacteria to be present for any
given t.
 Chapter 6: “When will we ever use this stuff?” 42

b.) Use the work in part a.) to predict how many bacteria there will be on Saturday (5 days from the start
of the experiment).

f = i × 6kt same formula

= 2,000 × 6(0.2262943855 × 5) substitution of given information into the formula

= 2,000 × 61.131471928

= 2,000 × 7.59375

= 15,187 bacteria per square millimeter

Photosynthesis is the chemical process that takes place in the green leaves of a
Exponential Decay plant. During photosynthesis the plant takes in carbon dioxide (CO2) and gives
Carbon-14 Testing off oxygen (O2). Some of the CO2 that the plant takes in contains the carbon
isotope called carbon 14. Carbon 14 results when the sun strikes the CO2 in the
atmosphere in just the right way. When the plant dies, the carbon 14 in the plant slowly decays, changing
into nitrogen 14. Assume that it takes 5,750 years for the amount of carbon 14 originally in the plant to
steadily decay to one-half (1/2) of its original amount. What would be the expression giving the amount of
carbon 14 t years after the tree died? Assume the common ratio to be e.

f = i × ekt

f = i × ek × 5750

50% i = i × e5750 × k

0.50 = e5750k divide both sides by “i”

ln (0.50) = ln e5750k iff log rule for b = e, m = n so ln m = ln n

–0.6931471806 = 5,750k (ln e) log of a power rule

–0.6931471806 = 5,750k (ln e = 1)

−0.6931471806
k =
5750
k = –0.0001205473358 k < 0 indicating exponential decay, not growth

f = i× e–0.0001205473358t final amount of carbon 14 t years after plant dies

 Chapter 6: “When will we ever use this stuff?” 43
An artifact in a museum was displayed as being the masthead of a Viking ship dating back to the
1200s. An analysis of a sample of that artifact revealed that it had 90% of its carbon 14 remaining. Could
that artifact have dated back to the 1200s?
f = i × ekt i = initial amount of carbon 14, f = final amount
f = i× ek × 5750
90% i = i × e–0.0001205473358 t
0.90 = e–0.0001205473358 t divide both sides by i
ln (0.90) = ln e–0.0001205473358 t iff log rule for b = e, m = n so ln m = ln n
–0.1053605157 = –0.0001205473358t (ln e) log of a power rule
–0.1053605157 = –0.0001205473358t (ln e = 1)
−0.1053605157
t =
−0.0001205473358
t ≈ 874 years Yes, the results of the carbon 14 test support the idea that
the artifact dates back to the 1200s.
The Richter scale is commonly used to measure the intensity of an
Earthquake Intensity earthquake. It was developed by C. Richter in the 1930s. There are many
different ways of computing this scale based on a variety of different quantities. Here is one based upon a,
the amplitude (in micrometers) of the vertical ground motion at the receiving station, T, the period of the
seismic wave (in seconds), and B, a factor that accounts for the weakening of the seismic wave with
increasing distance from the epicenter of the earthquake.
The energy released, measured in joules, during an earthquake is proportional to the antilog of the
magnitude and magnitude of the earthquake is given by,
⎛a⎞
R = log⎜ ⎟ + B
⎝T ⎠
Here we have one equation with four unknowns. There are no unknown exponents involved, so given
any three of the variables in the equation we can solve for the fourth variable using only algebra and a
scientific calculator. However, feeling comfortable with the concept of logarithm gives you the number
sense to understand the formula and to better know if your answers are reasonable.
Richter Scale numbers are a really good example for you to test yourself on your understanding of
logarithmic numbers. The San Francisco earthquake of 1906 measured 8.25 on the Richter scale. The
Seattle earthquake of 1965 measured 7 on the Richter scale. Richter scale numbers are logarithmic
numbers. How much stronger was the San Francisco quake than the Seattle quake? A simple ratio of the
two quakes’ Richter scale values (8.25 / 7) would make it seem as if the San Francisco quake was only
1.1785 times as severe as the Seattle quake. That would be misleading as the Richter scale measurements
are both base 10 logarithmic numbers. The answer 1.1785 is not reasonable! If we were to compare the
numbers 1,000 (103) and 100 (102) by comparing the two exponents 3 against 2 we would conclude that
1,000 is 1.5 times as much as 100 when obviously the ratio of 1,000 to 100 is 10 to 1. To accurately
compare the numbers 1,000 and 100 we do not compare the 3 against the 2 but the base 10 antilog of 3
(1000) against the base 10 antilog of 2 (100).
How much stronger was the San Francisco quake than the Seattle quake?
10 8.25 177827941
= = 17.7827941 times as severe!!!
10 7 10000000
 Chapter 6: “When will we ever use this stuff?” 44

Measurement of pH pH is the measure of activity of hydrogen ions in a solution

Example of a Log Function The formula for calculating pH is pH = –log10[H+]

[H+] denotes the activity of H+ ions (or more accurately written, [H3O+], the equivalent hydronions),
measured in moles per liter (also known as molarity). The pH factor determines whether a substance is
classified as acidic, neutral, or alkaline depending on if the pH < 7, pH = 7, or pH > 7. Tomato juice has
H+ = 6.3 × 10(–5). What is the pH value?

pH = – log (6.3 × 10 (–5))

≈ 4.2 Therefore tomato juice is acidic.

Again, feeling comfortable with the concept of logarithms gives you the number sense to understand
the formula and to better know if your numbers do not make sense.

In 1825, a German physiologist, Ernst Weber,

Decibel scales … example of a log function formulated a mathematical law that was introduced to
measure the human response to physical stimuli such
as weight, pressure, or sound. The decibel scale is a result of Mr. Weber’s law. The decibel is not a unit
in the sense that a meter or a second is. Meters and seconds are objectively defined quantities of
distance and time. You can go to the National Bureau of Standards and see their definition. They never
change and are not subjective in the way that they are quantified. Decibels, however, are in accordance
with Mr. Weber’s laws, defined to be the logarithm of the ratio of two different sounds.

⎛ powerA ⎞
Db = 10 × log⎜ ⎟
⎝ powerB ⎠

Logarithmic scales are often used for comparing quantities of greatly disparate values. For example, if the
softest audible sound has a power of 0.000000000001 W/sq ft and the “threshold of pain” is about 1
W/sq ft, then we would evaluate the decibels of the later to be
⎛ 1W 2 ⎞
Db = 10 × log⎜ −12 ft ⎟
⎝10 W ft 2 ⎠
= 10 × log 1012

= 10 × 12 (Inverse Log Rule #1, Log of an Exponential Rule)

= 120 decibels

Notice that, for logarithmic scales every 10-fold increase of a quantity results in a scale increase of only
one. Think powers of 10 (a logarithm is a power, right?): 100 = 1, 101 = 10, 102 = 100, 103 = 1,000, etc.
 Chapter 6: “When will we ever use this stuff?” 45
Understanding logarithmic ideas and concepts comes in
Measurement of efficiency of algorithms
handy in an area of computer science called “measuring
the efficiency of algorithms … Big O.” Big O is a rank-
ordering type of comparison system … not the linear type of rating system you are probably used to with
scalars. In a rank-order comparison system, items are grouped into categories. You can meaningfully
compare categories against one another and by inference you can compare items of one category against
the items in another. But you cannot compare items within a category against other items within the same
category.

For example, if you were to do a sequential search for the value sv (search value) on the following set
of randomly ordered numbers … x1, x2, x3, x4, …, x100 you would compare sv against the first item of the
list, x1, then against the second item of the list, x2, then against the third, x3, etc. until either you have a
match or until you run out of numbers to compare against. search you would find a match for sv in the
first item of data, x1. This would be considered an O(1) efficiency. In the In the best case worst case you
would not find a match of sv until x100, the nth number. This would be considered an O(n) efficiency …
order of efficiency of n. In an O(n) category efficiency algorithm, the effort or work of the algorithm, in
this case the number of comparisons, increases proportionally with the number (n) of data values.

If the numbers were in order, that is, x1 < x2 < x3 < x4 < … < x100 it is possible to take advantage of the
ordering of the numbers to do a more efficient search called the binary search. For example let’s assume
that the number we are looking for is in the 78th number of the set of x’s, but we don’t know that ahead of
time because we are dealing with variable values. We set variable left to indicate the leftmost position of
numbers being searched, variable right to indicate the rightmost position of numbers being searched, and
variable mid to (left + right)/2.

⎛ x1 < x 2 < x3 < x 4 < L < x50 < L < x100 ⎞

⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ left mid right ⎟⎠

Compare the search value, sv, against the value in the position marked mid. If sv is equal to x50, you
may cease your search. If sv < the value in position marked mid, then because of the ordering of the array,
you need no longer search in positions mid and up. Accordingly, you would pull in the rightmost bound to
the location to the left of mid:

⎛ x1 < x 2 < x3 < x 4 < L < x 49 ⎞ < x50 < L < x100
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ left right ⎟⎠ mid

On the other hand if sv > the value in the position marked mid, then you would no longer need to
search in positions mid and down. Accordingly, you would pull in the leftmost bound to the location to
the right of mid:

x1 < x 2 < x3 < x 4 < L < x50 < ⎛ x51 < L < x100 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
mid ⎜⎝ left right ⎟⎠
 Chapter 6: “When will we ever use this stuff?” 46
This process is continued until you either locate sv in the list or determine that it is not in the list.
Notice that each time you apply this search algorithm you effectively eliminate ½ of the remaining
numbers. Of the original set of 100 ordered numbers you originally considered, each step leaves

Step 0: all 100

Step 1: then only 50

Step 2: then only 25

Step 3: then only 13

etc.

Number of data 100, 50, 25 13, 7, 4, 2, 1

Number of comparisons
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
A binary search of 100 numbers will take, in the worst-case scenario, 7 search attempts until the
search value, sv, is found (or determined not to be in the set of data.)

There really must be a more efficient way of determining how many search attempts will be necessary
to search 100 ordered numbers other than enumerating and counting the phases.

Look at the following: 26 = 64

2? = 100
27 = 128
Using the binary search, the number of comparison searches necessary to locate data in an ordered list
is, are you ready for this? … ta da!! The answer is log2 100 because 2x = 100. Logarithms! You gotta love
’em! (Actually, since searching steps are discrete, the value is 7 … not log2 100 which would be a decimal
… 6.64385619.) The logarithmic efficiency of the binary search algorithm is said to be O(log2 n), where n
represents the number of items in the ordered list that are being searched. It can be said (for large n) all
algorithms of algorithmic efficiency rating O(log2 n) are more efficient than all algorithms of with an O(n)
efficiency rating.

Determining the Fractional Dimension of a Fractal In the spirit of George Cantor, the 19th-
century mathematician who took the historical
concept of infinity and extended it to include different kinds of infinity … aleph0, aleph1, etc. Benoit
Mandelbrot, a 20th-century mathematician, took the historical concept of dimension and extended it to
include rational dimensions. To do so, he needed to use the knowledge of logarithms that we have
developed in this text.

In the book The Golden Ratio by Mario Livio, Random House, 2002, the author prepares the reader
for the concept of rational dimensions of fractals by first reviewing some ideas from the traditional
dimensions: 1-space, 2-space, and 3-space.
 Chapter 6: “When will we ever use this stuff?” 47
One-Space
Take a line segment (1 dimension) and divide Take a line segment (1 dimension) and divide it into
it into halves. There are two equal subparts. thirds. There are three equal subparts.

The quantities The quantities

d (dimension, 1), d (dimension, 1),
n (number of subparts, 2), n (number of subparts, 3)
and f (fraction of each part, 1/2) and f (fraction of each part, 1/3)
can be related as follows: Can be related as follows:
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
1 1

2 =⎜1⎟ 3=⎜1 ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝3⎠
or in general
⎛ 1 ⎞d where d = dimension(s) of object
n =⎜ ⎟ f = fraction each side is divided into
⎝f⎠ n = number of subparts after division

Two Space
Take a square (2 dimensions) and divide each Take a square (2 dimensions) and divide each side into
side into halves. There are now four equal thirds. There are now nine equal subparts.
subparts.

The quantities The quantities

d (dimension, 2), d (dimension, 2),
n (number of subparts, 4), n (number of subparts, 9)
and f (fraction of each part, 1/2) and f (fraction of each part, 1/3)
can be related as follows: Can be related as follows:
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
2 2

4 =⎜1⎟ 9 =⎜1 ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝3⎠
or in general
⎛ 1 ⎞d where d = dimension(s) of object
n =⎜ ⎟ f = fraction each side is divided into
⎝f⎠ n = number of subparts after division
 Chapter 6: “When will we ever use this stuff?” 48
Three Space
Take a cube (3 dimensions) and divide each Take a cube (3 dimensions) and divide each side into
side into halves. There are now eight equal thirds. There are now 27 equal subparts.
subparts.

The quantities The quantities

d (dimension, 3), d (dimension, 3),
n (number of subparts, 8), n (number of subparts, 27)
and f (fraction of each part, 1/2) and f (fraction of each part, 1/3)
can be related as follows: Can be related as follows:
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
3 3

8 =⎜1 ⎟ 27 = ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝3⎠
or in general
⎛ 1 ⎞d where d = dimension(s) of object
n =⎜ ⎟ f = fraction each side is divided into
⎝f⎠ n = number of subparts after division

Mandelbrot is particularly known for his work with fractals … self-similar shapes. Fractals are shapes
that repeat an identical pattern over and over. Following is an example of a snowflake fractal. Start with
an equilateral triangle. Divide each side into three (3) equal parts.

x
3

x x x
3
x
3

x
 Chapter 6: “When will we ever use this stuff?” 49

On each side of the triangle form a new equilateral triangles whose base is 1/3 the length of a side of the
original triangle.

Repeating this process, we now get

It occurred to Mandelbrot that the area enclosed by this snowflake area was greater than the area
under a 1 dimensional line but less that the area of a bounding square that could enclose it.

1 < dimension < 2

Notice above that each time a side is divided into three (3) equal parts, four subparts are formed.

2 3

1 4
I II III
Applying the formula we developed previously, we get
d
⎛1 ⎞
n=⎜ ⎟
⎝f⎠ d = dimension(s) of object
⎛ 1 ⎞d f = fraction each side is divided into
4 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ n = number of subparts after division
1
⎝ 3⎠
4 = 3d
 Chapter 6: “When will we ever use this stuff?” 50
Using logarithms, we can solve for the dimension of this “snowflake” fractal.

log 4 = log 3d
log 4 = d log 3
log 4
=d
log 3
d = 1.261859507
The fractional dimension of a fractal is “a measure of the wrinkliness of the fractal, or of how fast
length, surface, or volume increases if we measure it with respect to ever-decreasing scales.” (Livio, The
Golden Ratio) Logarithms!!

Geometric Series A “geometric series” is defined to be an addition of numbers (terms) such that
each term is a fixed multiple of the preceding one.
3 + 9 + 27 + 81 + 243 + 729 + 2,187 etc. is a series because each term is 3 times the previous
3 + 3(3) + 3(32) + 3(33) + 3(34) + 3(35) + 3(36) + …
t1 + t2 + t3 + t4 + t5 + t6 + t7 + …
In general a finite geometric sum for n terms looks like the following:

Eq. 1 Sn = a + a(r) + a(r2) + a(r3) + … + a(rn–1)

Multiplying both sides of Eq. 1 by r

Sn = a + a(r) + a(r2) + a(r3) + … + a(rn–1)

we get

r Sn = r × [ a + a(r) + a(r2) + a(r3) + … + a(rn–1) ]

Eq. 2 r Sn = ar + a(r2) + a(r3) + … +a(rn–1)+ a(rn)

Placing eq.1 and eq. 2 together we get

Eq. 1 Sn = a + a(r) + a(r2) + a(r3) + … + A(rn–1)

Eq. 2 rSn = a(r) + a(r2) + a(r3) + … + A(rn–1) + a(rn)

Subtracting Eq. 1 – Eq. 2, we get

Sn – r Sn = a – a(rn)

Sn(1 – r) = a(1 – rn)

1− r n
Sn = a Sum of n terms of the geometric series with common ratio r and first term a.
1− r
 Chapter 6: “When will we ever use this stuff?” 51
For the series 2 + 2 × (3/2)1 + 2 × (3/2)2 + 2 × (3/2)3 + 2 × (3/2)4 + …,

2+ 3 + (9/2) + (27/4) + (81/8) + …

find how many terms will be necessary to result in a sum > 100.
1− r n
Sn < a
1− r

100 <
[
2 1− (3 2 )
n
]
1− 3 2
1− (3 2 )
n

50 <
1− 3 2
1− (3 2 )
n

50 <
− 12
−25 > 1− (3 2 )
n

−26 > −(3 2 )

n

26 < (3 2 )
n

log(26) < log(3 2)

n

log(26) < n log(3 2)

1.414973348 < n (0.1760912591)
n > 8.03545454773 terms

check: 2 + 3 + (9/2) + (27/4) + (81/8) + (243/16) + (729/32) + (2187/64) =

5 + 4.5 + 6.75 + 10.125 + 15.1875 + 22.78125 + 34.171875 =
16.25 + 25.3125 + 56.953125 =
98.515625

Since the “number of terms” is discrete data, it will take 9 terms before the sum > 100.

Once again, we need logarithms to solve this problem.

 Chapter 6: “When will we ever use this stuff?” 52
Examples Ad Nauseum, Ad Infinitum
A power law relationship between two scalar quantities x and y is any such relationship that can be
written as:
y = axk
Power laws are observed in many fields, including physics, biology, geography, sociology, economics,
linguistics, war, and terrorism. Power laws are among the most frequent scaling laws that describe the
scale invariance found in many natural phenomena.

Examples of power law relationships:

The Stefan–Boltzmann law

The Gompertz Law of Mortality
The Ramberg–Osgood stress–strain relationship
Gamma correction relating light intensity with voltage
Kleiber’s law relating animal metabolism to size
Behavior near second-order phase transitions involving critical exponents
Frequency of events or effects of varying size in self-organized critical systems: e.g., Gutenberg–Richter
Law of earthquake magnitudes and Horton’s laws describing river systems
Proposed form of experience curve effects
Scale-free networks where the distribution of links is given by a power law (in particular, the World Wide
Web)
The differential energy spectrum of cosmic-ray nuclei

Examples of power law probability distributions:

The Pareto distribution

Zipf’s law
Weibull distribution

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_law

In each case if the exponent is unknown, it must be solved for using logarithmic skills.
 Chapter 6: “When will we ever use this stuff?” 53
Chapter 6 Summary—There many areas in science which require knowledge of logarithms.
Compound interest, exponential growth and decay, ph, depreciation, measurement of the
magnitude of volume, of earthquakes, of sound, of the efficiency of algorithms, and of
fractional dimensions for fractals are all examples of the need to be able to understand and
work with logarithms. Use the natural log function when working with an expression
involving a base of e. Use the common logarithm when the expression involves a base of “10.”

Chapter 6 Exercises
1.) How long will it take an amount of money to triple in value if the money is compounded
monthly at 7%?

2.) What rate of interest would be necessary for $900 to be compounded to $1,500 in 10 years if
compounded continuously?

3.) In chapter 6, there was an example where $1,000 was compounded annually at 20% interest. The
money doubled in value in just under 4 years. Find out exactly the day of the year that the
money will have doubled. Assume there are 365 days in a year. Ignore the inconsistency of
identifying a specific date using a formula that compounds annually.

4.) When Mary was 6 years old, her father invested a sum of money at 5% interest compounded
semiannually so that Mary received $10,000 from that investment when she graduated from med
school at age 26. How much money was invested?

5.) A certain radioactive material decays at a rate given by the formula Qf = Qi × 10(–kt) where Qf
represents the final amount of material in grams and Qi = 500 grams is the initial amount. Find k
if Qf = 400 grams when t = 1,000 years.

6.) Use the value of k you found in problem #5 to find Qf when t = 2,000 years.

7.) If t is the thickness of a material, k is an absorption coefficient that results from the physical
characteristics of the material, and I the intensity of a beam of gamma radiation, the intensity of
the gamma beam after passing the material is given by If = Ii × 10(–kt). Find the absorption
coefficient k of a material for which 9.4 cm thickness reduces a beam of 1 million electron volts
to 100,000 electron volts intensity.

8.) For question #7 find the thickness of the material that will reduce the initial I value, Io, by half.

9.) Say an air conditioner puts out 65 decibels of sound. Use the formula

⎛ powerA ⎞
Db = 10 × log⎜ ⎟
⎝ powerB ⎠

to evaluate the noise of that air conditioner in watts per square foot of power. Use data for “softest
audible sound” given in the text for powerB.
 Chapter 6: “When will we ever use this stuff?” 54

10.) “Moore’s law” states that the number of transistors on an integrated circuit will double every two
years. Its mathematical form is
y 2 −y1
n2 = 2 2
× n1
where n2 = # transistors in base year y1 and
n1 = # transistors in later year y2
If a microprocessor had 376 million transistors in 2007 approximate what year it will have
12,024,000,000 transistors on it?

11.) You wish to locate a telephone number in the Dallas phone book for John Q. Public. You open
the phone book to the middle and find names beginning with M. You reason that the name you
are searching for is in the set of pages to the right of M. You move your left hand to the Ms and
proceed to open the pages M to Z to the middle again searching for John Q. Public. This time
you find that you are on the names beginning with S. Since Public starts with P you decide to
ignore all the pages to the right of the S names and do so by moving your right hand to the Ss.
You continue this process until you locate the desired telephone number. Assuming there are
1,050,000 people in the Dallas phone book and that there are 200 names per page, how many
times will you have to search until you locate the number?

12.) The Koch snowflake had a fractal dimension between 1 and 2. By extension, what dimension do
you estimate a self-similar polyhedron will have?

13.) A wooden spear is found at an ancient burial site. It is found to have only 80% the amount of
carbon-14 that a live tree has. How many years ago did the tree live that was used to make that
spear? Assume the half-life for carbon-14 is 5,750 years.

14.) There are 64 teams competing in a basketball tournament. Each tournament “round” eliminates
1
/2 of the remaining teams. Write the exponential equation that describes how many rounds will
be necessary to decide the winner of the tournament. Solve that equation.

15.) Following is a chart showing how many biological relatives Bobby has going back several
generations.
Parents Grandparents Great-grandparents GG-grandparents GGG-grandparents, etc.
Bobby 2 4 8 16 32
1 2 3 4
2 2 2 2 25
How many Gs (GGGG … G) are there in the generation where Bobby had 8,192 ancestors?
Do not solve by enumeration. Solve using logarithmic skills.

16.) A capacitor is a device that can store an electrical charge for later use. An example of such use
would be the charge needed for a camera flash or for computer back-up if power fails. The
voltage of a capacitor decreases steadily over time (exponential decay). Use the following
formula
v f = vi × e
−t
RC where vf = final voltage
t = time
R = resistance in ohms
C = capacitance in millifarads
and vi = initial voltage
to determine how much time will elapse until the voltage falls to 10% of its initial voltage if
capacitance = 35 µF and resistance = 120 Ω.
 Chapter 7: More about e and the Natural Logarithm 55

Chapter 7: More about e and the Natural Logarithm

The number e, when viewed as a base for an exponential expression has some very interesting
properties. 1.) the rate of change of the exponential equation y = ex is itself ex. 2.) The area under the
curve y = ex from negative infinity to x = 1 is e square units. 3.) The rate of change for the inverse of the
function y = ex (i.e., the function y = ln x) is 1/x. 4.) The area under the curve y = (1/x) from x = 1 to x = e
is equal to 1. 5.) The functions f(x) = ex and f(x) = ln (x) can both be evaluated using esthetically pleasing
infinite-series polynomials. 6.) The sequence (1 + 1/n)n approaches e as n approaches ∞. 7.) As x gets
close to 0 by powers of 10, the function log (1 + x) gets closer and closer to a “diminished magnitude” of
log e. 8.) Finally, as x gets close to 0 by powers of 10, the function 10x gets closer and closer to the sum of
1 plus a diminished magnitude of ln 10. Say what?!?

These ideas will require some prerequisite background.

Prerequisite idea: How do you find the slope of a tangent line to a curve? In Algebra I, we learned how
to find the slope of a line connecting two points. Since, by definition, a secant line
crosses a curve at two points we merely identify those two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)
and use the slope formula, to find the slope of a secant line.
y 2 − y1
m=
x 2 − x1
However, a tangent line has only one point in common with a curve. Since the slope formula requires
two points and the tangent line has only one point we must “get at” the desired information (slope of a
tangent line) through successively approximating it with secant line slopes which are formed by moving
point p2 (and its coordinate pair (x2, y2)) closer and closer to point p1 (and its coordinate pair (x1, y1)). The
sequence of secant-line slopes sec1, sec2, sec3, gets closer and closer to the desired tangent-line slope.

3 The slope of the tangent line is

successively approximated by
2 the slope of sec1, sec2, and sec3.
sec1
p1
1 sec2
sec3

—
2 —1 1 2 3 4 5 6
—1 points p2
approaching p1
tan
—
2

Now why do we care about the slope of a tangent line? Ostensibly, there is no reason to find the slope
of a line tangent to a curve! Remarkably, though, that skill is mathematically equivalent to an abstract
idea called the instantaneous rate of speed, which has great utility in physics and engineering. The
connection between the two ideas, slope of a line tangent to a curve at a specified point and the
instantaneous rate of speed comes about because the formula for the slope of a tangent line found by
approaching secant lines using the formula m = (y2 – y1)/(x2 – x1) as point p2 approaches point p1 is
equivalent to the formula for average rate of speed, r = d/t as time intervals decrease to zero.

This is shown in great detail on the following page.

 Chapter 7: More about e and the Natural Logarithm 56
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
1.) The slope of a tangent to a curve at a given point
and
2.) Instantaneous rate of speed
PROBLEM: A missile is fired at a target 64 miles away. The distance in miles that the missile has
traveled from its starting point is given by the function f(t) = t2. Determine the speed of the
missile at the precise instant when it strikes the target—its instantaneous rate of speed.
distance = rate × time therefore
distance
d = r×t rate = this is a ratio just like
time
d ratios y −y
e.g., 100 miles = 50 mph × 2 hours r= m= 2 1
t x 2 − x1
f(t) = -14 t 2 x f(x)
0 0
64 2 1 (16,64) 1.) Average rate of speed from t = 0 to t = 16:
4 4 1
(15-,961) d 64 − 0 64
r= = = = 4 mpm average speed.
2
6 9 16
8 16 t 16 − 0 16
(15,225)
10 25 4 Slope of secant line from (0, 0) to (16, 64):
12 36
y − y 2 64 − 0 64
14 49 m= 2 = = =4
48 15 225 (14,49) x 2 − x 2 16 − 0 16
4

15 -12
( ) ( ) = 961
31 2 961
2 = 4 2.) Average rate of speed from t = 8 to t = 16:
16
4 4 d 64 −16 48
r= = = = 6 mpm average speed.
t 16 − 8 8
Distance in Miles

( 634 ) =(3969
16 ) = 3969
2
15 -34 (12,36) Slope of secant line from (8, 16) to (16, 64):
64
32 4 4 y − y 2 64 − 16 48
m= 2 = = =6
16 64 x 2 − x 2 16 − 8 8

3.) Average rate of speed from t = 12 to t = 16:

d 64 − 36 28
r= = = = 7 mpm average speed.
t 16 − 12 4
16 (8,16) Slope of secant line from (12, 36) to (16, 64):
y − y 2 64 − 36 28
12 m= 2 = = =7
x 2 − x 2 16 − 12 4
8
4.) Average rate of speed from t = 14 to t = 16:
d 64 − 49 15
4 (2,1) (4,4) r= = = = 71/2 mpm average speed.
t 16 − 14 2
(0, 0) 4 8 12 16 5.) Average rate of speed from t = 15 to t = 16:
Time in Minutes
d 64 − 225 4 256 4 − 225 4 31 4
Notice the progression of “average rates of” speeds (or r= = = = = 73/4.
equivalently the progression of secant slope lines) t 16 − 15 16 − 15 1
m = 4, m = 6, m = 7, m = 7/5, m = 73/4, m = 77/8. As these
average speeds keep getting calculated over distances 6.) Average rate of speed from t = 151/2 to t = 16:
that are decreasing to zero you are approaching the d 64 − 96116 1024 16 − 96116 6316 63 7
“instantaneous rate of speed.” Or, stated another way, r= = = = = = 7 /8.
t 16 −15 16 −15 1
2 8
the slopes of the secant lines are approaching the slope
of the tangent line at that point.
 Chapter 7: More about e and the Natural Logarithm 57
Now that you have an understanding of the idea of “slope of a line tangent to a curve at a specific point”
we can get back to the first idea on the first page of Chapter 7 regarding the number e.

1.) The function y = ex at point x evaluates to ex. The slope of the tangent
line to the curve y = ex at any point x is also ex.

At left below, we see the graph of the curve y = x2, and in the rightmost graph we see the graph of the
curve y = x3. Notice for the two curves below that f(x) does not equal the slope of the line tangent at that
point.

3 3
At point (1,1), m = 2 and
At point (1,1), m = 3 and
2 f(1) = 1. The slope does 2 f(1) = 1. The slope does
f(x) = x2 not equal the function
not equal the function
1 value. 1 value.

—3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4 —
2 —
1 1 2 3 4
—1 —1
f(x) = x3
—2 —2

However, for the curve y = ex, for any x, the slope of the tangent line at that point (x, y) is ex. Also the
value of the function at x is ex. That’s pretty neat!!

8 f(x) = ex
7
6
5
4
3 At point (x, ex), m = ex. At
point x, f(x) = ex. Therefore,
2 f(x) equals the slope of the
1 tangent at point (x, ex).

—2 —1 1 2 3 4
 Chapter 7: More about e and the Natural Logarithm 58

2.) The area under the curve y = ex from –∞ to x = 1 is e units. Not 2, not 5, not 10
but e units. That’s neat too!

y = ex
3
8 y = ex
2
7
The area under the
1 curve is e units. 6
5
area = e2
—
4 —3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4 4
3
This remarkable pattern continues. The area 2
under the curve y = ex from -∞ to x for any x is ex
square units. See the figure at right. 1

—4 —3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4

3.) The rate of change (the slope of a tangent at any given point) for the inverse of the function
of y = ex—i.e., the log function, y = ln(x)—is 1/x. That’s interesting!

In the graph of the log function shown below, you can see that a line drawn tangent to the log function
between 0 and 1 is very, very steep. As x grows larger and larger, the slope grows more and more flat.
That is, m is large when the denominator of 1/x is between 0 and 1 but becomes smaller and smaller as x
grows larger and larger. For the curve y = ln (x) the slope of the tangent line at any point is 1/x. !!!

2 at x = 3
m = 1/3

—2 —1 1 2 3 4 5 6
—1 The slope at any point on y = ln x is 1/x!!
at x = 1/2
m=2 — 2
 Chapter 7: More about e and the Natural Logarithm 59

4.) The area under the curve y = 1/x from x = 1 to x = e is equal to 1 square unit. It
only makes sense that there must be a value of x that will be cause the area under
the curve y = 1/x from 1 to x to be 1 square unit but who would have thought that
the value would be e? Why e?! Is that a coincidence or what!

y = 1/x

1 area = 1

1 2 3 4
2.71818
—1

5.) The functions f(x) = ex and f(x) = ln x can both be evaluated using esthetically
pleasing infinite series polynomials.

1 1 1 1 1 1
e = + + + + + + ...
0! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
Check it out:

e1 ≈ 1
e2 ≈ 1 + 1 = 2
1
e3 ≈ 1 + 1 + = 2 .5
2
1 1
e4 ≈ 1 + 1 + + = 2.66667
2 6
1 1 1
e5 ≈ 1+1+ + + = 2.70833
2 6 24
1 1 1 1
e6 ≈ 1+1+ + + + = 2.7166667
2 6 24 120
1 1 1 1 1
e7 ≈ 1+1+ + + + + = 2.71805556,etc.
2 6 24 120 720

The terms in the sequence 1, 2, 2.5, 2.66666, 2.70833, 2.7166633, 2.7180555 … would seem to be
converging to e, 2.718281828 …
 Chapter 7: More about e and the Natural Logarithm 60

5.) continued

1 (x − 1) 1 (x − 1) 1 (x − 1) 1 ( x − 1) 1 ( x − 1)
1 2 3 4 5
ln x = 1
+ 2
+ 3
+ 4
+ 5
+ ...
1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x
( x>1)

Check it out (4/5 = 0.8):

1
ln 5 ≈ (0.8) +
1
(0.8)2 + 1 (0.8)3 + 1 (0.8)4 + 1 (0.8)5 + 1 (0.8)6
2 3 4 5 6
ln (5) ≈ 0.8
ln (5) ≈ 0.8 + 0.32 = 1.12
ln (5) ≈ 0.8 + 0.32 + 0.17066 = 1.29067
ln (5) ≈ 0.8 + 0.32 + 0.17066 + 0.1024 = 1.39307
ln (5) ≈ 0.8 + 0.32 + 0.17066 + 0.1024 + 0.65536 = 1.458602667
ln (5) ≈ 0.8 + 0.32 + 0.17066 + 0.1024 + 0.65536 + 0.043690667 = 1.502293333
ln (5) ≈ 1.50229333 + 0.0299593 = 1.532252647
ln (5) ≈ 1.532252647 + 0.02097152 = 1.5532241676
ln (5) ≈ 1.5532241676 + 0.0149130808 = 1.5681372485
ln (5) ≈ 1.5681372485 + 0.01073741824 = 1.57887466675
ln (5) ≈ 1.57887466674 + 0.00780903145 = 1.58668369820
ln (5) ≈ 1.58668369819 + 0.00572662306 = 1.59241032126
ln (5) ≈ 1.59241032125 + 0.00422889088 = 1.59663921213
ln (5) ≈ 1.59663921213 + 0.00314146179 = 1.59978067393
ln (5) ≈ 1.59978067392 + 0.00234562480 = 1.6021262987
The sequence above 0.8, 1.12, 1.29066, 1.39306, 1.458602666, etc. is slowly converging to
ln 5 = 1.60943791
As discussed before ⎛ 1⎞
k

6.) The sequence defined by ⎜1 + ⎟ converges to e.

⎝ k⎠

⎛ 1⎞
10

⎜1+ ⎟ = 2.59374246
⎝ 10 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
100

⎜1+ ⎟ = 2.704813829
⎝ 100 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
1000

⎜1+ ⎟ = 2.716923932
⎝ 1000 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
10000

⎜1+ ⎟ = 2.718145927
⎝ 10000 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
100000

⎜1+ ⎟ = 2.718268237
⎝ 100000 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞1000000
⎜1+ ⎟ = 2.718280469
⎝ 1000000 ⎠
 Chapter 7: More about e and the Natural Logarithm 61

7.) As x gets close to 0 by powers of 10, the

function log(1 + x) gets closer and closer
to a diminished magnitude of log e!

⎛ x⎞
k

while the sequence defined by ⎜1 + ⎟ converges to ex as k gets larger and larger.

⎝ k⎠
We know that log 1 = 0 because 100 = 1. So it is not surprising that log (1 + x) is not 0. However, there is
a fascinating, highly predictable sequence of numbers that results when taking log values that get closer
and closer to 1 by powers of 10 … that is the function y = log (1 + x) as x decreases to 0 by powers of 10.
That is surprising! Let’s do an experiment taking log values of numbers that get closer and closer to 1 by
powers of 10 and see if a pattern results that we recognize.

Number Log of number Distance “x” of Number from 1

1.1 0.0413926852 0.1

1.01 0.0043213738 0.01
1.001 0.0004340774793 0.001
1.0001 0.00004342727686 0.0001
1.00001 0.000004342923104 0.00001
1.000001 0.0000004342942647 0.000001
1.0000001 0.00000004342944604 0.0000001

Numbers decreasing Numbers here decreasing

by powers of 10 to zero as expected

Deja vu! Those bold face numbers in the middle column look familiar. Back in chapter 5, we discussed
the mysterious number e (2.718281828) that frequently occurs in nature and business and how it could be
replaced with a power of 10. The formula for continuous interest, S = P ert, was rewritten as
S = P (10)0.4342944819rt. We were able to rewrite that formula by the following process:

e = 10x
log e = log 10x
log e = x log 10
log e = x×1 (do you understand why log 10 = 1?)
log e = x
x = log e = 0.4342944819 by calculator

Now do you remember? Revisit the table above and see what is happening. As x decreases to 0 by powers
of 10 the function log (1 + x) decreases to 0 as expected. (Recall that log 1 = 0.) But also at the same time
the significant digits of the log (1 + x) get closer and closer to log e, 0.4342944819.

0.0413926852, 0.0043213738, 0.0004340774793, 0.00004342727686,

0.000004342923104, 0.0000004342942647, 0.00000004342944604 …

At each step as x is diminished by powers of 10, the resulting term decreases to zero, while the number of
significant digits of log e is increased. Symbolically, log (1 + x) = x (log e) = log ex as x gets smaller and
smaller. The number e (2.718281828) or in this case log e (0.4342944819) seems to pop up over and over
and over in the most unexpected situations! The existence of a numerical sequence decreasing to zero for
log (1 + x) should have been anticipated but did you anticipate the “e based pattern of significant digits”
for each term in the sequence? Cute!
 Chapter 7: More about e and the Natural Logarithm 62
and finally

8.) As x gets close to 0 by powers of 10, the function 10x gets

closer and closer to 1 + a diminished magnitude of ln 10.

We know that 100 = 1, so it not surprising that 10x ≠ 1 when x ≠ 0. However, there is a highly predictable
sequence of numbers that results by evaluating 10x for values that get closer and closer to 0 by powers of
10. That is surprising! Let’s do an experiment by obtaining values 10x for x values getting closer and
closer to zero and see if we can recognize a pattern.

x 10x
0.1 1.2589254117941673
0.01 1.023292992280754
0.001 1.0023052380778996
0.0001 1.0002302850208247
0.00001 1.0000230261160268
0.000001 1.000002302587744
0.0000001 1.0000002302585358
0.00000001 1.0000000230258512

Since 100 = 1 it is not surprising that the sequence of numbers in column 2 is decreasing to 1. What is
surprising is the predictable pattern of significant digits in the numbers in column 2. Compare that
sequence of numbers in the second column with ln 10 = 2.302585092994046. Recall that ln 10 is
equivalent to loge 10. There’s that number e again!!

Chapter 7 Summary—The number e, when viewed as a base for an exponential expression has
some very interesting properties.

1.) The rate of change of the function y = ex is itself ex.

2.) The area under the curve y = ex from negative infinity to x = 1 is e units.
3.) The rate of change of the natural log function with base e at any point is 1/x.
1
4.) The area under the curve y = from x = 1 to x = e is exactly 1.
x
5.) The functions f(x) = ex and f(x) = ln (x) can both be evaluated using esthetically pleasing
infinite series polynomials.
⎛ 1⎞
k
⎛ x⎞
k

6.) The sequence defined by ⎜1 + ⎟ converges to e1 while the sequence defined by ⎜1 + ⎟

⎝ k⎠ ⎝ k⎠
x
converges to e .
7.) As x gets closer and closer to 0 by powers of 10, the function log (1 + x) gets closer and
closer to a diminished magnitude of log e … log (1 + x) = x log e.
8.) As x gets closer and closer to 0 by powers of 10, the function 10x gets closer and closer to
1 + a diminished magnitude of ln 10 (i.e., 1 + x × loge 10)
 Chapter 7: More about e and the Natural Logarithm 63

Chapter 7 Exercises
1.) On the second page of this chapter, there was a discussion of instantaneous rate of speed. From
that discussion of the rate of speed over decreasing intervals of time, how fast do you think the
missile will be traveling at the “instant” that it strikes the target? Explain your answer.

2.) In the graph of y = ex (at right) you should y = ex

see several secant lines all drawn through
the same end point, (1, e). By repeatedly 3
(1, e1)
applying the slope-between-two-points
formula, m = (y2 – y1)/(x2 – x1), find the 2
(—1, e—1) (0.5, e0.5)
slope of sec1, sec2, sec3, and sec4.
1
(—2, e-2) (0, e0)
Describe what is happening to the successive
secant slopes as the initial points approach the
—4 —3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4
fixed end point at (1, e). sec1 sec4
sec2 sec3

3.) For the graph at right, y = 1/x, approximate y = 1/x

the area under the curve from 1 to 2.71828 by r1
adding up the areas of the four rectangles, 1 r2
r3
r1 + r2 + r3 + r4. r4

1 2 3 4
2.71818
—1

4.) For the graph at right, y = 1/x, approximate the

area under the curve from 1 to 2.71828 by adding y = 1/x
up the areas of the four rectangles, r1 + r2 + r3 + r4. r1
r2
1 r3
r4

1 2 3 4
2.71818
—1
 Chapter 7: More about e and the Natural Logarithm 64
5.) Average the two areas you got in questions #4 and #5. What did you get? What do you think
might happen if the number of rectangles is increased to say 8, 16, etc.?

6.) You know that log10 1 = 0. Use your 3

calculator to find each of the following
values: 2

log10 0.9 = 1
log10 0.99 =
log10 0.999 =
log10 0.9999 = —2 —1 1 2 3 4 5 6
—1 Evaluate these y values.
log10 0.99999 =
log10 0.999999 = —2
log10 0.9999999 =
log10 0.99999999 =
log10 0.999999999 =

What do you notice about the pattern of your answers?

7.) You are on a game show … “The Weakest Link.” You are asked to enumerate eight fun facts
about the number e, the exponential curve y = ex, or the log curve y = ln x. How many can you
name?
 Chapter 8: More Log Rules 65

Chapter 8: More Log Rules

All the rules learned to this point are gathered together and listed below for reference

bm × bn = b( m + n ) Product of Common Base Factors Rule

bm
= b( m − n ) Quotient of Common Bases Rule
bn
log(x × y) = log x + log y Log of a Product Rule
⎛ x⎞
log⎜ ⎟ = log x − log y Log of a Quotient Rule,
⎝ y⎠
m = n iff b m = b n iff Antilog Rule

m = n iff log m = log n iff Log Rule

b y = x is equivalent to y = log b x Equivalent Symbolism Rule

logb bx = x Inverse Log Rule #1 (Log of an Exponential Rule)

log x
b b =x Inverse Log Rule #2 (Power of a Base Rule)

log bm = m log b Log of a Base Raised to a Power Rule

x × y = 10(log x + log y ) Rule to Multiply Using Logarithms

x
= 10(log x − log y ) Rule to Divide Using Logarithms
y
log q x
log p x = Change of Base Log Rule … change from base p to q.
log q p
log y
If bx = y then x = Rule to Solve for an Exponent
log b
If b = q then q = 10 y
x x log b
y
Rule to Raise a Constant to a Power

Depending on the course you are in, it is possible that you might see other log rules. For example,
1
a.) log a b =
log b a
b.) (loga b) (logb c) = loga c

In general you should approach each of these formulas as follows:

1.) Get a feel for the log rule by choosing arbitrary values for a, b, and c and check to how the
formula holds for your values.
2.) See if you can apply a combination of the above-listed Log Rules to prove the new rule. Be
creative and flexible.
 Chapter 8: More Log Rules 66
1
For example: a.) log a b =
log b a

1.) Get a feel for the log rule by choosing arbitrary values for a and b and check how the rule
holds for your values. Let a = 10 and b = 450

1
so log a b =
log b a
?
becomes log10 450 = 1
log 450 10
?
2.653212514 = 1
log 450 10
log10 10
Solving for log450 10 = Change of Base Rule
log10 450
1
= Inverse Log Rule #1
2.653212514
= 0.3769015843.
Substituting 0.3769015843 for log450 10 into the previous equation,
?
2.653212514 = 1
0.3769015843
2.653212514 = 2.653212514 check

2.) See if you can apply a combination of the above-listed Log Rules to prove the new rule.
Be creative and flexible.
?
log a b = 1
log b a
loga b × logb a = 1 cross-multiply
let k = loga b arbitrary substitution, you will see why in two more steps
k × logb a = 1 substitution
k
logb a = 1 Log of a Power Rule
logb a log a b
= 1 back substitution
logb b = 1 Power of a Base Rule
b1 = b Equivalent Symbolism Rule QED
 Chapter 8: More Log Rules 67
Your turn.

Process the log rule (loga b) (logb c) = loga c

1.) Get a feel for the log rule by choosing arbitrary values for a, b, and c and checking how the
rule holds for your values. Say a = 3, b = 5, and c = 7. Hint, convert each term into Base 10
using
log10 x
log p x = Change of Base Log Rule … change from base p into base 10
log10 p

2.) prove (loga b) (logb c) = loga c

Since two of the three terms in the log rule (loga b) (logb c) = loga c have a base of “a” Maybe
changing the remaining term, (logb c) to base “a” using the Change of Base Log Rule and
substituting appropriately might be helpful.
log q x
log p x = Change of Base Log Rule … change from base p into base q
log q p

Chapter 8 Summary—Chapter 8 discussed the fact that there are more log rules than have been
discussed up to now. Should you ever encounter them, apply the following two steps to
learning about them and feeling comfortable about them.

1.) Get a feel for the log rule by choosing arbitrary values for whatever variables are involved
and checking how the formula holds for your values.
2.) See if you can apply a combination of the above-listed Log Rules to prove the new rule. Be
creative and flexible.

Chapter 8 Exercises
Given the log rule logbn x n = log b x

Show that you can apply the process discussed in this chapter to the new log rule above. Hint: Apply the
Equivalent Symbolism Rule for logs and the Power of a Power Rule from algebra to prove this rule.
 Chapter 9: Asymptotes, Curve Sketching, Domains & Ranges 68

Chapter 9: Asymptotes, Curve Sketching, Domains & Ranges

The astute reader may have noticed something about all the exponential and log curves we have seen
so far. The exponential curves have always had nonnegative y values. This comes about because the base
of an exponential curve is positive by definition. In that case, y = bx will always be positive due to the
closure property of multiplication. Notice that when x < 1 the corresponding y is small, and as x becomes
larger than 1 y becomes large very fast. At least, this is true when the base (2 in this case) is greater than
one.
y = 2x 8
7
x y y = 2x
1 6
–2 /4
1 5
–1 /2
4
0 1
1 2 3
2 4 2
3 8 1

—2 —1 1 2 3 4

However when 0 < base < 1 the curve’s appearance is as follows.

3
y = 1/2x y = 1-2
x

2
x y
–3 8
1
–3 4
–1 2
0 1 —4 —3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1
1 /2 —1
1
2 /4
—2

Plotting both curves on the same axis, we get —3

the figure at right.
5
y = bx 4 y = bx
b<1 3 b>1
2
1

—2 —1 1 2 3 4

Regardless of the value of b (as long as b is positive) the resulting graph of the exponential function y = bx
never drops below the x axis. Its domain is all real numbers and its range is positive. We say that the
function f(x) = bx is asymptotic with the x axis.
 Chapter 9: Asymptotes, Curve Sketching, Domains & Ranges 69
Forming the inverse of y = 2x, we get its associated log curve. As the two curves are inverses, it
should not surprise us when the asymptotes for the two curves are exchanged along with the
exchange of the x and y values.
y = 2x x = 2y 8
(y = log2 x) 7 y = 2x
6
x y x y 5 y=x
1 1
–2 /4 /4 –2 4
1 1
–1 /2 /2 –1 x = 2y
x 3
0 1 1 0 (y = 2 (y = log2x
1 2 2 1 domain: all real 2 domain: x > 0
2 4 4 2 range: y > 0) 1 range: all real)
3 8 8 3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4

Choosing b, where 0 < b < 1, and again placing the exponential curve on the same x–y axis as its inverse
we get the figure at right. Again the
asymptotes are exchanged. 3 y=x
x
y = 1-
2
y = 1/2x x = 1/2y domain: all real 2
( y = log 1 2 x ) range: y > 0
1
x y x y
–3 8 8 –3
—4 —3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
–3 4 4 –3
–1 2 2 –1 —1
0 1 1 0 y = log1-x
1 1
/2 1
/2 1 —2
2
(x = -y)
1
2
1 1 domain: x > 0
2 /4 /4 2
—3 range: all real
All the curve-sketching tricks you
learned with polynomial and trig graphs work with exponential and log curves as well. For y = a × bx the
curve stretches vertically for a > 1 and flattens for a < 1. The curve y = a × log (x) stretches vertically for
a > 1 and flattens for a < 1. Notice that the asymptote of neither curve is affected by the multiplier!!

3 y = abx 3
y = alogb x
y= abx a=1 a>1
a>1 2 2
y = abx y = alogb x
1 a<1 1
a=1
y = alog x
a<1 b
—5 —4 —
3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4 6 6 —1 1 2 3 4 5 6
—1
 Chapter 9: Asymptotes, Curve Sketching, Domains & Ranges 70
Continuing our experiment with curve-sketching techniques, we illustrate the vertical shift for y = bx and
for y = logb x. Here the asymptote for the exponential functions is affected but not those of the log
functions. Why is the asymptote for the exponential functions affected by a vertical shift while the
asymptote for the log function is not? Well, to begin with, a vertical shift is either up or down and that
would not change a vertical asymptote. Another way of thinking about this is to change from y = log2 (x)
into x = 2y. Now a vertical shift only changes the y value. As long as the base is positive (2 in this case),
the x value will have to remain positive.

4 4 y = log2 x + 3
y = 2x+3
3
y = 2x 3

2 2
y = 2x—1 y = log2 x
1 1

—5 —4 —3 —2 —1 1 2 —1 1 2 3 4 5 6
—1 —1
y = log2 x -2
—2

—3

And of course we need to experiment with the horizontal shift for both the exponential and the
logarithmic functions. Notice that the exponential functions’ asymptotes are unchanged after the
horizontal shift, but the horizontal shift does affect the asymptote for the log function. Why would this
be?

y = 2x
y = 2(x-1)
(x+3)
y=2
3 3

2 2

1 1
y = log2 (x + 3)

—
5 —4 —3 —2 —1 1 2 3 —3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4 5 6
y = log2 x
—1 y = log2 (x —2)
 Chapter 9: Asymptotes, Curve Sketching, Domains & Ranges 71
We have been examining all the curve-sketching 3
skills as they apply to graphing the exponential and
log curves. In general form, we have now analyzed 2
y = a logb (x – h) + k. Is there anything else? Well, in y = log2 x
the example given above, the multiplier was positive. 1
What would happen if the multiplier were negative?
Do you see that the rising log curve gets reflected —1 1 2 3 4 5 6
about the x axis? We should have anticipated that a
—1
negative multiplier would change any previously y = —log2 x
positive values to negative values and vice versa. —2

—3
Let’s put all this together. Graph

1
y = − log 1 2 ( x + 4) + 2 without a graphing calculator.
3

A quick look at this functions shows that there are 6 things to take into consideration:

1.) This is a log function for b > 1 2.) This is a log function with a base less than one
(say 1/2). This requires using the change of base
formula for work with a calculator.
3 3

2 2

1 y = logb x with b > 1 1 y = logb x with b < 1

—1 1 2 3 4 5 6 —1 1 2 3 4 5 6
—
1 —1

—
2 —2

—
3 —3

Vertical asymptote here is x = 0. Vertical asymptote here is still x = 0.

Domain: x > 0 Domain: x > 0
Range: –∞ < y < ∞ Range: –∞ < y < ∞
 Chapter 9: Asymptotes, Curve Sketching, Domains & Ranges 72
3.) The negative multiplier will reflect the curve 4.) There is a “shrink” or flattening effect because
about the x axis. the absolute value of the multiplier is less than
1.

3 3

2 2
y = —log1/ x
2 y = —1/3log1/ x
1 1 2

—1 1 2 3 4 5 6 —1 1 2 3 4 5 6
—1 —1

—2 —2

—3 —3

Vertical asymptote here is x = 0. Vertical asymptote here is still x = 0.

Domain: x > 0 Domain: x > 0
Range: –∞ < y < ∞ Range: –∞ < y < ∞

5.) There is a horizontal shift of –4. 6.) And finally, there is a vertical shift of 2.
3 3

2 y=—1/ log (x+4) 2

3 1/
2
y = —1/3log1/ (x+4) + 2
2

1 1

—1 1 2 3 4 5 6 —1 1 2 3 4 5 6
—1 —1

—2 —2

—3 —3

Vertical asymptote here is still x = –4. Vertical asymptote here is now x = –4.
Domain: x > –4 Domain: x > –4
Range: –∞ < y < ∞ Range: –∞ < y < ∞

From inspection of the figure in #6, what are the domain and range of the final function?

1
y = − log 1 2 ( x + 4) + 2
3

From looking at the generalized formula y = a × logb (x + h) + k what are the domain, range, and
asymptote of that generalized function in terms of h and k?

Your turn: In stages, as shown above, use what you know about curve sketching to find the domain
and range of the function f(x) = 5 × log7 (x + 7) – 4. Sketch the curve labeling all important
information.
 Chapter 9: Asymptotes, Curve Sketching, Domains & Ranges 73
Problem: Give the domain and range of the relation logx (y – 2) = logx (4 – x)

This sort of problem requires some thought.

Step 1: The term domain pertains to allowable x values.

Step 2: In chapter 2, we found, for y = logb x, that b > 0, b ≠ 1, and x > 0 (in a log function the
domain is positive and the base is positive and not equal to 1).

In both sides of the equation above the base = x, therefore x > 0, x ≠ 1

Also, in logb k, k > 0 (see chapter 2). therefore, for y = logx (4 – x), (4 – x) > 0
3
So 4 > x + 0
x<4 2

1.) x > 0 1
2.) x ≠ 1
3.) x < 4
—1 1 2 3 4 5
Or 0 < x < 4, x ≠ 1 —1
logx (x—4)
Step 3: The term range pertains to allowable y values. —2

Step 4: Since, for logb k, k > 0 (See chapter 2). —3

Therefore, for y = logx (y – 2), y – 2 > 0, so y > 2

Applying the iff Log Rule (a = b iff log a = log b) 6

to the original equation in order to put into
graphing form “y = ” X y 5 0 < x < 4, x › 1
0 Err
logx (y–2) = logx (4–x) 0.5 5.5 4
y–2 = 4–x 1 Err y>2
1.5 4.5 3
y = –x + 6 with 0 < x < 4, x ≠ 1 2 4
2.5 3.5 2
Chapter 9 Summary—We have found 2.5 3.5
that the curve-sketching techniques logx (y—2) = logx (x— 4)
3 3 1
that work with both polynomials 3.5 2.5
and trig curves also work with the 4 Err
exponential and logarithmic curves. —1 1 2 3 4 5
We have found that exponential curves are always asymptotic with a horizontal line and log
curves are always asymptotic with a vertical line. We reviewed that the base of an exponential
function and its inverse function (the log function) is positive (but ≠ 1 for the log function). We
also reviewed that the domain for the exponential function was all real numbers while the
range for the log function was all real numbers. Finally we reviewed that the range for the
exponential function is positive while the domain for the log function is positive.
 Chapter 9: Asymptotes, Curve Sketching, Domains & Ranges 74
Chapter 9 Exercises
1.) In chapter 9, we learned that after a vertical shift the asymptotes for the exponential function are
affected, but not those of the log functions. The text tries to explain why that would be. Then we
saw figures that showed a horizontal shift for the exponential and log functions. Notice that the
exponential functions’ asymptote are unaffected after the horizontal shift, but the horizontal shift
does affect the asymptote for the log function. Explain.

y = 2x
y = 2(x-1)
(x+3)
y=2
3 3

2 2

1 1
y = log2 (x + 3)

—
5 —4 —3 —2 —1 1 2 3 —3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4 5 6
y = log2 x
—1 y = log2 (x —2)

1
2.) In chapter 9, you saw the step by step graphing of the log function y = − log 1 2 ( x + 4) + 2 . Show
3
1
that you understand progressive graphing by graphing the exponential curve y = − 2( x− 3) − 4 . At
5
each graphing stage, indicate the asymptote, the domain, and the range for the function at that
step.
3.) In chapter 5, we were shown the formula for the measurement of pH.

Measurement of PH

pH is the measure of activity of hydrogen ions in a solution.

The formula for calculating pH is:

Graph this relation with pH as the dependent variable.

 Chapter 10 … Practice, Practice, Practice 75

Chapter 10 … Practice, Practice, Practice

As with any skill proficiency requires practice, practice, and more practice. This entire chapter is
dedicated to practicing all the skills learned to this point in different ways and situations.

All the rules learned to this point are gathered together and listed below for reference

bm × bn = b( m + n ) Product of Common Base Factors Rule

bm
n
= b( m−n ) Quotient of Common Bases Rule
b
log(x × y) = log x + log y Log of a Product Rule
⎛ x⎞
log⎜ ⎟ = log x − log y Log of a Quotient Rule,
⎝ y⎠
m = n iff b m = b n iff Antilog Rule
m = n iff log m = log n iff Log Rule
b y = x is equivalent to y = log b x Equivalent Symbolism Rule
logb bx = x Inverse Log Rule #1 (Log of an Exponential Rule)
log x
b b =x Inverse Log Rule #2 (Power of a Base Rule)
log bm = m log b Log of a Base Raised to a Power Rule
x × y = 10(log x + log y ) Rule to Multiply Using Logarithms
x
= 10(log x− log y ) Rule to Divide Using Logarithms
y
log q x
log p x = Change of Base Log Rule … change from base p to q.
log q p
log y
If bx = y then x = Rule to Solve for an Exponent
log b
If b y = q then q = 10 y
x x log b
Rule to Raise a Constant to a Power

Problem #1: Problem #2:

Graph log y = –log x Graph log y = 2 log x
log y = log x–1 Log of a Base Raised to log y = log x2 Log of a Base Raised to
a Power Rule a Power Rule
y = x–1 iff Log Rule y = x2 iff Log Rule
2 y= 1/x 2 y=x2
for y>0
1 for y>0
x>0 1 x>0

—4 —3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4 5
—4 —3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4 5
—1
—1

—2
—2
 Chapter 10 … Practice, Practice, Practice 76
3.) Evaluate log6 6–20 without a calculator 4.) Evaluate 3 log2 4 without a calculator

Applying the rule logb bx = x this is easy … –20 Let 3 log2 4 = x

Then log2 43 = x Log of a Base Raised to a
Power Rule
2x = 43 Equivalent Symbolism
Rule
2x = (22)3
2x = 26
x = 6 iff Antilog Rule

5.) Estimate log3 15. Then evaluate using the Change of Base Rule and your calculator.
Estimate as follows: 9 = 32 < 3x < 33 = 27

Now applying the Change of Base Log Rule … change from base p into base q

log q x
logp x=
log q p
log15
then log3 15 =
log 3
1.17609
=
0.47712
= 2.464974

Check: log3 15 = x can be rewritten as 3x = 15 by the Equivalent Symbolism Rule Then 32.464974
= 15.00007898 by calculator verifies our work

6.) Simplify (logx y) (logy x)

When faced with a logarithm problem with different bases it is a good rule of thumb that you
convert one of them so that both terms have the same base.
Applying the Change of Base Log Rule … change from base p into base q,

log q x
logp x = (general rule)
log q p
log y y
logx y = (applying the general rule to (logx y) and substituting
log y x
logy y
Then log x
logy x y = 1 (can you see that logy y = 1?)

By the transitive rule, (logx y) (logy x) = 1 … the original two terms were multiplicative inverses!!
 Chapter 10 … Practice, Practice, Practice 77

7.) Simplify 4 log5 p – log5 q

log5 p4 – log5 q Log of a Base Raised to a Power Rule

p4
log 5 Log of a Quotient Rule
q

8.) Solve log2 (x – 3) + log2 (x + 1) = 5

log2 (x – 3)(x + 1) = 5 Log of a Product Rule
log2 (x2 – 2x – 3) = 5 FOIL
5 2
2 = x – 2x – 3 Equivalent Symbolism Rule
2
x – 2x – 3 = 32
2
x – 2x – 35 = 0
(x – 7)(x + 5) = 0 Reverse FOIL
x = 7, –5
check: log2 (7 – 3) + log2 (7 + 1) = 5 ? log2 (–5 – 3) + log2 (–5 + 1) = 5 ?
log2 4 + log2 8 = 5 ? log2 (–8) + log2 (–4) = 5 ?
log2 (4 × 8) = 5 ? log2 (–8 × –4) = 5 ?
log2 32 = 5 ? log2 32 = 5 ?
25 = 32 ck! 25 = 32 ck! ??????

What is wrong with the second 5

answer, x = –5? Let’s look at the graph of
the conditions. Hopefully you can see for log2 (x —3)
4
the sum graph that only values x > 3 are +
allowed in the solution set. So we will log2 (x + 1)
3
have to reject the solution x = –5 as
extraneous.
2
We should have checked on the
domain in the equation at first. Because 1
logb x requires x > 0 then log2 (x – 3)
requires (x – 3) > 0 and log2 (x + 1)
requires (x + 1) > 0. Therefore —4 —
3 —
2 —1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(x > 3) ∩ (x > –1) results in a domain —1
of x > 3. log2 (x + 1)
log2 (x —3)
(domain x > — 1)
—2 (domain x > 3)
 Chapter 10 … Practice, Practice, Practice 78

⎛p q⎞
9.) Expand log⎜ ⎟ using the laws of logarithms.
⎝ c ⎠
log p + 1/2 log (q) – log c by Log of Product, Quotient, and a Base Raised to a Power Rules

10.) Given log2 3 = x, log2 5 = y, log2 7 = z

15
Express log 2 in terms of x, y, and z
7
15
Let k = log 2
7
3×5
k = log 2 Inverse Log Rule #1 … Log of a Power Rule
7
k = log2 (3) + log2 (5) – log2 (7) Log of a Product and Quotient Rules
k = x+y–z Substitution

11.) Simplify log3 54 – log3 8 + log3 4

log3 54 – log3 8 + log3 4 =
log3 (54 / 8) + log3 4 = Log of a Quotient Rule
log3 ((27 / 4) × 4) = Log of a Product Rule
log3 27 = x
3x = 27 Equivalent Symbolism Rule
x=3

12.) State the values of x for which the following identity is true.
log5 (x+1) + log5 (x–4) = log5 (x2 – 3x – 4)
log5 ((x+1) × (x–4)) = log5 (x2 – 3x – 4) Log of Product Rule
2
(x + 1) × (x – 4) = x – 3x – 4 iff Log Rule
2 2
x – 3x – 4 = x – 3x – 4 FOIL
all real values of x
Well, maybe not. Log5 (x + 1)has a domain of x > –1 and log5 (x – 4) has a domain of x > 4
{ x > –1} ∩ {x > 4} = {x > 4}
 Chapter 10 … Practice, Practice, Practice 79
Let’s see what the function log5 (x2 – 3x – 4) looks like:
2
y = log5 (x2 —3x —4)
1

—4 —3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4 5 6
—1

Wow! Who would have thought?! Where did that log graph come from anyway? We have never taken
the log of a quadratic expression before, only linear ones. Let’s graph the parabola x2 – 3x – 4 and
compare the log curve above with this parabola.

3
2
y = log5 (x2 —3x —4) 1 y = log5 (x2 —3x —4)

—4 —3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4 5 6
—1
—2
—3
—4 y = x2 —3x —4
—5
—6
—7

By visualizing vertical asymptotes at x = –1 and x = 4, we notice that whenever y = x2 – 3x – 4 < 0

(–1 < x < 4) the log curve y = log (x2 – 3x – 4) is undefined. That makes sense as the log function is
only defined for when the log argument > 0 (Chap. 2 remember?). So we conclude that
log5 (x2 – 3x – 4) implies that x2 – 3x – 4 > 0. Therefore (x + 1) (x – 4) > 0 which is only true when
x > -1 and x > 4 (or when x < -1 and x < 4).

{x > –1} ∩ {x > 4} = {x > 4} so reject x > –1 for the domain of the identity.

13.) Solve 42x (8x+3) = 32(4–x)

(22)2x (23)(x+3) = (25)(4–x) check: 4(22/12) × 8(11/12 + 3) = 32(4 – 11/12) ???
24x × 2(3x + 9) = 2(20 – 5x) (22)(22/12) × (23)(47/12) = (25)(37/12) ???
2(7x + 9) = 2(20 – 5x) 2(44/12) × 2(141/12) = 2(185/12) ???
7x + 9 = 20 – 5x 2(185/12) = 2(185/12) check
12x = 11
x = 11/12
 Chapter 10 … Practice, Practice, Practice 80
14.) Solve 4 × 3(3x) = 9(x+1)
Somehow combine the x terms
4 × 33 x 9 x +1
=
33 x 33 x
(32 )
x +1

4 ×1 =
33 x
2x + 2
3
4 =
33 x
bm
4 = 3 (–x + 2) = b m −n
bn
log (4) = log 3(–x + 2) iff Log Rule
log (4) = (–x + 2) log 3 Log of a Base Raised to a Power Rule
log 4
= –x + 2
log 3
log 4
x = 2–
log 3
0.60206
x = 2–
0.47712
x = 2 – 1.2618
x = 0.7382
2.2146
ck: 4×3 = 91.7382 ???
45.5714 = 45.5685 ck (to within the rounding error of the calculations)

15.) Solve for x: (log x)2 = a2

log x = ± (a)
10(± a) = x
x = 10a, 10–a

16.) Prove loga x = −log 1 a x

Get rid of negative coefficient and (1/a) base.
loga x = log 1 a x −1 Log of a Base Raised to a Power Rule

log 1 a x −1 = loga x Symmetric Property

1 log a x
= x(–1) Equivalent Symbolism Rule
a
(a−1) a = x(–1)
log x
(1/a ) = a(–1)

a− log a x = x(–1) (bm)n = bmn

−1
a log a x = x(–1) Log of a Base Raised to a Power Rule
(–1) (–1)
x = x Inverse Rule #2 Power of a Log Rule Q.E.D.
 Chapter 10 … Practice, Practice, Practice 81
ln x ln 2
17.) Solve =
x 2
Approach #1: Approach #2 Cross multiply
1 1
ln x = ln2 2 ln (x) = x × ln (2), domain x > 0
x 2
ln (x)2 = ln (2)x
1 1
ln x x
= ln2 2

x2 = 2x
1 1
x x
= 2 2

x
x = 2 x = ± 2 x domain x > 0
x = {2, 4} by inspection x = { 2, 4 } by inspection

Approach #3 If the problem is not contrived to give a clean answer, or if you are unsure of
yourself, and if the problem involves the log or ln functions. which are available on
any graphing calculator, you can graph your conditions and use the “Calc” button.

window: domain: [0,5] 4

y =ln 2
2
range: [0, 0.5] 3
y = ln x
curve intercepts: (2 & 4) x
2
x = {2, 4}
1

1 2 3 4 5

18.) Solve log 2 8 − log 1 2 8 =

Let log 2 8 = x and let log 1 2 8 = y

Then 2x = 8 and (1/2)y = 8

x = 3 2(–y) = 23

x = 3 y = –3

Substituting x and y back into the original expression

3 – (–3) = 6

With practice you can do these sort of problems in your head. Cover up the work and try.
 Chapter 10 … Practice, Practice, Practice 82
Chapter 10 Exercises
1.) Find the argument of the log.
a.) log2 x = 3
b.) log 1 3 x = 4
c.) log4 x = –1/2
d.) log(–4) x = 1/2
e.) log3 x = –4

2.) Find the log of the number

a.) log4 16 = x
b.) log 1 2 8 = x
c.) log5 0 = x
d.) log(–2) 10 = x
e.) log3 1 = x

3.) Find the base

a.) logx 16 = 4
b.) logx 4 = 1
c.) logx 16 = –4
d.) logx 64 = 3/4
e.) logx 0 = 2

4.) Simplify the expression

a.) log51 518
b.) 5 log 5 10
c.) 3log 24 24 − 3
2

d.) 8 log19 192

e.) 4 log 4 85

5.) Solve for x.

a.) 0.1963x = 2.68
b.) 242x = 5,240

6.) Find x
a.) log3 79 = x
b.) logx 79 = 6
c.) log3 x = 7.2
 Chapter 10 … Practice, Practice, Practice 83

7.) Simplify
a.) log5 625 + log3 (1/81) =
b.) 4 2× log 4 3 + 32× log 3 4 =
c.) 6 2× log 6 36 × 9 2× log 9 81 =
1

d.) 3 log10 4 – 2 log10 8 =

e.) log2 4 + log4 2 =

8.) Evaluate without a calculator

a.) ln 1 e.) log 1
b.) ln e f.) log 10
y
c.) ln e g.) log 10y
d.) eln y h.) 10log y

9.) Rewrite as an expression using sums and differences using the Log Rules
16 x 2
log
y

10.) The rule log (a + b) = log a + log b seems plausible. Let a = 10 and b = 20. Investigate using
your calculator. What did you find out?

a log a
11.) The rule log = looks plausible. Let a = 10 and b = 20. Investigate using your calculator.
b log b
What did you find out?
x
⎛ 1⎞3
12.) Solve without a calculator. 20⎜ ⎟ = 5
⎝ 2⎠

13.) Solve ln (3x – 2) + ln (x – 1) = 2(ln x) in two different ways:

a.) algebraically without a graphing calculator
b.) graphically with a calculator

14.) Solve 3(x – 1) = 5(2x + 3) in two different ways:

a.) algebraically without a graphing calculator
b.) graphically with a calculator

15.) State the Equivalence Symbolism Rule from memory.

 Appendix A: How Did Briggs Construct His Table of Common Logs? 84

Appendix A:
How Did Briggs Construct His Table of Common Logs?
The first five chapters of this text are pretty well written on the assumption that common logarithms
(logs with a base of 10) are somehow magically available. In the “post-scientific calculator world” we live
in, that assumption is close to accurate. However, prior to the availability of scientific calculators common
logarithms (powers of 10 required for any given numbers) were only available in a table of logarithms
that looked like the following:

From the log table, can you

see that the log of 2.81 Common Logarithms of Numbers
(log10 2.81) is 0.4487?
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 0000 0043 0086 0128 0170 0212 0253 0294 0334 0374
Check it out on your 11 0414 0453 0492 0531 0569 0607 0645 0682 0719 0755
calculator. 12 0792 0828 0864 0899 0934 0969 1004 1038 1072 1106
13 1139 1173 1206 1239 1271 1303 1335 1367 1399 1430
14 1461 1492 1523 1553 1584 1614 1644 1673 1703 1732
What do you think the log 15 1761 1790 1818 1847 1875 1903 1931 1959 1987 2014
of 28.1 would have been? 16 2041 2068 2095 2122 2148 2175 2201 2227 2253 2279
(see bottom of page) of 17 2304 2330 2355 2380 2405 2430 2455 2480 2504 2529
18 2553 2577 2601 2625 2648 2672 2695 2718 2742 2765
281? of 2,810? of 0.00281? 19 2788 2810 2833 2856 2878 2900 2923 2945 2967 2989
If you do not know, use 20 3010 3032 3054 3075 3096 3118 3139 3160 3181 3201
your calculator to find out. 21 3222 3243 3263 3284 3304 3324 3345 3365 3385 3404
22 3424 3444 3464 3483 3502 3522 3541 3560 3579 3598
23 3617 3636 3655 3674 3692 3711 3729 3747 3766 3784
(Beware. Obtaining log 24 3802 3820 3838 3856 3874 3892 3909 3927 3945 3962
table values of numbers 25 3979 3997 4014 4031 4048 4065 4082 4099 4116 4133
26 4150 4166 4183 4200 4216 4232 4249 4265 4281 4298
0<x<1 27 4314 4330 4346 4362 4378 4393 4409 4425 4440 4456
28 4472 4487 4502 4518 4533 4548 4564 4579 4594 4609
29 4624 4639 4654 4669 4683 4698 4713 4728 4742 4757
involve a special case
30 4771 4786 4800 4814 4829 4843 4857 4871 4886 4900
complication. See 31 4914 4928 4942 4955 4969 4983 4997 5011 5024 5038
Appendix D if you are 32 5051 5065 5079 5092 5105 5119 5132 5145 5159 5172
interested.) 33 5185 5198 5211 5224 5237 5250 5263 5276 5289 5302
34 5315 5328 5340 5353 5366 5378 5391 5403 5416 5428
There are sources that
detail how Henry Briggs spent decades developing and applying methods used to obtain this logarithmic
information. Very little of that history is relevant to today’s student. Still, a brief treatment of that process
may be of interest to the curious student. Actually, Mr. Briggs documented several techniques that he
used. I have chosen what I believe are the main ones to share with you. After developing the necessary
background, I will be presenting what I believe to be the spirit of Mr. Briggs’ work. Historical and
mathematical purists should refer to the following websites: 1.) www.jacques-laporte.org, Briggs and the
HP-35 submenu, 2.) http://www.jacques-laporte.org/The method of Henry Briggs.htm, and 3.) if you read
Danish, www.matematiksider.dk by Erik Vestergaard. All three websites were viable Nov.., 2007.
Answers: log 28.1 = 1.4487… where 1 is called the characteristic of the log and 0.4487 is called the mantissa
log 281 = 2.4487… where 2 is called the characteristic of the log and 0.4487 is called the mantissa
log 2,810 = 3.4487… where 3 is called the characteristic of the log and 0.4487 is called the mantissa
log 0.002810 = 0.4487 – 3 = –2.55129 See Appendix D for more discussion of the special case of using a log table to take a
log of a number x when 0 < x < 1
Note that the mantissa is the same for numbers 28.1, 281, 2,810, and all numbers x > 1 starting with digits 2,8,1.
The characteristic, however, is dependent on and communicates information about the magnitude of the number.
 Appendix A: How Did Briggs Construct His Table of Common Logs? 85
Step #1: Finding the square root of a number without using a calculator.
The ability to find a square root was well known in Mr. Briggs’ time. Even as late as the 1960s, I was
taught an algorithm that was probably very similar to the one he used. The reader is strongly advised to
skip over this material in Step #1. It is really tedious and very boring and irrelevant to today’s student.

1.) From the decimal in the radical, group the digits in groups of two. Group in twos going to the left and
to the right.
2.) Find the extreme left digit (or pair of digits) and mentally approximate the square root of it placing it
above the group. Here, the square root of 7 would be approximated to be 2 … place the 2 above the
seven. Square the number (2) and place below the seven.
3.) Subtract the 4 from the 7 and bring down the next two digits from the radical … 46.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
2 2
746.84 7 46 . 84 7 46 . 84 7 46 . 84
4 4
3 46

4.) Double the partial square root at that stage (2) and place the result to the left of the 3 46 with a _
indicating a digit to fill in later. Think: What is the highest digit I can place in the missing digit
location that will divide the 346? In this case it is 7.
5.) Locate that 7 above the radical and in the missing digit location. (4 becomes 47)
6.) Multiply 7 × 47 placing the result below the 3 46. Proceed to subtract and bring down the next group
of two digits … 84.
Step 4 Step 5 Step 6
2 2 7 2 7
7 46 . 84 7 46 . 84 7 46 . 84
4 4 4
(4_) 3 46 (47) 3 46 (47) 3 46
3 29
17 . 84

7.) Repeat starting in step 4. Double the partial square root at that stage (27) and place the result (54_) to
the left of the 17 84. Think: What is the highest digit I can place in the missing digit location that will
divide the 1,784? In this case it is 3.
8.) Locate that 3 above the radical and in the missing digit location.
9.) Multiply 3 × 543 placing the result below the 1,784. Proceed to subtract and bring down the next
group of two digits. Repeat step 4–6 (or 7–9) as many times as desired.
Step 7 Step 8 Step 9
2 7. 2 7. 2 7. 3
7 46 . 84 7 46 . 84 7 46 . 84 00
4 4 4
(47) 3 46 (47) 3 46 (47) 3 46
3 29 3 29 3 29
(54_) 17 . 84 (543) 17 . 84 (543) 17 . 84
16 . 29
1 . 55 00

ck: 27.3 × 27.3 = 745.29

 Appendix A: How Did Briggs Construct His Table of Common Logs? 86
Step #2: Repeated applications of the square root process could result in the following table of
information.
= 100.5
1
10 2
= 3.16227766
= 100.25
1
10 4
= 1.77827941
= 100.125
1
10 8
= 1.333521432
10 16 = 100.0625
1
= 1.154781985
= 100.03125
1
10 32
= 1.074607828
= 100.0156625
1
10 64
= 1.036632928
10 128 = 100.0078125
1
= 1.018151722
= 100.00390625 = 1.009035045
1
10 256

etc.
Also, because b n = n b m , Mr. Briggs could also have calculated 10 4 (100.75) or 10 8 (100.375) or 10 16
m 3 3 5

(100.3125) or 10 32 (100.53125) or 10 128 (100.4921875) or 10 256 (100.04296875) or any power whose

17 63 11

denominator was a power of two (2).

This technique was used by Mr. Briggs to get many of the values in his log table. More will be
discussed.
Step #3: Cube Roots
It is well documented that the mathematicians of the late 1500s could solve a generalized cubic
equation. Appendix B documents this fact.
As the ability to solve a cubic equation is predicated on the ability to extract a cube, it would be safe
to assume that Mr. Briggs knew how to extract a cube. That would allow him to calculate the
following log values in a manner similar to the way he extracted log values using the ability to take a
square root (refer to www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/cubeRoot.html, viable Nov., 2007, if you are really
curious.) Historical purists please forgive. There is nothing I can find that says Mr. Briggs utilized a
cube root algorithm in constructing his log table but it was a great excuse to put Cardan’s formula
into my text (Appendix B). It was available during the time period that Briggs was doing his work.
1 2 1 2 3 5 7 8
3 (0.333) 3 (0.667) 9 (0.111) 9 (0.222) 9 (0.444 ) 9 (0.556) 9 (0.778) 9 (0.889)
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
or any root that is a composite of the factors of 2 and 3,
1 5 1 5 (0.417) 11 (0.917) 1 17 53
e.g., 10 6 (0.167)
, 10 6 (0.833)
, 10 12(0.83) , 10 12
, 10 12
, 10 18(0.056) , 10 18 (0.944)
, 10 54 (0.981)
, etc.

The humble log table started in Step 2 has been greatly expanded!
 Appendix A: How Did Briggs Construct His Table of Common Logs? 87
Step #4: Integer Factoring
The reader has, no doubt, been exposed to the idea of integer factoring. For example, to factor 210 …
210
/2 = 105 Therefore 210 = 2 × 105
105
/7 = 15 Therefore 105 = 7 × 15
Therefore 210 = 2 × 7 × 15
15
/3 = 5 Therefore 3 × 5 = 15
Therefore 210 = 2 × 7 × 3 × 5
It can be proven that integer factoring or factoring to the primes always results in a unique set of
factors. In other words, there is only one set of factors in a complete integer factorization of an
integer.
Step #5: “Non-integer Factoring” For example, “factor” the number 131.
131
= 18.71428571 Therefore 131 = 7 × 18.71428571
7

18.71428571
= 3.7428571 Therefore 18.71428571 = 5 × 3.7428571
5
Therefore 131 = 7 × 5 × 3.7428571

3.7428571
= 1.247619048 Therefore 3.7428571 = 3 × 1.247619048
3
Therefore 131 = 7 × 5 × 3 × 1.247619048

1.247619048
= 1.03968254 Therefore 1.247619048 = 1.2 × 1.03968254
1.2
Therefore 131 = 7 × 5 × 3 × 1.2 × 1.03968254
1.03968254
= 1.004524193 Therefore 1.03968254 = 1.035 × 1.004524193
1.035
Therefore 131 = 7 × 5 × 3 × 1.2 × 1.035 × 1.004524193
What do you notice the sequence of factors that are underlined above?
18.71428571, 3.7428571, 1.247619048, 1.03968254, 1.004524193, …
These numbers are decreasing and approaching 1. In other words 131 can be factored as follows

131 = a × b × c × d × e × f × g × … × x × some number very close to one then for all practical
purposes, we could probably just write the expression as

131 = a × b × c × d × e × f × g × … × x and eliminate that last factor by applying the multiplicative

property of 1, x × 1 = x.

“Non-integer factoring” does not generate a unique set of factors.

 Appendix A: How Did Briggs Construct His Table of Common Logs? 88
Step # 6:
Combine concepts #2 and #5 above to approximate the log of any number to as many places as
desired. Replicating the chart of even root logarithms from step #2 above, we proceed to approximate
log 5 to several places of accuracy. This process starts with the technique of “noninteger factoring.” I
learned this technique from Dr. Art Miller of Mount Allison University, Sackville, N.B., Canada, who
in turn gives credit for this algorithm to Mr. Henry Briggs. (www.mta.ca/~amiller/)
100.5 = 3.16227766 #1
0.25
10 = 1.77827941 #2
0.125
10 = 1.333521432 #3
0.0625
10 = 1.154781985 #4
0.03125
10 = 1.074607828 #5
0.0156625
10 = 1.036632928 #6
0.0078125
10 = 1.018151722 #7
100.00390625 = 1.009035045 #8
Divide the number 5 by the largest value < 5 shown in the table above. Likewise divide each of the
resulting “non-integer factors” (1.58113881, 1.1856868853, 1.026762541, etc.) by the largest value in
the table less than the current “non-integer factor.” This is shown below.
5
Step 6.a: = 1.58113883 (dividing by table value #1 above)
3.16227766
Therefore 5 = 3.16227766 × 1.58113883

1.58113883
Step 6.b: = 1.1856868853 (dividing by table value #3 above)
1.333521432
Therefore 1.58113883 = 1.333521432 × 1.1856868853
and therefore 5 = 3.16227766 × 1.333521432 × 1.1856868853

1.1856868853
Step 6.c: = 1.026762541 (dividing by table value #4 above)
1.154781985
Therefore 1.1856868853 = 1.154781985 × 1.026762541
and therefore 5 = 3.16227766 × 1.333521432 × 1.154781985 × 1.026762541

1.026762541
Step 6.d: = 1.008457304 (dividing by table value #7 above)
1.018151722
Therefore 1.026762541 = 1.018151722 × 1.008457304
and therefore 5 = 3.16227766 × 1.333521432 × 1.154781985 × 1.018151722 × 1.008457304

**** etc. until the last factor is close enough to 1 to give the desired accuracy *****

Finally 5 = 3.16227766 × 1.333521432 × 1.154781985 × 1.018151722 × 1.008457304

take the log of both sides, iff Log Rule

Step 6.f: log (5) = log (3.16227766 × 1.333521432 × 1.154781985 × 1.018151722 × 1.008457304)
 Appendix A: How Did Briggs Construct His Table of Common Logs? 89
(continuing from the previous page)

Step 6.f: log (5) = log [3.16227766 × 1.333521432 × 1.154781985 × 1.018151722 × 1.008457304]

Step 6.g: log (5) = log (3.16227766) + log (1.333521432) + log (1.154781985) + log (1.018151722) +
log (1.008457304)

Step 6.h: log (5) = 0.5 + 0.125 + 0.0625 + 0.0078125 (log values taken from table on prior page)

Step 6.i: log (5) = 0.6953125 which compares very favorably with the calculator value

by calculator log (5) = 0.6989700043

Question: How could you improve the noncalculator log (5) value shown above?
We now have a pre-calculator method of expanding the “log table” started in steps 2 & 3 to contain
the log of any number we wish. For example it would be helpful to have common log (base 10) values for
all the prime numbers up to 100: log 2, log 3, log 5, log 7, log 11, log 13, log 17, …. We now know how
to do it, right? Then we can use prime number log values together with the Log of a Product Rule [ log (a
× b) = log a + log b ] to determine unknown logarithms of composite numbers:

log 2 = 0.3010299957
log 3 = 0.4771212547
log (6) = log (2 × 3) = 0.3010299957 + 0.4771212547 = 0.7781512504
calculator check: log 6 = 0.7781512504
The practical ramifications of this “trick” are huge as the factor combinations for each prime number
combination are numerous ….
log (2 × 2), log (2 × 3), log (2 × 4), … log (3 × 3), log (3 × 4), … log (5 × 5), log (5 × 6), …

Step 7:
Another way to expand our log table using pre-calculator methods also involves using previously
developed log values. By cross multiplying a proportion and applying log rules, Briggs could use numbers
with known logarithmic values to obtain new ones. From work done so far in Appendix A, we could set
up the following ration. (Logarithm… logos/ratio… arithmos/number… remember ? )

5 known log 3.16227766 known log

= (100.5 = 3.16227766 remember?)
10 known log 6.32455532 unknown log
5 × 6.32455532 = 10 × 3.16227766 cross-multiplying
log (5 × 6.32455532) = log (10 × 3.16227766)
log 5 + log 6.32455532 = log 10 + log 3.16227766
0.6953125 + log 6.32455532 = 1 + 0.5
log 6.32455532 = 0.8046875
calculator check: 100.8046875 = 6.3780438 (not too far off)
 Appendix A: How Did Briggs Construct His Table of Common Logs? 90
Assuming we have the log values for 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 we could proceed to set up and use other
ratios:

2 value with known log 4 value with known log

= , =
3 value with unknown log 9 value with unknown log

Do not be distracted by the fact that there are infinite numbers and hence infinite ways that they can
be multiplied or divided. As daunting as Mr. Briggs’ task was, it was finite in its nature. It is important to
remember that the way log tables were used only required values for the significant digits of the numbers
which he called the “mantissa.” All the details associated with magnitude were dealt with using what was
called the “characteristic.” (This is where working with logarithms is almost exactly like working with
scientific notation.) The work involved in multiplying 34.1 × 802 requires the same log table information
as multiplying 0.0341 × 8.02, etc., etc. To illustrate, let’s use a hypothetical 3-digit log table.
Compare the following. Notice that the information in bold, the mantissa, would have come from a 3 digit

log 2.73 = 0.437

log 3.41 = 0.533
log 8.02 = 0.904

log table while the information in parenthesis, the characteristic—which basically keeps track of the order
of magnitude—would have been mentally supplied by the “human calculator.” (There are complications
in determining the log of a value x, 0 < x < 1, which are discussed in Appendix D.)

34.1 × 802 = x 0.0341 × 8.02 = x

log (34.1 × 802) = log (x) log (0.0341 × 8.02) = log (x)
log (34.1) + log (802) = log (x) log (0.0341) + log (8.02) = log (x)
(look up log 3.41 and log 8.02) (again look up log 3.41 and log 8.02!!!!!)
(1).533 + (2).904 = log (x) 0.533–2 + (0).904 = log (x)
(not –2.532, see Appendix D)
(3) + 1.437 = log (x) –0.563 = log (x) (10(–0.563) works in calc.)

(4).437 = log (x) 0.437 –1 = log (x)

(see Appendix D)
10(4).437 = 10log x 100.437 – 1 = 10log x
104 × 100.437 = x 100.437 × 10–1 = x
27,300 = x (3 sig. digits) 0.27300 = x (3 sig. digits)
By calculator x = 27,348.2 and 0.273482 respectively

Yes, by using a hypothetical three (3) digit log table to obtain logs and anti-log values, we would have
been off a bit in the calculations shown above, but using Mr. Briggs’ 13–14-digit log table values, you
would hardly notice if you were an engineer, an astronomer, or a scientist.
 Appendix A: How Did Briggs Construct His Table of Common Logs? 91
As stated previously, there is a simple esthetic infinite-series polynomial that will allow a person to
compute loge (x) (ln x) to as many places as desired.

1 (x − 1) 1 (x − 1) 1 (x − 1) 1 ( x − 1) 1 ( x − 1)
1 2 3 4 5
ln x = 1
+ 2
+ 3
+ 4
+ 5
+ ...
1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x
(for x > 1)

Using this series, it would have been much simpler to develop the table of natural logs than it was to
develop the table of common logs!! This is yet another reason why (from the 1600s to the era of the
calculator) mathematicians and scientists usually use the natural log (e-based) logarithm. What are the
chances that the engineers at HP and TI that program those nifty scientific calculators know about this
series?

It was not long after Mr. Briggs did his work that other mathematicians figured this series out. From that
time on, mathematicians could develop common log (base 10) tables by generating the ln value and
log e x
converting over to base 10 using the Change of Base Log Rule … log x =
log e 10

e.g., ln (7) = 1.945910149 by the series above

ln (10) = 2.302585093 by series above
ln 7 1.945910149
therefore log (7) = = = 0.84509804
ln10 2.302585093
By calculator log (7) = 0.84509804
 Appendix B: Cardano’s Formula—Solving the Generalized Cubic Equation 92

Appendix B:
Cardano’s Formula—Solving the Generalized Cubic Equation
Material taken from www.math.vanderbilt.edu/~schectex/courses/cubic
Eric Schechter, Website viable as of Nov.., 2007.

The Cubic Formula

(Solve Any 3rd-Degree Polynomial Equation)

I’m putting this on the web because some students might find it interesting. It could easily be mentioned
in many undergraduate math courses, though it doesn’t seem to appear in most textbooks used for those
courses. None of this material was discovered by me. – ES

You should know that the solution of ax2 + bx + c = 0 is

−b ± b 2 − 4 ac
x= .
2a

There is an analogous formula for polynomials of degree three. The solution of ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 is

⎛ −b 3 d⎞ ⎛ −b 3 d⎞ ⎛c b2 ⎞
2 3
bc bc
x=3⎜ + − ⎟ + ⎜ + − +
⎟ ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 27a 6a 2 2a ⎠ ⎝ 27a 6a 2 2a ⎠ ⎝ 3a 9a 2 ⎠
3 3

⎛ −b 3 bc d⎞ ⎛ −b 3 bc d⎞ ⎛c
2
b2 ⎞
3
b
+ 3
⎜ + 2 − ⎟− ⎜ + 2 − ⎟ +⎜ − 2⎟ − .
⎝ 27a 6a 2a ⎠ ⎝ 27a 6a 2a ⎠ ⎝ 3a 9a ⎠
3 3
3a

(A formula like this was first published by Cardano in 1545.) Or, more briefly,

[ ] [ ]
⎧ ⎫3 ⎧ ⎫3
1 1
1 1

x = ⎨q + q 2 + (r − p 2 ) ⎬ + ⎨q − q 2 + (r − p 2 )
3 2 3 2

⎬ + p,
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭

where

−b bc − 3ad c
p= , q = p3 + 2
, r= .
3a 6a 3a
 Appendix C: Semilog Paper 93

Appendix C: Semilog Paper

It is often useful to plot the logarithm curve in such a way that allows for techniques applied to linear
functions to also be applied on the log curve. This is particularly true when plotting experimental data.

When y = a × xn,

log y = log (a × xn)

log y = log a + log (xn)
log y = log a + n (log x)
log y = n (log x) + log a

Compare the following and see if you can make the connection.

log y = n log x + log a

y = mx + b (equation of a line in slope-intercept form)

In the graph paper at the right below, known as semi-log paper, the y axis markings are not equally
spaced, but the markings along the x axis are. (If both axes are spaced the way that the y axis is spaced the
paper is called semi-log log paper.) Notice that the spacing along the y axis reflects the growth rate of the
log curve … rapid at first and then gradual after that.

8 (4,8) 10
9
8
7
y = 1/2 2x 7
6 6
5
5
4
4 (3,4)
3
3
(2,2)
2 2

1
(1,1)

—
2 —1 1 2 3 4 5
1
0 1 2 3 4
1 x 1 x
y= /2 (2 ) on a Standard Graph y= /2 (2 ) on a Semilog Graph
 Appendix D: Logarithms of Values Less than One 94

Appendix D: Logarithms of Values Less than One

A long, long time ago, in chapter 2, we 3
were introduced to the idea that the log of For both functions
numbers x > 1 was different from the log of domain: x > 0 2
y = log2 x
numbers 0 < x < 1. (See the figure at right.) range: all real
Our scientific calculators distinguish the two 1
cases for us, but b.c. (before calculators) one
had to use log tables one way for x > 1 and
—3 —2 —1 1 2 3 4 5 6
another way for 0 < x < 1.
0<x<1 —1

Lets do another experiment. The mantissa is —2

the part of the logarithm that represents the y = log1/ x
significant digits of the logarithm while the —3
2

characteristic represents the order of

magnitude of the logarithm.

Log (x) actual

x Log (x) expected from calculator Since 1,000 < 2,197 < 10,000
2,197 3.341830057 3.341830057 Then 3 < log 2,197 < 4
219.7 2.341830057 2.341830057 2 < log 219.7 < 3
21.97 1.341830057 1.341830057 1 < log 21.97 < 2
2.197 0.341830057 0.341830057 0 < log 2.197 < 1
******* ********* **********
0.2197 –1.341830057 –0.658169943 What is going on here???
0.02197 –2.341830057 –1.658179943 The pattern of mantissas has changed.
0.002197 –3.341830057 –2.658169943 Or has it???
Maybe the pattern that should have been anticipated is not the decrease of the characteristic combined
with a constant mantissa as shown in the second column, but rather the fact that the argument of log (x)
decreases by one order of magnitude in the argument. That pattern matches exactly the correct data shown
in the third column.
Let’s try again. log 4.59 (x > 1) = 0.661826855.
log 459 (x > 1) = 2.661826855.
but log (0.00459) (0 < x < 1) ≠ –3.661826855.
log (0.00459) (0 < x < 1) = log (4.59) – 3
= 0.661826855 – 3 = –2.338187314

This is the way that you would have had to work with log x values (0 < x < 1) when you were working
with log tables.

Calculator check: log (0.00459) = –2.338187314 check!

Thank you calculator engineers for taking care of this for us so that we do not have to worry about these
special case situations—log x for (0 < x < 1)—any more!!!
 Appendix D: Logarithms of Values Less than One 95

Appendix 2.71818 : Euler’s Equation, An Introduction

It has been previously noted (without proof) that

1 1 1 1 1 1
e= + + + + + + ...
0! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
It is not appropriate to the level of this text to discuss where this magic expression comes from.

A very famous mathematician, Brook Taylor (circa 1712), is given credit for finding a way to
approximate any function to any degree of accuracy by adding up a series of smaller functions. The
technique to do this is appropriately called Taylor series. To understand how Mr. Taylor did his magic
you would need to take a Calculus class. That is clearly not possible in the space here. By Mr.
Taylor’s work the following, more general formula, can be proved.

x x 0 x1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8
e = + + + + + + + + + ...
0! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! 8!

Also by Mr. Taylor’s work

x0 x 2 x 4 x6 x8
cos( x ) = − + − + + ...
0! 2! 4! 6! 8!
and
x1 x 3 x 5 x 7
sin( x ) = − + − + ...
1! 3! 5! 7!
Putting these three equations together yields a remarkable result called “Euler’s Equation”

e Πi + 1 = 0
and will be shown on the next 2 pages.

Step 1: Rearranging terms from ex shown above (Can you anticipate the cos(x) and sin(x) ? )

x x0 x2 x4 x6 x8 x1 x 3 x 5 x 7
e = + + + + + ... + + + + + ...
0! 2! 4! 6! 8! 1! 3! 5! 7!
 Appendix D: Logarithms of Values Less than One 96

x x0 x2 x4 x6 x8 x1 x 3 x 5 x 7
e = + + + + + ... + + + + + ...
0! 2! 4! 6! 8! 1! 3! 5! 7!
Step 2: Arbitrarily substitute x = Π i (don’t ask questions at this stage)

Π i ( Π i ) 0 ( Π i ) 2 ( Π i ) 4 ( Π i ) 6 ( Π i )8
e = + + + + + ...
0! 2! 4! 6! 8!

( Π i )1 (Π i )3 (Π i )5 (Π i )7
+ + + + ...
1! 3! 5! 7!

Step3: Now from Algebra we know that (ab)m = ambm Hence the equation above can be written as:

Π i Π 0 i 0 Π 2 i 2 Π 4 i 4 Π 6 i 6 Π 8i 8
e = + + + + + ...
0! 2! 4! 6! 8!

Π 1i1 Π 3i 3 Π 5i 5 Π 7i7
+ + + + + ...
1! 3! 5! 7!

Step 4a: Apply Algebra rules i0 = 1, i1 = i, i2 = -1, i3 = -i, and i4 = 1 to the first set of terms

Πi Π 0 (1) Π 2 (1) Π 4 (1) Π 6 (1) Π 8 (1)

e = − + − + + ...
0! 2! 4! 6! 8!

cos( Π )
Step 4b: and factoring out an “i” from the second set of terms

Π1 Π 3i 2 Π 5i 4 Π 7i 6
+ i( + + + + ... )
1! 3! 5! 7!
 Appendix D: Logarithms of Values Less than One 97

Step 5: Substituting cos(Π) into the first set of terms and again applying Algebra rules

i0 = 1, i1 = i, i2 = -1, i3 = -i, and i4 = 1 to the second set of terms.

Π1 Π3 Π5 Π7
e Π i = cos (Π ) + i( − + − + ... )
1! 3! 5! 7!

sin( Π )
Step 6: e Π i = cos( Π ) + i * sin( Π )
From trig we know that cos(Π) = -1 and sin(Π) = 0

Step 7: e Π i = −1 + i * 0

Step 8: e Πi = ( − 1) + 0

Step 9: e Πi + 1 = 0

There you have it, Euler’s equation…

e, Π, i, 1, and 0 all in the same equation!!!

Nerd heaven!!
 Answers to Exercises
Chapter 1 Answers Chapter 2 Answers
(continued)

1.) 100,000 < 285,962 < 1,000,000 4.) r(s(x)) = s(r(x)) = x

105 < 285,962 < 106 s(r(x)) = r(s(x)) = x
5.something
10 = 285,962
5.) No, not iff. If f(x) = 3x and g(x) = 2x, then
log 285,962 = 5.something
f(g(x)) = f(2x) = 6x and g(f(x)) = g(3x) = 6x
2.) 0.0001 < 0.000368 < 0.001 f(g(x)) = g(f(x)), but the two graphs are not
10–4 < 0.000368 < 10–3 symmetric with the line y = x
–3.something
10 = 0.000368
6.) Inverse Log Rules
log (0.000368) = –3.something
logb bx = x and b b = x
log x

3.) a.) 10 < 56 < 100

101 < 101.something < 102 7.) iff Antilog Rule … p = q iff bp = bq
b.) 100 < 687 < 1,000 8.) iff Log Rule. p = q iff log p = log q
102 < 102.something < 103
c.) 10,000 < 43,921 < 100,000 9.) Cannot be done
104 < 104.something < 105 for y = bx, b > 0
d.) 0.01 < 0.0219 < 0.1 for y = logb x, b > 0, b ≠ 1
10–2 < 10–1.something < 10–1
e.) 0.000001 < 0.0000038 < 0.00001 Chapter 3 Answers
10–6 < 10–5.something < 10–5
f.) 0.00001 < 0.00007871 < 0.0001
10–5 < 10–4.something < 10–4 676
4.) a.) 4,526 × 104,264 = 10 (log 4,526 + log 104,264)
1.) a.) 94283 = 10(log 676 – log 94283)
= 10(3.65571455 + 5.018134382) = 10(2.829946696 – 4.974433393)
= 108.673848932 = 10–2.144486697
= 471,898,864 = 0.0071699034
b.) 0.061538 × 40,126.7 = 10(log 0.061538 + log 40,126.7) 0.000000676
= 10(–1.210856623 + 4.603433445) b.) 94.283 = 10(log 0.000000676 – log 94.283)
= 10(3.392576823) = 10(–6.170053304 – 1.974433393)
= 2,469.316865 = 10–8.144486697
c.)0.015872 × 0.000000183218 = 10(log 0.015872 + log 0.000000183218) = 7.169903376 × 10–9
= 10(–1.799368345 + –6.7370318621) 6.76
= 10(–8.536400207) 0.94283 = 10(log 6.76 – log 0.94283)
c.)
= 2.908036096 × 10–9 = 10(0.829946696 – (–0.025566607)
5.) a.) x = log3 y f.) 8y = x = 100.855513303
b.) x = log2 5 g.) 3y = x = 7.169903376
c.) x = log7 y h) 7y = x Since each numerator and denominator have
d.) q = logp y i.) 28 = x the same significant digits then the significant
e.) 3.2 = logw g j.) x9 = 11 digits of each quotient will be the same. Only the
it d f h ti t ill b diff t
Chapter 2 Answers Chapter 4 Answers

1.) y = 2x + 5 2.) x = 2y + 5 1.) 64 < 200 < 256

x y x y 43 < 43.something < 44
log4 200 = 3.something
–2 1 1 –2
–1 3 3 –1 2.) 10x = 14,290
0 5 5 0 x ≈ 4.something
1 7 7 1 log 10x = log 14,293
2 9 9 2 x = 4.155032229
3.) The graphs y = 2x + 5 and x = 2y + 5 are symmetric with the 3.) 4,913 < 14,290 < 83,521
line y = x. 173 < 173.something < 174
log17 14290 = 3.something
 Chapter 4 Answers Chapter 5 Answers
(continued) (continued)

6.) a.) log 10 = log x2.6

4.) 17x = 14,290
1 = 2.6 log x
log10 17x = log10 14,290 1
/2.6 = log x
log10 17x = 4.15503 ?? Now what??
log x = 0.3846153846
5.) 17x = 14,290 10log x = 100.3846153846
log 17x = log 14,290 x = 2.424462017
x log 17 = log 14,290 b.) log 62.73 = log x4.31
log14, 290 1.797475288 = 4.31 log x
log17 log x = 0.4170476305
x =
10log x = 100.4170476306
x ≈ 3.376842514
x = 2.612447855
6.) 173.376842514 = 14,290
7.) a.) 54 = 625, 55 = 3,125, 74 = 2,401, x ≈ 4
7.)
5
621 b.) 82 = 64, 83 = 512, 63 = 216, x ≈ 3
1
x = 621 5 8.) a.) 54.6 = 7x
log x = (1/5) log 621 log 54.6 = log 7x
x = 3.619247808 3.21526202 = x log 7
9
7 x = 3.80460238
8.) 621 b.) 82.7 = 6x
log 82.7 = log 6x
7
x = 621 9
7
2.438342965 = x log 6
log x = log621
9

x = 3.133507739
x = (7/9)log 621 = 148.732055
9.) a.) 25 = 32 < 50 < 64 = 26
Chapter 5 Answers 5<y<6
b.)33 = 27 < 28 < 81 = 34
3<y<4
1.) a.) 25 = 52 < 52.7 <53 = 125
25 < 52.7 < 125 log 50
2
b.) 9 = 81, y ≈ 81 10.) a.) log2 50 = log 2
2.) 2.7
5 = 77.129 = 5.64385619
8.642.13 = 98.804 b.) 3y = 28
log 3y = log 28
3.) a.) 42 = 16 < 32.7 < 64 = 43 log 28
Therefore 2 < x < 3 log 3
b.) 52 = 25 < 117 < 125 = 53 y =
Therefore 2 < x < 3 y = 3.033103256

4.) a.) 32.7 = 4x 11.) a.) 26 = 64, x ≈ 64

log 32.7 = log 4x b.) 95 = 59,049, x ≈ 59,049
log 32.7 = x log 4 12.) a.) 26.1 = 68.5935016
x = 2.515609365 b.) 95.1 = 73,559.16625
b.) 117 = 5x
log 117 = x log 5 13.) a.) 25 = 32, x ≈ 2
log117 b.) 53 = 125, x ≈ 5
x = log 5 14.) a.) x4.9 = 37.1
x = 2.958905030 log x4.9 = log 37.1
4.9 log x = log 37.1
5.) a.) 9 < 10 < 27 log 37.1
32 = 9 33 = 27
log x = 4.9
2 < x < 3
10log x = 100.3202803897
b.) 16 < 62.73 < 81 x = 2.09064546
24 = 16 34 = 81 b.) x3.207 = 126.21
2 < x < 3 log x3.207 = log 126.21
3.207 log x = log 126.21
log126.21
log x = 3.207
10log x = 100.6551586426 = 4.520210321
 Chapter 5 Answers Chapter 6 Answers
(continued)
(continued)
2.) Pf = Po ery
−x2
1,500 = 900e10r
15
e 2
/9 = e10r
15.) 0.2 = 2π ln (5/3) = 10r (ln e)
0.5108256238 = 10r
0.2 2 π = e
−x2
2

r = 0.05108256238
ln 0.5013256549 = –1/2x2 ln e r = 5.1%
(not to worry, ln 0 < x < 1 will be negative)
–0.6904993792 = –1/2x2 3.) Pr = Po [(1 + r/k)k]y
1.380998758 = x2 2,000 = 1,000[(1 + 20%/1)1]y
x = ±1.175159035 2 = 1.20y
log 2
16.) a.) T(t) = Tm + (Ti − Tm )e − kt
y = log1.2
60 = 20 + (90 – 20)e–3k y = 3.801784017 yrs.
40 = 70e–3k
4 0.801784017 × 365 = 292
/7 = e–3k
On the 292nd day of the third year after the money
ln 0.5714285714 = ln e–3k
was invested.
–0.559615788 = –3k ln e
–0.559615788 = –3k 4.) Pr = Po [(1 + r/k)k]y
k = 0.186538596 10,000 = Po [(1 + 5%/2)2]20
b.) 30 = 20 + (90 – 20)e–0.186538596t 10,000 = Po[(1.025)2]20
10 = 70 e–0.186538596t 10,000 = Po × 2.6850638384
1
/7 = e–0.186538596t original principal = $3,724.31
1
ln ( /7) = ln e–0.186538596t
ln (1/7) = –0.186538596t ln e 5.) Qf = Qi × 10–kt
ln (1/7) = –0.186538596t 400 = 500 × 10–1,000k
4
t = 10.43167575 min /5 = 10–1,000k
log 0.8 = log 10–1,000k
17.) r = eat log 0.8 = –1,000k log 10
estimate 360° + 360° + 90° = 810° log 0.8 = –1,000k
Solve 4 = eat k = 9.6910013 × 10–5
4 = e0.1t
ln 4 = ln e0.1t 6.) Qf = Qi × 10–kt
−5
ln 4 = ln e0.1t Qf = 500 ×10 −9.651001301×10 ×2,000

ln 4 = 0.1t ln e Qf = 500 × 0.64r

ln 4 Qf = 320
t = 0.1
7.) If = Ii 10–kt
t = 13.86294361 radians = 794.288°
100,000 = 1,000,000 × 10–9.4k
18.) a.) pH = –log[H+] 0.10 = 10–9.4k
pH = –log [9.2 × 10–12] log 0.1 = –9.4k (log 10)
pH = 11.0362 k = 0.1063829787
b.) 4.2 = –log x 1
8.) = x 10–0.1063829787t
/2x
–4.2 = log x
log 0.5 = log 10–0.1063829787t
10–4.2 = x
t = 2.82968196 cm.
x = 6 30957 × 10–5
powera
10 log
Chapter 6 Answers 9.) Db = powerb
x
10 log −12 W
65 = 10
1.) Pr = Po [(1 + r/k)k]y ft 2

3x = x[(1 + 7%/12)12]y x
log −12
3 = [(1 + 7/1200)12]y 6.5 = 10 W ft 2

3 = 1.072290081y 10left = 10right

log 3 = log 1.072290081y x
log 3 = y log 1.072290081 −12
3,162,277.66 = 10
y = 15.74 yrs.
x = 3,162,277.66 × 10–12
W
x = 0.00000316227766 ft 2
 Chapter 6 Answers Chapter 7 Answers
(continued) (continued)
( y−2,007 )
10.) 12,024 m = 2 376 m 2
3.) area rec1 + area rec2 + area rec3 + area rec4 =
( y−2,007 )
31.9787234 = 2 2
b1 × h1 + b2 × h2 + b3 × h3 + b4 × h4 =
y − 2, 007 1
/2 × 1 + 1/2 × 2/3 + 1/2 × 1/2 + 0.21828 × 2/5 =
log 2
log 31.9787234 = 2 (1/2) + (1/3) + (1/4) + 0.087313 = 1.17
y − 2, 007 4.) area rec1 + area rec2 + area rec3 + area rec4 =
4.999040442 = 2 b1 × h1 + b2 × h2 + b3 × h3 + b4 × h4 =
9.998080884 = y – 2,007 1
/2 × 2/3 + 1/2 × 1/2 + 1/2 × 2/5 + 0.21828 × 0.36788
y ≈ 2,017 =
1 1 1
1,050, 000 /3 + /4 + /5 + 0.0803 = 0.86
11.) 200 =
5,250 pages 5.) 1/2(1.170645 + 0.863634) = 1.01714
2x =
5,250 As the number of rectangular partitions increases,
log 2x =
log 5,250 the average of the sum of rectangles will get closer
x log 2 =
log 5,250 and closer to 1.
log5,250
6.) log 0.9 = –0.0457574906
x = log2 log 0.99 = –0.0043648054
x = 12.358 log 0.999 = –0.00043451177
x = 13 bisections log 0.9999 = –0.0000434316
log 0.99999 = –0.0000043429665
12.) 2 < dimension < 3
log 0.999999 = –0.0000004342947
13.) f = I × e–0.0001205473358t etc.
0.80 x = x × e–0.0001205473358t log e = 0.4342944819
0.80 = e–0.0001205473358t
ln 0.80 = ln e–0.0001205473358t
Chapter 8 Answers
ln 0.80 = –0.00012054733t ln e
t = 1,851.086 years ago
14.) 2x = 64 log b x n = log x ?????
n
b
x = 6
arbitrarily let b = 2, x = 3, and n = 4.
15.) 2x = 8,192 log 2 34 = log 3 ?????
4

log 2x = log 8,192 2

log 8,192 log 16 81 = log2 3 ????

log81
x = log 2
x = 13 (13th generation) log 16 81 = log16 = 1.584962501
13 – 2 = 11 Gs
log 3
log2 3 = log 2 = 1.584962501
vi e −
t
RC
16.) Vf = Seems to be an identity.
let RC = (120 Ω) × (35 µF) = 4.2 × 10–3 s log b x n = log x
− t n
4.2× 10−3 s b
10% x = xe
− t
4.2×10−3 s
Applying Equivalent Symbolism Rule
ln (0.10) = ln e
− 4.2×10 s
t logb x = y is equivalent to
ln (0.10) = ln e −3
by = x
–t = ln 0.10 × 4.2 × 10–3 s bn
log b x

= xn
3
ApplyingPower of a Power Rule
Chapter 7 Answers
(bm)n = bmn
b n logb x = xn
1.) m = 4, 6, 7, 7.75, 7.875, … , 8. Instantaneous rate of n
b log x = xn
b

speed will be the same value as the slope of the

tangent line which is suggested by the approaching
secant line slopes.
y2 − y1
2.) m = x2 − x1 , msec1 = 0.8610, msec2 = 1.1752, msec3 =
1.7183, msec4 = 2.1391. The slopes of the secant
lines approach the slope of the tangent at (1, e) = e.
 Chapter 9 Answers

1.) Exponential functions have a horizontal asymptote—y = 0. Horizontal asymptotes are therefore not affected by a
horizontal shift. Log functions have a vertical asymptote—x = 0. Vertical asymptotes are affected by a horizontal
shift.
2.) Graph y = –1/3log(1/2) (x + 4) + 2. There are several correct approaches.
log x
a.) Graph y = log (1/2) x. Use the change of base formula: log 2 . This should look like y = logb x with 0 < b < 1
1

b.) Graph y = log(1/2) (x + 4). This will cause a horizontal shift to the left for the graph in part a.
c.) Graph y = log(1/2) (x + 4) + 2. This will cause a vertical shift up for the graph in part b.
d.) Graph y = 1/3log(1/2) (x + 4) + 2. This will cause a flattening of the graph in part c.
e.) Graph y = –1/3log(1/2) (x + 4) + 2. This will cause a reflection about the x-axis for the graph in part d.
3.) y = –logb x
a.) Graph y = logb x
b.) Reflect the graph in part a about the x–axis.

Chapter 10 Answers

1.) a.) 23 = x, x = 8 7.) a.) 4 – 4 = 0

b.) 1/34 = x, x = 1/81 b.) 4
log 34
2
+ 3log 34
2

= 9 + 16 = 25
c.) 4–1/2 = x, x = 1/2 1

×9 = 6 × 6,561 = 39,366
log 9 812
log 6 36 2

d.) x = Ø for logb x = y, b > 0, b ≠ 1 c.) 6

e.) 3–4 = x, x = 1/81 d.) log 43 – log 82 = log 64/64 = 0
e.) 2 + 1/2 = 2.5
2.) a.) 4x = 16, x = 2
b.) 1/2x = 8, x = –3 8.) a.) ln 1 = 0 e.) log 1 = 0
c.) x = Ø, 5x = 0, x = ?? b.) ln e = 1 f.) log 10 = 1
d.) x = Ø, for logb x = y, b > 0, b ≠ 1 c.) ln ey = y g.) log 10y = y
e.) 3x = 1, x = 0 d.) eln y = y h.) 10log y = y
3.) a.) x4 = 16, x = 2 16x 2
log
b.) x1 = 4, x = 4 9.) y = log 16 + 2 log x – log y
c.) x–4 = 16, x = 1/2 Or 2 log 4 + 2 log x – log y
(x ) = (2 )
4 4
3 3 6 3
4

d.) x3/4 = 64, x3/4 = 26, , x = 28, x = 256 10.) log (10 + 20) = log 10 + log 20 ???
e.) x2 = 0, x = Ø log 30 = 1 + 1.3 ???
4.) All problems in 4 are best solved by Inverse Log 1.48 ≠ 1.3
Rules #1 and #2 log10
a.) 8 b.) 10 c.) –2 d.) 16 e.) 85
11.) log 10/20 = log 20 ???
log 2.68 log 0.5 = 1/1.3 ???
3x =
5.) a.) log 0.196 , x = –0.2016429845 negative ≠ positive
log 5,240 (The actual values are not really important.)
x=
⎛1⎞
x

b.) log242 , x = 1.560243021 3

⎜ ⎟
12.) ⎝2⎠ = 1/4
6.) a.) 3x = 79
⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
3
log 79 x
3

⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥
x = log 3 ⎢⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
x = 3.977242834 = 1/43
1x
b.) x6 = 79 /2 = 1/64
1x
1
6 1
/2 = 1/26
x6 = 79 6

x = 2.071434389
c.) 37.2 = x
x = 2,724.413565
 Chapter 10 Answers
(continued)

13.) ln [(3x – 2)(x – 1)] = ln x2 14.) log (3x – 1) = log(52x + 3)

3x2 – 5x + 2 = x2 log 3(x – 1) = log 5(2x + 3)
2x2 – 5x + 2 = 0 (x – 1) log 3 = (2x + 3) log 5
(2x – 1) (x – 2) = 0 x log 3 – log 3 = 2x log 5 + 3log 5
x = 1/2, x = 2 x log 3 – 2x log 5 = log 3 + 3log 5
0.4771212547x – 2x 0.6989700043 = 2.574031268
Recall that for ln p = q, p > 0 (domain for log curves –0.9208187540x = 2.574031268
is positive). Hence, 3x – 2 > 0 and x – 1 > 0 individually. x = –2.795372333
Therefore, reject x = 1/2.
15.) x = by is equivalent to y = logb x
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10
11
12
0000
0414
0792
0043
0453
0828
0086
0492
0864
0128
0531
0899
0170
0569
0934
0212
0607
0969
0253
0645
1004
0294
0682
1038
0334
0719
1072
0374
0755
1106
For over 350 years, from the early 1600s until the widespread
13
14
1139
1461
1173
1492
1206
1523
1239
1553
1271
1584
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1367
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1399
1703
1430
1732 availability of calculators in the 1970s, most of the mathematics
15 1761 1790 1818 1847 1875 1903 1931 1959 1987 2014
16
17
2041
2304
2068
2330
2095
2355
2122
2380
2148
2405
2175
2430
2201
2455
2227
2480
2253
2504
2279
2529
done by scientists, engineers, and astronomers was assisted by
logarithms. The logarithmic technique was developed to aid in the
18 2553 2577 2601 2625 2648 2672 2695 2718 2742 2765
19 2788 2810 2833 2856 2878 2900 2923 2945 2967 2989
20 3010 3032 3054 3075 3096 3118 3139 3160 3181 3201
21
22
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3304
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3522
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3365
3560
3385
3579
3404
3598 drudgery of simplifying long and tedious arithmetic expressions.
23 3617 3636 3655 3674 3692 3711 3729 3747 3766 3784
24
25
3802
3979
3820
3997
3838
4014
3856
4031
3874
4048
3892
4065
3909
4082
3927
4099
3945
4116
3962
4133
Logarithms worked by reducing arithmetic expressions of one level
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4150
4314
4472
4166
4330
4487
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4346
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4362
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of difficulty to a lesser level of difficulty. Scientific calculators have
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4654
4800
4669
4814
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4829
4698
4843
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4857
4728
4871
4742
4886
4757
4900
made much of the pre-1970 precalculus curriculum obsolete. But
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5051
5185
4928
5065
5198
4942
5079
5211
4955
5092
5224
4969
5105
5237
4983
5119
5250
4997
5132
5263
5011
5145
5276
5024
5159
5289
5038
5172
5302
the use of calculators has also come with a price. The instruction of
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5551 logarithms today is much, much more condensed and abstract than
36 5563 5575 5587 5599 5611 5623 5635 5647 5658 5670
37
38
5682
5798
5694
5809
5705
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5832
5729
5843
5740
5855
5752
5866
5763
5877
5775
5888
5786
5899
it used to be. As a result, many of today’s students do not achieve
the same level of understanding and “internalization” of
39 5911 5922 5933 5944 5955 5966 5977 5988 5999 6010
40 6021 6031 6042 6053 6064 6075 6085 6096 6107 6117
41 6128 6138 6149 6160 6170 6180 6191 6201 6212 6222
42
43
6232
6335
6243
6345
6253
6355
6263
6365
6274
6375
6284
6385
6294
6395
6304
6405
6314
6415
6325
6425 logarithmic concepts and ideas. Many of them do not understand
44 6435 6444 6454 6464 6474 6484 6493 6503 6513 6522
45
46
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6646
6561
6656
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6580
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6590
6684
6599
6693
6609
6702
6618
6712
the “magic” formulas they are taught and asked to manipulate.
47 6721 6730 6739 6749 6758 6767 6776 6785 6794 6803
48 6812 6821 6830 6839 6848 6857 6866 6875 6884 6893
49 6902 6911 6920 6928 6937 6946 6955 6964 6972 6981
50
51
6990
7076
6998
7084
7007
7093
7016
7101
7024
7110
7033
7118
7042
7126
7050
7135
7059
7143
7067
7152
The website The Math Forum, “Ask Dr. Math,” has the
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7324
7168
7251
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7177
7259
7340
7185
7267
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7193
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7202
7284
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7210
7292
7372
7218
7300
7380
7226
7308
7388
7235
7316
7396
following request for help.
“I understand what logs are … but I don’t understand why they are
what they are. Please help me.”

This is a plea for help from a student who, at the time of his plea, was enrolled in a calculus class!

Explaining Logarithms, A Progression of Ideas Illuminating an Important Mathematical

Concept, does not advocate a return to the precalculator “good old days.” The author lived through
them. They were not so good!! However, this book is written under the belief that a quick review of
mathematics as it was practiced for hundreds of years would be helpful for many students in
understanding logarithms as they are still used today. The student quoted above was not instructed
in a way that he internalized what logarithms are all about. It is a “readiness issue” which this book
attempts to remedy.

The author, Dan Umbarger, has taught

various levels of mathematics from grades
5 to grade 12 for over 30 years.

He is married and the proud father of

three children: Jimmy, Terri, and Keelan.