Module 1

Networking principles and layered

architecture
 Module:1 Networking Principles and Layered Architecture

Data Communications and Networking: A Communications Model

– Data Communications - Evolution of network, Requirements ,
Applications, Network Topology (Line configuration, Data Flow),
Protocols and Standards, Network Models (OSI,TCP/IP)
 Communications model

 The communications model underlying the network

middleware is the most important factor in how applications
communicate.
 Three main types of network communications models:
Point-to-point
Client-server
Publish-subscribe
 Point-to-point model:
 Point-to-point is the simplest form of
communication.
 Example - The telephone is essentially one-to-one communication.
 Client-server model:
Client-server networks designate one special server node that
connects simultaneously to many client nodes.

"many-to-one" architecture
 Many-Many Model (or) Publisher – Subscriber model:
 if a publisher sends a message with Topic A, it will be forwarded to
any subscribers who have subscribed to Topic A.
 1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

The term telecommunication means communication at a

distance. The word data refers to information presented in
whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and
using the data.

Data communications are the exchange of data between two

devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire
cable or wireless. 4 metrics for data communications,
1. Delivery → Correct destination
2. Accuracy → Accurate data (No data loss)
3. Timelines → Real-time transmission (Eg: Live streaming)
4. Jitter → Uneven delay (Eg: Distruption of TV signals due to interruption)
(Variable
Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, delay)
VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024
Topics discussed:
Components
Data Représentation
Data Flow

Components

Five components of data communication

5
1

2 3
4

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Data Representation

1. Text
2. Numbers
3. Images
4. Audio
5. Video

Data flow

 Simplex

 Half-duplex

 Full-duplex

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

 1-2 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (nodes) connected by

communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or
any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.

Topics discussed in this section:

Distributed Processing
Network Criteria (performance, reliability, and security)
Physical Structures ( type of connections and topologies)
Network Models
Categories of Networks ( LAN, MAN and WAN)
Interconnection of Networks: Internet
Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024
Types of connections

 Point to point
 A dedicated link is provided between
two devices

 Multipoint
 More than two specific devices share
a single link

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

 Physical Topology

Topology - The way in which constituent parts are interrelated or arranged.

Topologies cover a much longer distance and larger areas with much more users.

Tree/Tier

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

 MESH Topology
 Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to
every other devices
 Dedicated
 Link carries traffic only between the two devices it
connects
 A fully connected mesh network has n(n-1)/2
physical channels to link n devices
 Every device on the network must have n-1
input/output (I/O) ports
 Advantage
 Less traffic, robust, secure, easy to maintain
 Disadvantage
 Need more resource (cable and ports), expensive
n(n-1)/2 physical duplex links
 STAR Topology
 Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller,

usually called a hub.

 No direct traffic and link between devices

 Advantages

 Less expensive

 Easy to install and reconfigure

 Robustness

 Disadvantage

 Single point of failure

n links required
 BUS Topology

 A multipoint topology
 All devices are linked through a backbone cable
 Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
 Drop line
 A connection running between the device and the main cable
 Tap
 A connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the
sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core
 Advantage:
 Ease of installation
 Disadvantages:
 Difficult reconnection and fault isolation
 Broken or fault of the bus cable stops all transmission

n+1 links required

 RING Topology

 Each device is dedicated point-to-point connection only with the two devices on either side of it
 A signal is passed along the ring in the direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination
 Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater

 Advantages
 Relatively easy to install and reconfigure
 Fault isolation is simplified
 Disadvantage
 Unidirectional traffic

n links required
 Tree Topology
A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks
Tree topologies integrate multiple topologies together

Example: Tree topology

integrates multiple star
topologies together onto a bus

 Advantages:
 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Supported by several hardware and software venders.
 Disadvantages:
 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Categories of Networks / Classification of Networks

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)

Local Area Network:

A Local Area Network is a computer network that interconnects computers
within a limited area such as a residence, school, laboratory, university
campus or office building.

LAN Devices

Wired LAN Wireless LAN

Eg: Ethernet – Hub, Switch Eg: Wifi

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
A Metropolitan Area Network is a computer network that interconnects users
within computer networks in a geographic region of the size of a metropolitan
area (City).

MAN Devices:

•Switches/Hub
•Routers

Two or more LANs within a city can communicate with each other
7/23/2024
Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai
Wide Area Network (WAN)
A wide are Network is a telecommunications network that extends over a
large geographical area for the primary purpose of computer networking

WAN Devices:
•End Devices
•Intermediate Devices

•Coverage area>100km

Two Dr.
orS.more LANsSCOPE,
Deepa Nivethika, within a country can communicate with each other
VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024
2 types of WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN
Connected with more than two WAN’s – Backbone of global Communication

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

 Internet ( WAN)
•Every Country will have networking relation.
•Wide WAN covers Multiple LANs, Multiple MANs and Multiple
WANs.
•Coverage area>100km

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

 Difference between Hub, Switch and Router

Hub: Hub is a simple and Cheap networking broadcasting device works

under physical layer of OSI model that connects bunch of computers
together in a network. But, it does lots of wastage in bandwidth. Used to
create networks. Other Physical layer device is Repeater.

Switch: Switch is a multicast networking device works under datalink

layer of OSI model that connects bunch of computers or devices in a
network. Used to create networks. Other Datalink layer device is
Bridge.

Router: Router is a networking device works under network layer of

OSI model and use to connect two or more different networks.[Connects
Different network – Router is utilized by LAN as well as MAN]. Used to
connect networks
Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024
Interconnection of Networks: internet

A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

 1-3 THE INTERNET

The Internet has changed many aspects of our daily lives. It

has affected the way we do business as well as the way we
spend our leisure time. The Internet is a communication
system that has brought a wealth of information to our
fingertips and organized it for our use.
Topics discussed in this section:
A Brief History → ARPANET
• 1967 ACM
• 1969 UCLA, UCSB, SRI, UoU
• 1972 TCP
The Internet Today (ISPs)
Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024
 Evolution of computer Networks

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024
Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024
 Public domain

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Timeline of Computer Networks
In 1957, Advanced Research Project Agency was formed by the US.
In 1961, the idea of ARPANET was proposed by Leonard Kleinrock.
In 1965, the term packet was used by Donald Davies.
In 1969, ARPANET became functional, and the internet was officially born, with the
first data transmission sent between UCLA and SRI on October 29, 1969, at 10:30 p.m.
In 1971, Ray Tomlinson sent the first email, and the foundation for Wi-Fi was laid with
the use of ALOHAnet.
In 1973, Robert Metcalfe developed Ethernet at Xerox PARC, and the first
experimental VoIP call was made.
In 1976, the first true IP router was developed by Ginny Strazisar.
In 1978, Bob Kahn invented the TCP/IP protocol for networks developed.
In 1981, Internet Protocol version 4, or IPv4, was officially defined in RFC 791 in 1981.
In 1983, DNS was introduced by Paul Mockapetris.
In 1988, details about network firewall technology were first published 1988.
In 1996, IPv6 was introduced.
In 1997, the first version of the 802.11 standards for Wi-Fi was introduced in June 1997,
providing transmission speeds up to 2 Mbps.
In 2002-2004, Web 2.0 was introduced.
Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024
Hierarchical organization of the Internet

NAP – Network Access Point

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024
ISP – Internet Service Provider
 1-4 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

protocols and standards.

Protocol is synonymous with rule.

Standards are agreed-upon rules.

Topics discussed in this section:

Protocols
Standards
Standards Organizations
Internet Standards
Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024
 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

Protocols -> what, how, when it is communicated?

Key Elements:
• Syntax → structure or format of the data.
• Semantics → Interprets meaning of each section (bits)
• Timing → when data should be sent and how fast.

Standards -> provides guidelines to ensure the kind of inter-connectivity

/ agreed upon rules
Categories:
• De facto → by fact (not approved as a standard). No formal
process and documentation.
• De jure → by Law (approved) or by regulation
Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024
Categories of Network protocols

 Communication – Eg: TCP/IP and HTTP

 Network management - Eg: SMTP, SNMP

 Security – Eg: HTTPS . Protects Privacy & Sensitivity

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Communication Protocol

 Communication Protocol is a system of rules that allow

two or more entities of a communications system to
transmit information via any kind of variation of a
physical quantity.

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

 Network Management Protocol:
SNMP

 An Internet Standard protocol for

 collecting and organizing information about managed devices on
IP networks
 modifying that information to change device behavior.
 Devices that typically support SNMP include cable modems,
routers, switches, servers, workstations, printers, and more.

SNMP - Simple Network Management Protocol - An internet

standard protocol used to monitor and manage network devices
connected over an IP.
Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024
Network security protocols
 Ensures the security and integrity of data in transit over a
network connection.
 Network security protocols define the processes and
methodology to secure network data from any
illegitimate attempt to review or extract the contents of
data.

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

IP Address/ MAC Address/ Port Number
An Internet Protocol (IP) address / Logical address is a
unique numerical identifier for every device or network that
connects to the internet. – 4 byte- 0.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.255
A media access control address (MAC address)/
Physical Address is a unique identifier assigned to a network
interface controller (NIC) for use as a network address in
communications within a network segment. – 6 bytes long
18:47:3D: D7: C8:73- Separator can be .,-,:
Transport Layer uses a port number to deliver the segmented
data to the correct process amongst the multiple processes
that are running on a particular host. A port number is a 16-bit
address used by transport layer to identify any client-server
program. – 0-65535
Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024
 Network Models

OSI Model

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

1-5 LAYERED TASKS

 A network model is a layered architecture

 Task broken into subtasks
 Implemented separately in layers in stack
 Functions need in both systems
 Peer layers communicate

 Protocol:
 A set of rules that governs data communication
 It represents an agreement between the communicating devices

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

1-5.1 THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards

Organization (ISO) is a multinational body
dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards.

An ISO is the Open Systems Interconnection

(OSI) model is the standard that covers all
aspects of network communications from ISO. It
was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

 ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

 Layered Architecture
Layers Seven layers of the OSI model

Layer 7. Application

Layer 6. Presentation
Layer 5. Session

Sender

Receiver
Layer 4. Transport

Layer 3. Network

Layer 2. Data Link

Layer 1. Physical

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

 Layered Architecture
 A layered model
 Each layer performs a subset of the required
communication functions
 Each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform
more primitive functions
 Each layer provides services to the next higher layer
 Changes in one layer should not require changes in
other layers
 The processes on each machine at a given layer are
called peer-to-peer process

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

 PEER – TO – PEER PROCESS
 Communication must move downward through the layers
on the sending device, over the communication channel,
and upward to the receiving device
 Each layer in the sending device adds its own
information to the message it receives from the layer just
above it and passes the whole package to the layer just
below it
 At the receiving device, the message is unwrapped layer
by layer, with each process receiving and removing the
data meant for it

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

 PEER – TO – PEER PROCESS
 The passing of the data and network information down
through the layers of the sending device and backup
through the layers of the receiving device is made
possible by interface between each pair of adjacent
layers
 Interface defines what information and services a layer
must provide for the layer above it.

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

The interaction between layers in the OSI model

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

An exchange using the OSI model

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

Topics discussed in this section:

1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

 Function
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
 Representation of bits
 Data rate
 Synchronization of bits
 Line configuration (point-to-point or multipoint)
 Physical topology (mesh, star, ring or bus)
 Transmission mode ( simplex, half-duplex or duplex)

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Physical layer

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Data Link Layer
The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.

 Function
 Framing
 Physical addressing
 Flow control
 Error control
 Access control

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Data link layer

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Hop-to-hop delivery

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Example 1

In following Figure a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with
physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link. At the data link level
this frame contains physical addresses in the header. These are the only addresses
needed. The rest of the header contains other information needed at this level.
The trailer usually contains extra bits needed for error detection

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

 Source-to-destination delivery
 Responsible from the delivery of packets from the
original source to the final destination
 Functions
 Logical addressing

 routing

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Network layer

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Source-to-destination delivery

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Example 2

We want to send data from a node

with network address A and
physical address 10, located on one
LAN, to a node with a network
address P and physical address 95,
located on another LAN. Because
the two devices are located on
different networks, we cannot use
physical addresses only; the
physical addresses only have local
influence. What we need here are
universal addresses that can pass
through the LAN boundaries. The
network (logical) addresses have
this characteristic.

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

 Process-to- process delivery

 Functions

 Port addressing

 Segmentation and reassembly

 Connection control ( Connection-oriented or connection-less)

 Flow control

 Error control
Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024
Transport layer

Segmentation and reassembly

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Example 3

Data coming from the upper

layers have port addresses j
and k (j is the address of the
sending process, and k is the
address of the receiving
process). Since the data size
is larger than the network
layer can handle, the data are
split into two packets, each
packet retaining the port
addresses (j and k). Then in
the network layer, network
addresses (A and P) are
added to each packet.

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Session Layer
The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.

 It establishes, maintains and synchronize the interaction

between communicating system
 Function
 Dialog control
 Synchronization (checkpoints)

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Session layer

Synchronization

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and
encryption.

 Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information

exchanged between two system
 Functions
 Translation ( EBCDIC-coded text file  ASCII-coded file)
 Encryption and Decryption
 Compression

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Presentation layer

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Application Layer

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

 Functions
 Network virtual terminal (Remote log-in)

 File transfer and access

 Mail services

 Directory services (Distributed Database)

 Accessing the World Wide Web

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Application layer

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

 Summary of layers

Computer identified by IP address, MAC Address File transfer and Access management,
Process is identified by port numbers Mail services, directory services

, Syntax, Semantics Dialog control, synchronization

Port addressing,
Segmentation &
Port
Reassembly, Connection Logical addressing, Routing
control, End to End flow
control, Error control IP

MAC

Framing, Physical Addressing, Flow control,

error control and Access control
Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
End to end flow control - Speed matching Representation of bits, Data rate
mechanism Synchronization of bits
Access Control – DLNivethika,
Dr. S. Deepa layer Determines
SCOPE, VIT, the
Chennai Line configuration (point-to-point or multipoint)
7/23/2024
Physical topology (mesh, star, ring or bus)
device has control over the common line Transmission mode ( simplex, half-duplex or duplex)
H2

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

 Summary of layers

OSI Model
Data
Layer Function
unit
User 7. Application Network process to application
support
layers/ Data 6. Presentation Data representation and encryption

H/W
5. Session Inter-host communication
layer
Sender

User

Receiver
Network
Segment 4. Transport End-to-end connections and reliability
Heart of
OSI

Network Packet 3. Network Path determination and logical addressing

support
layers/ Frame 2. Data Link Physical addressing
S/W Layer Bit SCOPE,1. Physical Media, signal and binary transmission
Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024
Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024
 Network Models

TCP/IP Model

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

1-5.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not

exactly match those in the OSI model. The original
TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four
layers: host-to-network, internet, transport, and
application. However, when TCP/IP is compared to
OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol suite is
made of five layers: physical, data link, network,
transport, and application.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024
Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024
Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024
 TCP/IP and OSI model

TCP/IP Model
OSI Model

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Internet Layer

TCP/IP support the Internet Protocol IP ( unreliable).

IP is a host-to-host protocol.
Supporting protocols:
• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
• Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
• Internet Control Massage Protocol (ICMP)
• Internet Group Massage Protocol (IGMP)

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Transport Layer

Process-to-process protocol.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

1-6 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an

internet employing the TCP/IP protocols:
physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Addresses in TCP/IP

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Physical Address

Physical addresses are imprinted on the NIC. Most

local-area networks (Ethernet) use a 48-bit (6-byte)
physical address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every
byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon.

Example:
07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Physical Address

• known also as the MAC address

• Is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN
• It is included in the frame used by data link layer

The physical addresses in the datagram may change from hop to hop.

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Logical Address

 IP addresses are necessary for universal communications that

are independent of physical network.
 No two host address on the internet can have the same IP
address
 IP addresses in the Internet are 32-bit address that uniquely
define a host.

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

 Port addresses

Port address is a 16-bit address represented by one decimal

number ranged from (0-65535) to choose a process among
multiple processes on the destination host.
 Destination port number is needed for delivery.
 Source port number is needed for receiving a reply as an
acknowledgments.
In TCP/IP , a 16-bit port address represented
as one single number. Example: 753

The physical addresses change from hop to hop,

but the logical and port addresses usually remain the same.

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024

Port addresses

Dr. S. Deepa Nivethika, SCOPE, VIT, Chennai 7/23/2024