LECTURE-7

CIRCUITS
Emf Device
• To produce a steady flow of charge, you need a “charge pump,” a device
that—by doing work on the charge carriers—maintains a potential
difference between a pair of terminals.

• We call such a device an emf device, and the device is said to provide an
emf ℰ , which means that it does work on charge carriers.
Work, Energy, and Emf
• The device must do an amount of work 𝑑𝑊 on the charge 𝑑𝑞 to force it to
move as shown in figure.

!"
• The emf of the emf device in terms of this work: ℰ =
!#
• The potential difference between the terminals of an ideal emf device is
equal to the emf of the device
Calculating the Current in a Single-Loop Circuit
Ways to calculate the current in the simple single-loop
circuit:
Energy Method
• In a time interval 𝑑𝑡 an amount of energy given by 𝑖 $ 𝑅𝑑𝑡 will appear in the
resistor as thermal energy.
𝑑𝑊 = ℰ𝑑𝑞 = ℰ𝑖𝑑𝑡
ℰ𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝑖 $ 𝑅𝑑𝑡
ℰ = 𝑖𝑅

ℰ
𝑖=
𝑅
Potential Method
Kirchhoff’s loop rule (Kirchhoff’s voltage law):
• The algebraic sum of the changes in potential encountered in a complete
traversal of any loop of a circuit must be zero.
𝑉% + ℰ − 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑉%
ℰ − 𝑖𝑅 = 0, 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
−ℰ + 𝑖𝑅 = 0, 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑖 = ℰ ⁄𝑅
• Thus, you may mentally circle a loop in either direction to apply the loop rule.
Resistance rule: For a move through a resistance in the direction of the current,
the change in potential is −𝑖𝑅; in the opposite direction it is +𝑖𝑅.
Emf rule: For a move through an ideal emf device in the direction of the emf
arrow, the change in potential is +ℰ; in the opposite direction it is −ℰ.
Other Single-Loop Circuits
• Internal Resistance: If we apply the loop rule clockwise:
ℰ
ℰ − 𝑖𝑟 − 𝑖𝑅 = 0 → 𝑖=
'()
 Resistances in Series
• Figure shows three resistances connected in series to an
ideal battery.
• “in series” means that the resistances are wired one
after another and that a potential difference 𝑉 is applied
across the two ends of the series.
• When a potential difference 𝑉 is applied across ℰ − 𝑖𝑅- − 𝑖𝑅$ − 𝑖𝑅/ = 0
resistances connected in series, the resistances have
identical currents 𝑖.
• The sum of the potential differences across the
resistances is equal to the applied potential difference 𝑉.
• Resistances connected in series can be replaced with an
equivalent resistance 𝑅*# that has the same current 𝑖
and the same total potential difference 𝑉 as the actual ℰ − 𝑖𝑅*# = 0
resistances. 𝑅*# = ∑.+,- 𝑅+
𝑅*# = 𝑅- + 𝑅$ + 𝑅/
 Potential Difference Between Two Points
• Let’s start at point 𝑎 at potential 𝑉% .
• When we pass through the battery’s emf, the
potential increases by ℰ.
• When we pass through the battery’s internal
resistance 𝑟, we move in the direction of the
current and thus the potential decreases by 𝑖𝑟.
• We are then at the potential of point 𝑏.
𝑉% + ℰ − 𝑖𝑟 = 𝑉0 → 𝑉0 − 𝑉% = ℰ − 𝑖𝑟

ℰ ℰ
𝑉0 − 𝑉% = ℰ − 𝑟= 𝑅 = 8.0 𝑉 𝑉% + 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑉0
𝑅+𝑟 𝑅+𝑟
𝑉0 − 𝑉% = 𝑖𝑅 = 8.0 𝑉
Potential Difference Across a Real Battery
• The potential difference 𝑉0 − 𝑉% is the terminal-to-
terminal potential difference 𝑉 across the battery.
𝑉 = ℰ − 𝑖𝑟
• Grounding a Circuit: Figure is the same circuit except
that point 𝑏 is now directly connected to ground.
• Thus, the potential there is defined to be 𝑉0 = 0.
• The potential at 𝑎 is 𝑉% = −8.0 V.
Power, Potential, and Emf
• When a battery or some other type of emf device does work on the charge
carriers to establish a current 𝑖, the device transfers energy from its source
of energy, such as the chemical source in a battery, to the charge carriers.
• Because a real emf device has an internal resistance 𝑟, it also transfers
energy to internal thermal energy via resistive dissipation.
𝑃 = 𝑖𝑉
𝑃 = 𝑖 ℰ − 𝑖𝑟 = 𝑖ℰ − 𝑖 $ 𝑟
• Internal dissipation rate:
𝑃) = 𝑖 $ 𝑟
• Power of emf device:
𝑃*12 = 𝑖ℰ
Multiloop Circuits
• Junction rule: The sum of the currents entering any junction must be equal
to the sum of the currents leaving that junction.

ℰ- − 𝑖- 𝑅- + 𝑖/ 𝑅/ = 0
−𝑖/ 𝑅/ − 𝑖$ 𝑅$ − ℰ$ = 0
𝑖- + 𝑖/ = 𝑖$ ℰ- − 𝑖- 𝑅- − 𝑖$ 𝑅$ − ℰ$ = 0
Resistances in Parallel
• Figure shows three resistances connected in parallel to an ideal battery.
• The term “in parallel” means that the resistances are directly wired together
on one side and directly wired together on the other side, and that a
potential difference 𝑉 is applied across the pair of connected sides. Thus, all
three resistances have the same potential difference 𝑉 across them,
producing a current through each.
• When a potential difference 𝑉 is applied across resistances connected in
parallel, the resistances all have that same potential difference 𝑉.
• Resistances connected in parallel can be replaced with an equivalent
resistance 𝑅*# that has the same potential difference 𝑉 and the same total
current 𝑖 as the actual resistances.
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝑖- = , 𝑖$ = , 𝑖/ =
𝑅- 𝑅$ 𝑅/

1 1 1 𝑉
𝑖 = 𝑖- + 𝑖$ + 𝑖/ = 𝑉 + + =
𝑅- 𝑅$ 𝑅/ 𝑅*#

.
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + → =C
𝑅*# 𝑅- 𝑅$ 𝑅/ 𝑅*# 𝑅+
+,-
 The Ammeter and the Voltmeter
• An instrument used to measure currents is called an
ammeter.
• To measure the current in a wire, you usually have to
break or cut the wire and insert the ammeter so that
the current to be measured passes through the
meter.
• A meter used to measure potential differences is
called a voltmeter.
• To find the potential difference between any two
points in the circuit, the voltmeter terminals are
connected between those points without breaking
or cutting the wire.
RC Circuits
Summary
Problem-1: The 𝑒𝑚𝑓 and resistances in the circuit have the following values:

𝜀- = 4.4 𝑉, 𝜀$ = 2.1 𝑉, 𝑟- = 2.3 Ω, 𝑟$ = 1.8 Ω, and 𝑅 = 5.5 Ω.

(a)What is the current 𝑖 in the circuit? (240 𝑚𝐴)
(b)What is the potential difference between the terminals of 𝐵 − 1? (3.8 𝑉)
Problem-2: Figure shows a multiloop circuit containing one ideal battery and
four resistances with the following values:

𝜀 = 12 𝑉, 𝑅- = 20 Ω, 𝑅$ = 20 Ω, 𝑅/ = 30 Ω and 𝑅3 = 8.0 Ω.
(a)What is the current through the battery? (0.30 𝐴)
(b)What is the current 𝑖$ through 𝑅$ ? (0.18 𝐴)
(c)What is the current 𝑖/ through 𝑅/ ? (0.12 𝐴)
Problem-3:
Problem-4:
Consider a five-pointed star made of resistors as shown below. Each resistor has
resistance 𝑅 = 6 𝛺. Find the equivalent resistance between the points A and B.
Answer: 7 Ω
Problem-5:
Find the equivalent resistance. Answer: 10 Ω
Problem-6:
What is the resistance between terminals 𝑎 and 𝑏?
Problem-7:
What is the resistance between terminals 𝑎 and 𝑏?
Problem-8:
Figure shows five 5.00 Ω resistors. Find the equivalent
resistance between points (a) F and H and (b) F and G.
(Hint: For each pair of points, imagine that a battery is
connected across the pair. Find the equivalent
resistance.
Problem-9:
Find the equivalent resistance between the points A and B.