ELECTRONICS 1

PHY 2103
References

1. A first course in Electronics (1st edition), Anwar A Khan

2. The Art of Electronics (2nd Edition), Paul Horowitz , Windfield Hill

3. Electronics and Electronic Systems (1st Edition), George H Olson

Course Capsule
• Junction Diodes: Energy bands in crystals, Intrinsic and Extrinsic
semiconductors, Hall effect, p-n Junction, Rectifier and voltage
multiplier circuits, Diode clippers and clamps, Other type of diodes.
Transistor Amplifier Circuits: Junction transistor and its
characteristics, Single stage amplifier, Equivalent circuits and analysis,
Feed- back multistage amplifiers, Multi vibrators. Oscillators: Basic
sinusoidal oscillators and non-sinusoidal oscillators. Operational
Amplifiers: Properties and uses of operational amplifiers.
Intended Learning Outcomes
1. Explain the difference in conductivity of solids using energy band diagrams and derive equations for
conductivity of semiconductors.
2. Explain the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors and fabricating p- type and n- type
semiconductor using intrinsic semiconductors
3. Explain the formation, characteristics and charge flow of a pn junction.
4. Derive equations and explain the variation of charge, electric field and potential across a pn junction
5. Discuss the applications of pn junctions.
6. Analyze circuits using Norton and Thevenin’s theorems.
7. Explain the basic characteristics, biasing and applications of BJ transistors.
8. Explain the properties and uses of OP amps.
Basic concepts
• Electric current
• Voltage
• Voltage source
• Current source
• Ohms law
• Resistance, Reactance and Impedance
• Resistor
• Parallel connection
• Serial connection
• Kirchhoff's law
• Thevenin's theorem
• Norton's theorem
• Electric current
• An electric current is created by the flow of electronic charges. In solids,
charges is often carried by electrons. In liquid and gases, charge is often
carried by ions. In general, any particle with an electric charge and is free to
move, is called “Charge carries”.
• Units – Coulombs (C).
• Electron has charge – 1.602x10-19 C
• Flow of one coulomb charge, across a surface in a second is equal to one
Ampere (A).

• Voltage
• It is the amount of electric potential difference between two points. This
difference can be caused by static electric field, electrochemical reaction,
electromagnetic induction or any other.
• Moving 1 Coulomb of charge across two points with 1 Volts of electric
potential difference, requires 1 Joule of work. The amount of work is
independent of path.
• Voltage source
• An ideal voltage source can maintain a fixed voltage across its two terminals,
regardless of the current drown from it (i.e. independent of the load resistor).
The internal resistance of an ideal voltage source is zero.

• However, a real world voltage sources have maximum current limit. If more
current is drown from the source either the voltage will drop or the source
will be damage.

X8=
??

Voltage is not everything !!

• Current source
• An ideal current source will deliver (or absorb) constant current across a load
resistor regardless of load resistance. If the voltage resistance increase,
applied voltage will automatically increase to maintain the same amount of
current. The internal resistance of an ideal current source is infinite.

• Ohms law
• Ohm’s law stats that the current through a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the voltage across the two points.

𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 where, R is resistance measured in ohms (Ω)

 • Although Ohm’s law is the most famous and most widely used law in
electronic, it cannot be apply to nonlinear elements such as Diodes,
incandescent bulbs.

• Resistance, Reactance and Impedance

• Some components have ‘resistance’ that change with the frequency of the
applied voltage. This is called ‘reactance’.
• For example
1
• Resistance of capacitor 𝑋𝑋𝑐𝑐 = −
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
• Resistance of inductor 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
• Where ω, (𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋) is the frequency of applied signal.
• Impedance (Z) is the total opposition provided by circuit to a given signal. It
may contain both resistant and reactance. However reactance component
need to be multiplied by ‘𝑖𝑖’ (𝑖𝑖 2 = −1) and cannot be added with resistance.

𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
• Resistors
• Resisters are use to limit the current. There are different types of resistors.

• Parallel connection
• In parallel connections, components have shared connections. Therefore, all components
have the same voltage across them.

• All the resistors (from R1 to R4) receive the same voltage. Net current of the circuit is the
summation of current in each branch.

𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅

𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅

1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑅
• Serial connection
• In series connection, each component is connect to the adjacent component and only
the terminal at the end are available.
• Equal current flows across all the resistors.
• Net voltage across two terminal is equal to the summation of voltage across each
component.

𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅

𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅4
• This gives rice to the concept of voltage divider. The voltage division rule states that
voltage drop across any resistance (or combination of resistors) in a series current is
equal to the ratio of that resistance to the effective resistance multiplied by the source
voltage.
 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼 = =
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2
𝑉𝑉2 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅2

𝑅𝑅2
𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2

• Kirchhoff's law
• When resistors connected in serial, parallel or as a combination of them, it is easy to calculate the net
resistance and the current passing through each branch. However, there are circuits that cannot be
simplified in that manner. We can use the Kirchhoff’s law to solve such problems.
• First law – Kirchhoff’s current law
• At any instant, the algebraic sum of the current at a junction in a network is zero.

• Second law – Kirchhoff’s voltage law

• In a closed loop, the algebraic sum of all the e.m.f.’s acting round the loop is equal to the
algebraic sum of the voltage drops round the loop.
• Thevenin's theorem
• The current which flows in any branch of a circuit is the same as that which
would flow in the branch if it were connected across a source of electrical
energy, the e.m.f. of which is equal to the potential difference which would
appear across the branch if it were open-circuited, and the internal resistance
of which is equal to the resistor which appears across the open circuited
branch terminals.
• Norton’s theorem
• The Norton’s theorem is actually a restatement of Thevenin's theorem using
equivalent current sources instead of the equivalent voltage source.
• The current which flows in any branch of a network is the same as that which
would flow in the branch if it were connected across a source of electric
energy that short-circuit current of which is equal to the current that would
flow in a short-circuit across the branch, and the internal resistance of which
is equal to the resistance which appears across the open circuited branch
terminal.