Introduction to Mechanical Engineering BESCK104D

INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

BESCK104D

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Acharya Institute of Technology
Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishna Road, Soladevanahalli,
Bengaluru-107

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 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering BESCK104D

SYLLABUS
Module-1
Introduction: Role of Mechanical Engineering in Industries and Society- Emerging Trends and
Technologies in different sectors such as Energy, Manufacturing, Automotive, Aerospace, and Marine
sectors.
Energy: Introduction and applications of Energy sources like Fossil fuels, Nuclear fuels, Hydel, Solar,
wind, and bio-fuels, Environmental issues like Global warming and Ozone depletion
Module-2
Machine Tool Operations:
Working Principle of lathe, Lathe operations: Turning, facing, knurling. Working principles of Drilling
Machine, drilling operations: drilling, boring, reaming. Working of Milling Machine, Milling
operations: plane milling and slot milling. (No sketches of machine tools, sketches to be used only for
explaining the operations).
Introduction to Advanced Manufacturing Systems: Introduction, components of CNC, advantages and
applications of CNC, 3D printing.
Module-3
Introduction to IC Engines: Components and Working Principles, 4-Strokes Petrol and Diesel
Engines, Application of IC Engines.
Insight into Future Mobility: Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, Components of Electric and Hybrid
Vehicles. Advantages and disadvantages of EVs and Hybrid vehicles.
Module-4
Engineering Materials: Types and applications of Ferrous & Nonferrous Metals, silica, ceramics,
glass, graphite, diamond and polymer. Shape Memory Alloys.
Joining Processes: Soldering, Brazing and Welding, Definitions, classification of welding process, Arc
welding, Gas welding and types of flames.
Module-5
Introduction to Mechatronics and Robotics: Open-loop and Closed-loop mechatronic systems.
Classification based on robotics configuration: polar cylindrical, Cartesian coordinate and spherical.
Application, Advantages and disadvantages.
Automation in industry: Definition, types – Fixed, programmable and flexible automation, basic
elements with block diagrams, advantages.
Introduction to IOT: Definition and Characteristics, Physical design, protocols, Logical design of IoT,
Functional blocks, and communication models.

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Module-1
Introduction: Role of Mechanical Engineering in Industries and Society- Emerging Trends and
Technologies in different sectors such as Energy, Manufacturing, Automotive, Aerospace, and
Marine sectors.
Energy: Introduction and applications of Energy sources like Fossil fuels, Nuclear fuels, Hydel,
Solar, wind, and bio-fuels, Environmental issues like Global warming and Ozone depletion

Introduction:

Mechanical Engineering
• Mechanical engineering is an engineering branch that combines engineering physics and
mathematics principles with materials science to design, analyze, manufacture, and
maintain mechanical systems.
• It is one of the oldest and broadest of the engineering branches.
• Mechanical engineers are also involved with the design, construction and operations of all
kinds of machinery.

Role of Mechanical Engineering in Industries and Society

 The energy solution. Society of today badly needs more power. We have huge shortage of
electricity, especially in underdeveloped countries. Prices of fuel oil are going up. As a
Mechanical engineer you need to find a green way to generate power.
 The transportation solution. Millions of people die every year while traveling. Safety has
to be priority while designing new vehicles.
 Cost effective products. There are many who can't afford to buy basic things that are
required for day to day living. You need find better machines and processes that will reduce
prices.
 Mechanical Engineering play very important roles in the industries like
Transportation, Medical, Agricultural, Defense, Power generation, Defense, and
construction
Contribution of Mechanical Engineering to the society
 Eliminates excessive usage of resources by optimizing and improving efficiency.
 To build things that make the world a better living place.
 Reduces human effort and makes work easy.

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Role of Mechanical Engineers in Manufacturing Industries

Mechanical engineer's responsibilities in any manufacturing industry are briefly as below.

 Designing a product: Based on market feedback and likely future trends. This
involves drawing preparation, prototyping, testing, design changes as per engineering / tool
department's feedback on manufacturability, tolerance stacking etc.
 Engineering of designed product: This involves selecting a manufacturing
process (press working, machining, molding, powder metallurgy, assembly, packaging,
printing, painting, plating etc.) and level of automation for every individual component of
the product considering accuracy and cost requirements
 Tooling: This involves design and manufacture of tools as per the process
recommended by engineering function. Tools again take in to consideration productivity.
Material of tool depending on accuracy, number of components required and cost.
 Manufacturing: This function has sub functions like planning, purchase,
production, warehousing.
 Quality control: QC function is responsible for ensuring quality and reliability.
This department mainly ensures that product is as per design and offers feedback to design.
 Maintenance: These guys take care that all machines and facilities like air
conditioning, plating plant are in working condition and the down time is lowest.
 Sales & marketing: These engineers are responsible for getting orders and keeping
the factory running. Marketing broadly does advertise and other sales promotion activities
and sales does the field work including after sales service.

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Emerging Trends and Technologies in Manufacturing

Emerging trends and technologies in the field of manufacturing observed in the following areas

 Industrial internet of things (IIOT)

 Predictive maintenance
 Digital twins
 Automation and dark factories
 Robot and Cobots
 3D printing
 Sustainable product

Industrial internet of things (IIOT)

The industrial internet of things (IIoT) refers to the extension and use of the internet of things (IoT)
in industrial sectors and applications. With a strong focus on machine-to-machine (M2M)
communication, big data, and machine learning, the IIoT enables industries and enterprises to have
better efficiency and reliability in their operations.

Predictive maintenance

Predictive maintenance is extensively integrating AI, IoT, data analytics, digital twins. They
enable manufacturers to forecast and prevent potential damages in precise, efficient, and cost-
effective ways.

Digital twins

A digital twin is a virtual model designed to accurately reflect a physical object. Digital twins and
cloud platforms are helping manufacturers accelerate progress to autonomous operations

Automation and dark factories

This evolution would be full automation, in which workers are no longer needed to create output.
known as a dark factory, this environment is fully automated, with no required human labor.
Without this, such a facility can literally operate in the dark, without heat, light or other
environmental needs

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Robot and Cobots

An industrial robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move materials,

parts, tools or special devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a
variety of tasks. It can be simply thought as an artificial agent acting as a substitute for human
labour. A robot basically consists of manipulators (links and joints), guided by sensors, driven by
actuators and controlled through a programmed software to perform specific task like pick and
place, painting, welding, assembly material handling etc.

Cobots are Collaborative robots that are cost-effective, safe, and flexible to deploy. cobots are
making automation easier than ever, even for small and mid-sized companies around the world.
Cobots are designed to share a workspace with humans, making automation easier than ever before
for businesses of all sizes

3D printing

3D printing or additive manufacturing is the emerging trends in the field of manufacturing. In this
the construction of a three-dimensional object from a CAD model or a digital 3D model. The
creation of a 3D printed object is achieved using additive processes. In an additive process an
object is created by laying down successive layers of material until the object is created.

Sustainable products

Sustainable products are those products that provide environmental, social and economic benefits
while protecting public health and environment over their whole life cycle, from the extraction of
raw materials until the final disposal.

Emerging Trends and Technologies in Energy

Emerging trends and technologies in the field of energy observed in the following areas

 Renewable Energy
 Energy industry focused on carbon neutrality
 Bioenergy
 The Internet of Energy
 Green hydrogen energy
 Energy technology storage systems
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Renewable Energy
Shifting to renewable energy helps preserve the environment as it produces minimal to zero
harmful emissions. The basic principle of using renewables is to extract them from a constant
source like solar, wind, hydro, tidal, wave, ocean thermal energy conversion, geothermal. The
technology used to generate renewable energy is constantly being improved, and generating the
power more economically, efficiently, and safely.

Energy industry focused on carbon neutrality

Now the energy industries are focused in developing to meet the requirements of energy demand
through renewable energy sources with carbon free energy production.

Bioenergy
Energy derived from biomass or biofuel has the potential to generate far more of the power used
by human society than it does today, and in recent years we have seen a strong trend towards
attempting to unlock this potential. Thermal, chemical, and biological processes are used to create
more efficient forms of fuel from biological matter (such as wood, or crops like sugarcane, or even
waste materials). This includes fermentation to produce bioethanol and biodiesel.

The Internet of Energy

The area of the internet of things (IoT) is concerned with the generation and distribution of power.
IoE is closely tied to the idea of energy decentralization – the move towards a more sustainable
power infrastructure where energy is used as closely as possible to the time and place where it is
created.

Green hydrogen energy

Hydrogen is the most abundant material in the universe and produces close to zero greenhouse gas
emissions when burnt. These are two of the qualities that make it a very exciting potential source
of energy.

Energy technology storage systems

Energy comes in multiple forms – mechanical, electrical, thermal, and chemical – so the means
and technologies of converting and storing energy vary greatly, yet are plentiful.

Energy storage systems have emerged as key enablers for a wide deployment of renewable energy

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sources. The main goal of storage projects in power applications is to store the renewable power
surplus and use it later. The challenge for companies is to find a cheap, efficient, scalable, and
dispatchable solution using standard components and materials for the creation of these storage
systems.

Emerging Trends and Technologies in Automotive

Emerging trends and technologies in the field of automobile observed in the following areas

 Autonomous Vehicles (AVs)

 Vehicle Connectivity
 Electrification
 Shared Mobility
 Artificial Intelligence
 Big Data & Analytics
 Human-Machine Interfaces
 3D Printing
 Internet of Things
Autonomous Vehicles (AVs)

Self-driving or autonomous vehicles minimize the need for human drivers and look poised to
transform everyday transportation. Aim to make public transportation relatively safer.

For example, by reducing accidents caused due to driver fatigue or negligence. AVs are equipped
with advanced recognition technologies, such as AI-enhanced computer vision to identify
obstacles along the route

Vehicle Connectivity

Nowadays, vehicles come with a tamper-proof digital identity that differentiates them from other
vehicles in the network. This enables easy tracking of vehicular data for various use cases such as
insurance, driver safety, predictive maintenance, and fleet management.

Electrification

The depleting fossil fuel reserves and the harm to the environment caused by their use call for
promoting the use of electric mobility solutions. For greater adoption, EVs need to address issues

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such as high price, poor battery, inadequate charging infrastructure, fleet electrification, as well
as powering renewable energy-based charging grids. These challenges, along with the need to
tackle increasing greenhouse gas emissions across the world, startups are working on
electrification solutions.

Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) application in automobiles enables drivers to improve safety. Some
modern cars can apply such technology and automatically light up in the dark.
The headlights sense oncoming cars and dim. This is because artificial intelligence makes the
automatic activity of beam control possible. It helps to improve a driver’s vision on the road, which
increases road safety.

3D Printing in Car Manufacturing

3D printing enables manufacturing companies to perform rapid prototyping. This accelerates the
production of vehicles in the design phase and testing.

Car manufacturers print designs they need with 3D printing technology. It is a technology that
helps save time in the manufacturing of automobiles.

Biometric Seat Capabilities

Biometric seat capabilities improve a driver’s personal experience in a vehicle. For example, a
2022 Toyota Tundra interior can meet a driver’s unique needs with a biometric seat.

This technology collects data from a driver’s face and palms. The information measures anxiety
levels and advises the driver when to take a break. This helps avoid fatigue and enhances a driver’s
performance on the road.

Big Data Analytics

Analytics helps to make data-driven decisions in a vehicle’s lifecycle. Data collection and analysis
helps in predictive maintenance, provides fleet information to managers, and alert authorities if an
accident occurs.

Data in the automobile sector can optimize supply, predict motor vehicle sales, and improve the
design of new vehicles. Automobile companies also use big data and analytics to streamline their
operations and increase their profits.

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Shared Mobility

Shared mobility reduces the number of cars on the roads and reduces pollution. Car-as-a-service
(CaaS) ensures fewer petrol and diesel cars on the road to keep the air clean.

A vehicle like Toyota Tundra double cabin provides an elevated experience to the driver and
passengers using it for CaaS. This makes shared mobility a comfortable transport solution.
Software applications can also help manage shared mobility like shuttle services, rental cars, or
scooters.

Connectivity

Connectivity is possible when vehicles have a digital identity that is unique. This makes it easy to
track a car on the internet.

It also helps in fleet and traffic management. Connectivity means vehicles can exchange data with
each other. This data can be streamed live to identify high-traffic roads and advise drivers on the
best routes to use.

Internet of Things

Vehicles need to communicate in a secure way online. And the advancement in technology allows
data collection and communication between vehicles. The data enables a vehicle to know what is
happening in its surrounding area.

IoT also uses algorithms and makes it possible to monitor a vehicle and perform predictive
maintenance. The alerts about driving and predictive maintenance will be sent to the driver. This
helps reduce downtime and improve the driving experience

Human-Machine Interface (HMI)

Human machine-interface technology improves how drivers interact with their cars. HMI is a
voice-based technology that drivers use to get feedback from a vehicle.

This helps to control some features of your car. For example, virtual assistants enable drivers to
interact with the car and service providers.

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They also help drivers increase efficiency in keeping lanes and preventing collisions. This is
possible with the use of technology like augmented reality and smart cameras. Such cameras help
in making turns and driving safely in curves and junctions that are not visible with car mirrors.

Emerging Trends and Technologies in Aerospace

Emerging trends and technologies in the field of aerospace observed in the following areas
 Zero-Fuel Aircraft
 Supersonic Flights
 Autonomous Flight Systems
 Structural Health Monitoring (SHM)
 Advanced Materials
 Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing)
 Utilizing Internet of Things (IoT) to Anticipate Maintenance Issues
 Artificial intelligence (AI)

Zero-Fuel Aircraft

Aerospace industry revealed that world’s zero-emission hydrogen commercial aircraft, which
could enter service by 2035. These concepts each represent a different approach to achieving zero-
emission flight by exploring various technology pathways and aerodynamic configurations in
order to support their ambition of pioneering the decarbonization of the entire aviation industry.

Supersonic Flights

Supersonic flight is when an aircraft travels faster than the speed of sound.

Autonomous Flight Systems

Implementing autonomous technologies has been a growing trend across several industries, and
the aerospace industry is no exception. Much of this has been focused on increasing autonomous
flights, with the end goal being to launch fully human-free flights. While this may still be several
years away.

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Structural Health Monitoring (SHM)

Structural health monitoring involves the observation and analysis of a system over time using
periodically sampled response measurements to monitor changes to the material and geometric
properties of engineering structures of airplanes. Aircraft accidents involving catastrophic fatigue
failure have the potential for significant loss of life, which makes innovation in this branch of the
aerospace industry so important.

The foundation of structural health monitoring is the ability to monitor structures using embedded
or attached nondestructive evaluation (NDE) sensors and to utilize the data to assess the state of
the structure. Over the last ten years, researchers have made significant advances in developing
NDE sensors for SHM, and they have developed the hardware and software needed for analysis
and communication of the SHM results. The NDE SHM sensors that have reached some modest
degree of maturing and are able to monitor significantly large areas of structures include fiber
optics, active ultrasonics, and passive acoustic emission.

Advanced Materials
The materials used for the construction of aircraft must have a light weight, high specific strength,
heat resistant, fatigue load resistant, crack resistant and corrosion resistant.

Traditional aluminum, titanium alloys, nickel alloys and composite materials like metal matrix
composites, polymer matrix composites, ceramic matrix composites, nanomaterials and graphene
are used in aircraft industry.

Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing)

3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, has been proven to be an excellent

manufacturing solution for producing components and parts that utilize significantly less material
than other comparable, traditionally manufactured parts. Since the material can be used to create
an item through additive manufacturing, extremely complex geometric shapes can be built that
have great strength despite the reduced density in the material used.

Reducing weight is paramount to the aerospace technology industry due to increasing performance
in areas of speed, capacity, fuel consumption, emissions, and more. This realization is leading the

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aerospace and defense industry to look for applications of 3D printing in its newest products, from
seat frameworks to air ducts.

Utilizing Internet of Things (IoT) to Anticipate Maintenance Issues

Aircraft maintenance and repair companies are widely using Internet of Things technology for
predictive maintenance of aircraft parts and equipment. An IoT-based predictive maintenance
solution can help to predict potential damage for example by collecting data from ultrasonic and
vibration sensors attached to the spindle of a CNC machine. Analyzing the collected data helps to
identify fragile spindles and tools before they break. IoT technology is used to send critical data
from engines, wing flaps, bleed values, and landing gear to technicians for preventive maintenance.
This data aids technicians to create maintenance schedules, procure parts, and schedule relevant
workers to fix equipment.

Artificial intelligence (AI)

The use of artificial intelligence in aerospace and defense is growing – it drives innovations in
manufacturing. This technology allows aerospace organizations to transform their manufacturing
processes, improve safety, optimize customer service.

Emerging Trends and Technologies in Marine

Emerging trends and technologies in the field of marine observed in the following areas

 Artificial Intelligence
 Sensor technology
 Robot and 3D Printing
 Big data and IOT
 Advanced Materials
 Drones
 Ship propulsion

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Energy
 Energy is defined as the capacity to do work
 Energy exists in various forms such as mechanical energy, electrical energy, thermal
energy and chemical energy.
 Energy in the process of transfer from one body to another. After it has been transferred,
energy is always designated according to its nature.
 Energy can be converted from one form to another in various ways but the total amount of
energy remains constant before and after the transformation.

Various sources of energy

The various sources of energy are
(i) Fossil fuels
(ii) Nuclear energy
(iii) Hydal energy
(iv) Solar energy
(v) Wind
(vi) Tides
(vii) Geothermal energy
(viii) Bio-mass

Different sources of energy

The sources of energy are classified in the following two ways:
(a) Conventional and non- conventional sources of energy
(b) Renewable and non-renewable sources of energy
Conventional energy sources
 Conventional sources of energy are the natural energy resources which are regularly used
for many years and are accepted as fuel to produce heat, light, food and electricity.
 The energy sources include firewood, fossil fuels
 Fossil fuel is the greatest conventional source, wherein fossil implies the remains of plants
and animals, that got buried under the earth and transformed into rocks over the years.
These fossil fuels are coal, oil (petroleum), and natural gas.

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 Conventional sources of energy are generally non-renewable sources of energy as the

accumulation or creation of conventional sources of energy takes years, once they are
exploited or consumed.

Non-conventional energy sources

 An alternative to conventional sources of energy is the non-conventional sources of energy,
that achieved popularity in recent years.
 The energy can be obtained from various sources such as the sun, wind, biological wastes,
hot springs, tides, etc. to generate heat and power.
 These are not only renewable sources of energy but are also pollution free. These sources
are present in abundance in nature, and they are constantly generated, so it cannot be
exhausted easily, and used again and again.

Difference between Conventional and non- conventional sources of energy

Conventional sources of energy Non- conventional sources of energy
These are widely used and economical These are rarely used and initial cost is high
Most of them are exhaustible Most of them are in-exhaustible
Most of them are pollute the environment Most of them are environment friendly
They are reliable (continuous supply of energy They are not reliable (continuous supply of
is possible) energy is not possible)
Energy transmission cost is high Energy transmission cost is low
Example: Fossil fuels, Hydel energy Example: solar, wind, tidal etc.

Renewable and non-renewable sources of energy

Renewable sources of energy
The renewable sources of energy are defined as the energy sources which are continuously
produced in nature and are essentially inexhaustible or non-depletable. These energy sources
replenish themselves naturally in a relatively short time and therefore will always be available.
E.g. of renewable energy sources: direct solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, hydel
energy, ocean thermal energy, bio energy, geothermal energy, peat, fuel wood, fuel cells, solid
wastes, hydrogen energy etc.

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Non-renewable sources of energy

The non-renewable energy sources are those natural resources that are available in limited
quantity and these resources cannot be renewed in short durations.
E.g. Fossil fuels (coal, petroleum and petroleum products), nuclear fuels and heat traps
.
Difference between Renewable and non-renewable sources of energy

Renewable sources of energy Non- Renewable sources of energy

These are in-exhaustible These are exhaustible
Freely available and environment friendly Not freely available & hazardous to
environment
Initial cost is high but maintenance cost is low Initial cost is low but maintenance cost is
high
Energy concentration varies from region to Energy concentration almost same in all
region region
Example: solar, hydel, wind, tidal etc. Example: Fossil fuels, nuclear fuels.

Fossil Fuels
 Fossil fuels are energy rich substances that have been formed from long buried plants and
microorganisms.
 Fossil fuels include solid, liquid and gaseous fuels
 Chemically fossil fuels consist largely of hydrocarbons, which are compounds of hydrogen
and carbon.

1. Solid Fuels
Solid fuels are mainly classified into two categories:
i) Natural fuels: wood, coal, etc.
ii) Manufactured fuels: charcoal, coke, etc.

Wood
 The most commonly used and easily obtainable solid fuel is wood. It is the oldest type of
fuel which man had used for centuries after the discovery of the fire itself. Charcoal is an
artificial fuel obtained from wood.
 Calorific value:18000 kJ/kg

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Charcoal
 It is obtained from destructive distillation of wood
 It burns rapidly with clear flame, producing no smoke and developing heat of about 6050
cal/kg.
Coal
 Coal is a combustible black or brownish black sedimentary rock
 The major chemical elements in coal are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
 There are two types one is Bituminous coal and Anthracite coal.
 Calorific value:27000 kJ/kg

Coke
 It is obtained from destructive distillation of coal, being left in the shape of solid residue.
 Coke can be classified into two categories: soft coke and hard coke.
 Soft coke is obtained as the solid residue from the destructive distillation of coal in the
temperature range of 600-650oC. It contains 5 to 10% volatile matter. It burns without
smoke. It is extensively used as domestic fuel.
 Hard coke is obtained as solid residue from the destructive distillation of coal in the
temperature range of 1200-1400oC. It burns with smoke and is a useful fuel for
metallurgical process.
 Calorific value:28000 kJ/kg

Advantages of solid fuels

i) They are easy to transport.
ii) They are convenient to store without any risk of spontaneous explosion.
iii) Their cost of production is low.
iv) They possess moderate ignition temperature.

Disadvantages of solid fuels

i) Their ash content is high.
ii) Their large proportion of heat is wasted.
iii) Their combustion operation cannot be controlled easily.
iv) Their cost of handling is high.

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2. Liquid fuels
 All types of liquid fuels used are derived from crude petroleum and its by-products.
 The petroleum or crude oil consists of 80-85% Carbon, 10-15% hydrogen, and varying
percentages of sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen and compounds of vanadium.
 The crude oil is refined by fractional distillation process to obtain fuel oils, for industrial
as well as for domestic purposes.
 The fractions from light oil to heavy oil are naphtha, gasoline, kerosene, diesel and finally
heavy fuel oil.
 The heavy fuel oil is used for generation of steam. The use of liquid fuels in thermal power
plants has many advantages over the use of solid fuels
 Liquid fuels are generally found under the earth’s surface by drilling wells in the earth’s
crust
 Liquid fuels include Gasoline, Diesel oil, Kerosene, Heavy oil, Naptha, Lubricating oils,
etc.

Gasoline or Petrol
 It is a mixture of large number of hydrocarbons
 It is lightest and most volatile liquid mainly used as motor fuel
 It is obtained by fractional distillation from crude oil
 Calorific value:48000 kJ/kg
Diesel
 The liquid fuel distilled after gasoline and kerosene
 These fuels are used in diesel engines
 It evaporates slowly when compared to petrol as it is heavier
 Calorific value:44800 kJ/kg

Kerosene
 It is obtained from crude oil in the fractional distillation after obtaining petrol
 It is heavier than petrol and less volatile than petrol
 It is mostly used as domestic fuel for heating and lighting purpose
 Calorific value:46200 kJ/kg

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Advantages of liquid fuels

i) They possess higher calorific value per unit mass than solid fuels.
ii) They burn without dust, ash, clinkers, etc.
iii) They are easy to transport through pipes.
iv) They can be stored indefinitely without any loss.
v) They are clean in use and economic to handle.
vi) They require less excess air for complete combustion.
vii) They require less furnace space for combustion.

Disadvantages of liquid fuels

i) The cost of liquid fuel is relatively much higher as compared to solid fuel.
ii) Costly special storage tanks are required for storing liquid fuels.
iii) There is a greater risk of five hazards, particularly, in case of highly inflammable and
volatile liquid fuels.
iv) For efficient burning of liquid fuels, specially constructed burners and spraying
apparatus is required.

3. Gaseous fuels
In recent years gaseous fuels are playing predominant role in industrial and domestic applications

Natural Gas
 Methane is the main constituent of natural gas and accounting for about 95% of the total
volume along with other elements namely ethane, propane, butane and other gases
 It has high calorific value
 It mixes with air readily and doesn’t produce smoke
 It is lighter than air

Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG)

 It mainly consists of butane
 Calorific value:50000 kJ/kg
 On compression it easily changes to a liquid state and stored in cylinders
 In cylinder it will be in liquid form and while using it will convert into gaseous state

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 The cost of LPG is less than that of petrol

 It causes less pollution to environment than petrol as it releases less amount of carbon
monoxide when compared to petrol
 It is extensively used as domestic fuel and in transportation

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)

 It mainly consists of methane

 Calorific value:55000 kJ/kg
 It is nontoxic, colourless and lighter than ai
Advantages of gaseous fuels
i) They can be conveyed easily through pipelines to the actual place of need, thereby eliminating
manual labour in transportation.
ii) They can be lighted at ease.
iii) They have high heat contents and hence help us in having higher temperatures.
iv) They can be pre-heated by the heat of hot waste gases, thereby affecting economy in heat.
v) Their combustion can readily by controlled for change in demand like oxidizing or reducing
atmosphere, length flame, temperature, etc.
vi) They do not require any special burner.
vii) They are free from impurities found in solid and liquid fuels.

Disadvantages gaseous fuels

i) Very large storage tanks are needed.
ii) They are highly inflammable, so chances of fire hazards in their use is high.

Applications of Fossil Fuels

i) Electricity generation: it can be produced in various power plants by using fossil fuels
such as coal, oil, gaseous fuels
ii) Heating: Oil and natural gases are commonly used for heating for domestic and
industrial applications
iii) Transportations: The petroleum products such as petrol, diesel and natural gases are
used in the transportation sector. All the major means of transportation depends on
fossil fuels

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iv) Cooling applications: Cooling systems in the houses and industries are directly or
indirectly depends on the fossil fuels for energy
v) The by-products of the oil used to produce chemical, plastics, lubricants tras, waxes,
medicine
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is the energy released during nuclear fission or fusion, especially when
used to generate electricity. Nuclear fuel is any material that can be consumed to derive nuclear
energy. The most common type of nuclear fuel is fissile elements that can be made to undergo
nuclear fission chain reactions in a nuclear reactor. The most common nuclear fuels are
235U.

The basic nuclear generating station energy cycle is shown in Figure. Fuel containing
fissile material (Uranium) is fed to the reactor where fission takes place. The energy liberated
appears in the form of heat, which is used to boil water in heat exchanger or steam generator. The
steam produced from the boiling water spins a turbine-generator set, where the heat is converted
first to kinetic energy and then it will converts to mechanical energy in the turbine and to electricity
by the generator.

Figure: Nuclear Energy Conversions

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Application of Nuclear energy

i) Generate electricity in nuclear power stations
ii) Military operations in developing nuclear weapons
iii) Medical field for radiotherapy, sterelization of medical products
iv) Food preservation and agricultural fields

Hydel (Hydro) Energy

Figure: Hydro-power station

Hydro energy is considered as an indirect source of solar energy. The water from the earth’s
surface gets evaporated by solar heat and forms as clouds, this inturn results in rainfall. The rain
water flowing as river can be stored in dam and released in a regulated way to through a penstock,
to drive the turbine. The potential energy of water stored at a height is converted into mechanical
energy in water turbines. The mechanical energy produced by the water turbines is further
converted into electrical energy by the electric generators which are coupled to the water turbines.
After doing the useful work the water is discharged from the turbine to the river through a water
way to the tail race through draft tube.
Merits
i) These can be used for power generation in large scale
ii) Environmental friendly source of energy
iii) As water is natural resource, it is the energy available at free of cost
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Demerits
i) It is expensive to built a dam
ii) By construction of dam, the nearby area may be flooded and this could affect nearby
wildlife and plants
iii) During summer the water may not be sufficient to produce electricity
Applications
i) To generate electricity in power plants

Wind energy

Figure: Schematic diagram of Wind Mill

Wind arise primarily from temperature difference of the earth’s surface resulting from
unequal exposure to (or absorption of) solar radiation. Wind possesses kinetic energy. The kinetic
energy of wind can be converted into mechanical energy that can be utilized to perform useful
work or to generate electricity. Wind energy conversion devices are commonly known as wind
turbines.

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It consists of a rotor hub fitted with large sized blades. When the wind blows against the
blades of a wind turbine, rotational motion is caused in the wind turbine. Thus, the kinetic energy
of wind is converted into mechanical work. This mechanical work can be used directly to run a
machine or to run a generator to produce electricity. Wind energy can be utilized in places wind
velocity is considerably high. An ideal wind speed that can be utilized to extract energy lies
between a speed 10 km/hr to 50 km/hr.

The speed increasing device (gearbox) converts relatively slow rotation of the spinning
blades into higher speed motion turning the drive shaft quickly enough to power the electricity
generator. The tail fin is used for automatic wind source steering.

Solar Energy
Solar energy refers to the energy produced and radiated by the sun, i.e. sun’s energy which
reaches the earth. Solar energy can be converted directly or indirectly into other forms of energy,
such as heat and electricity which can be utilized by man. The heat energy contained in the rays of
the sun is absorbed by a black surface.
The solar energy can be converted into other forms of energy, the primary processes are
i) Heliochemical process: conversion of solar energy into chemical energy
ii) Helioelectrical process: conversion of solar energy into electrical energy
iii) Helioithermal process: conversion of solar energy into thermal energy

Heliochemical process
Is a photosynthesis process, which is the source of all fossil fuels and the food on ehich we
live today. The photosynthesis is a complex biochemical reaction in which the plants using the
solar energy synthesize to produce energy rich molecules of starch and cellulose and oxygen from
the inorganic materials like carbon dioxide and water. Thus photosynthesis is a form of biological
conversion of solar energy into chemical energy called bioenergy which will be stored in plants.
The overall efficiency of this conversion process from solar energy to stored energy is very low.

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Helio-electrical Process- Photovoltaic Cell

Figure: Solar Cell

Conversion of solar energy into electrical energy can be achieved by the photovoltaic effect caused
by the solar radiations. Photo-voltaic effect can be observed in variety of materials but best
performance is given by semiconductors (like silicon).

Since silicon is a tetravalent material has four valence electrons. After doping with
pentavalent material (like arsenic, phosphorous) it forms N-type semiconductor and the same with
trivalent material (like boron) it forms P-type semiconductor. When P-N junction of semiconductor
is exposed to sunlight, a voltage around 0.5 volts is built up around the junction and current
depends on the exposed area of cell. By applying external load, current is made to flow through
the conductor, it will continue as long as the free electrons and holes are formed due to solar
radiation.

Helio-Thermal Process

In the heliothermal process, the radiant solar energy falling on the surface placed on the earth in
the form of visible light is converted directly into thermal energy. the surfaces on which the solar
rays fall are called collectors.

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Basically two types of collectors are used and they are flat plate (non concentrating)
collectors and Focusing (concentrating) collectors.

Flat plate collectors

Figure: Flat Plate collector

In flat plate collectors the incident solar radiation is absorbed by the collectors surface
itself, which are usually coated with black paint (usually electroplated), covered with transparent
glass cover on top and insulated all around to prevent the heat loss from the collector surface. The
black collector surface gets heated up and then in turn transfers the heat to the fluid passing through
the tubes which are either welded or soldered or are integral part of the collector plate. Flat plate
collectors are usually sloped and oriented in one particular direction and are capable of collecting
both diffuse and beam radiation. Since there are no moving parts in it, the repair and maintenance
cost is also nil or negligible. A maximum of 70°C can be easily achieved using flat plate collectors
and are more popularly used in solar water heating applications and solar air heaters as they are
relatively cheaper as compared to the cost of concentrating collectors.

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Focusing collectors

Figure: Parabolic Focusing Collector

In focussing collectors a mirror or lens system is used to increase the intensity of solar
radiation. Generally parabolic reflectors of either cylindrical shape or spherical shape are
employed to focus the incident radiation. The focussing collectors intercept and concentrate only
the direct rays of the sun and hence they do not perform satisfactorily when the sky is cloud or
hazy. The focussing collectors require tracking systems to follow the path of the sun. The
concentrated narrow focussed beam is absorbed by a receiver placed at the focus of the reflector,
The focussing collector may be used for high temperature heating applications for industrial
purpose. A maximum of 150°C can be easily achieved using focussing collectors

Application of solar energy

i) Generating electricity using photovoltaic cells

ii) Water pumping and lighting
iii) Water distillation purpose in the coastal areas
iv) Solar furnaces
v) Heating the water domestic and industrial purposes
vi) Source of energy for satellites in the space

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Benefits of solar energy

i) Renewable source of energy

ii) Non-polluting
iii) Avoids global warming
iv) Reduce the use of fossil fuels
v) Generate local wealth and jobs

Solar Pond
A solar pond is a pool of saltwater which acts as a large-scale solar thermal energy collector with
integral heat storage for supplying thermal energy. Solar pond can be used for various applications,
such as process heating, desalination, refrigeration, drying and solar power generation. Solar pond
is simply a pool of saltwater which collects and stores solar thermal energy. The layers of salt
solutions increase in concentration (and therefore density) with depth. Below a certain depth, the
solution has a uniformly high salt concentration.

There are 3 distinct layers of water in the pond:

1. The top layer, which has a low salt content.

2. An intermediate insulating layer with a salt gradient, which establishes a density gradient
that prevents heat exchange by natural convection.

3. The bottom layer, which has a high salt content.

Figure: Solar Pond

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Application of Solar Ponds: -

a. Heating and cooling of buildings.

b. Production of power
c. Industrial process heat.
d. Heating animal housing.
e. Drying crops on farms

Bio-Fuels
Biofuels are energy sources made from living things, or the waste that living things produce. It is
considered to be a source of renewable energy. Biofuels are combustible fuels created from
biomass. There are two main types of biofuels one is ethanol and another biodiesel.

Biofuels are grouped by categories like first, second and third generations. First generation biofuels
are produced from food crops. For ethanol the feedstock includes sugarcane, corn and maize. For
biodiesel the feedstock is naturally occurring vegetable oil such as soybean, Jatropha and canola.
Second generation biofuels are produced from cellulose material such as wood, graces and inedible
parts of plant. The third-generation biofuels are produced using lipid production from Algae.

Advanced biofuels is used to describe the relatively new technological field of biofuel production
that uses waste such as garbage, animal fat and spent cooking oil to produce liquid fuels.

Ethanol
Ethanol can be produced by the action of microorganisms and enzymes through the fermentation
of sugar cane. Ethanol can be used in petrol engines as a replacement for gasoline; it can be mixed
with gasoline to any percentage. Most existing car petrol engines can run on blends of up to 15%
bioethanol with petroleum/gasoline. Ethanol has a smaller energy density than that of gasoline;
this means it takes more fuel (volume and mass) to produce the same amount of work. An
advantage of ethanol (CH3CH2OH) is that it has a higher octane rating than ethanol-free gasoline
available at roadside gas stations, which allows an increase of an engine's compression ratio for
increased thermal efficiency. In high-altitude (thin air) locations, some states mandate a mix of
gasoline and ethanol as a winter oxidizer to reduce atmospheric pollution emissions.

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Advantages

 Unlike petroleum, ethanol is a renewable resource

 Ethanol burns more cleanly in air than petroleum, producing less carbon (soot) and carbon
monoxide
 The use of ethanol as opposed to petroleum could reduce carbon dioxide emissions,
provided that a renewable energy resource was used to produce crops required to obtain
ethanol and to distil fermented ethanol

Disadvantages

 Ethanol has a lower heat of combustion (per mole, per unit of volume, and per unit of mass)
that petroleum
 Large amounts of arable land are required to produce the crops required to obtain ethanol,
leading to problems such as soil erosion, deforestation, fertiliser run-off and salinity. 
 Major environmental problems would arise out of the disposal of waste fermentation
liquors.
 Typical current engines would require modification to use high concentrations of ethanol

Biodiesel

It is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is a liquid similar in composition to
fossil/mineral diesel. Chemically, it consists mostly of fatty acid methyl (or ethyl) esters (FAMEs).
Feedstocks for biodiesel include animal fats, vegetable oils, soyabean, jatropha, mahua, mustard,
flax, sunflower, palm oil, hemp, field pennycress, Pongamia pinnata and algae. Pure biodiesel
(B100) currently reduces emissions with up to 60% compared to diesel.

Advantages of biodiesel fuel

 An excessive production of soybeans in the world makes it an economic way to utilize this
surplus for manufacturing the Biodiesel fuel.
 One of the main biodiesel fuel advantages is that it is less polluting than petroleum diesel.
 The lack of sulfur in 100% biodiesel extends the life of catalytic converters.
 Another of the advantages of biodiesel fuel is that it can also be blended with other energy
resources and oil.
 It can also be distributed through existing diesel fuel pumps, which is another biodiesel
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fuel advantage over other alternative fuels.

 The lubricating property of the biodiesel may lengthen the lifetime of engines.

Disadvantages of biodiesel fuel

i) At present, Biodiesel fuel is bout one and a half times more expensive than petroleum
Diesel fuel.
ii) It requires energy to produce biodiesel fuel from soy crops; plaus there is the energy of
sowing, fertilizing and harvesting.
i) As Biodiesel cleans the dirt from the engine, this dirt can then get collected in the fuel
filter, thus clogging it. So, filters have to be changed after the first several hours of
biodiesel use.
iv) Biodiesel fuel distribution infrastructure needs improvement, which is another of the
biodiesel fuel disadvantages.

Application of Biofuels
i) As an alternative fuel for automobiles
ii) Cooking purpose
iii) Lubrication in place of conventional oils
iv) In Power plants to generate electricity
v) In marine industry to run the ships
Environmental Issues
Environmental issues are harmful effects of human activity on the biophysical environment. The
various environmental issues are global warming, ozone layer depletion, air pollution, water
pollution, natural resource depletion, waste disposal. Climatic changes, deforestation, acid rain etc.
Green House Effect
The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface. When the Sun’s energy
reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed and
re-radiated by greenhouse gases.

Greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and some
artificial chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The absorbed energy warms the
atmosphere and the surface of the Earth

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Step 1: Solar radiation reaches the Earth's atmosphere - some of this is reflected back into
space.
Step 2: The rest of the sun's energy is absorbed by the land and the oceans, heating the Earth.
Step 3: Heat radiates from Earth towards space.
Step 4: Some of this heat is trapped by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, keeping the Earth
warm enough to sustain life.
Step 5: Human activities such as burning fossil fuels, agriculture and land clearing are
increasing the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere.
Step 6: This is trapping extra heat, and causing the Earth's temperature to rise.
Global warming
The gradual heating of Earth's surface, oceans and atmosphere, is caused by human activity,
primarily the burning of fossil fuels that pump carbon dioxide (CO2), methane and
other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Global warming is the long-term rise in the average
temperature of the Earth's climate system.
Causes for Global Warming

Global warming occurs when carbon dioxide (CO2) and other air pollutants and greenhouse gases
collect in the atmosphere and absorb sunlight and solar radiation that have bounced off the earth’s
surface. Normally, this radiation would escape into space—but these pollutants, which can last for
years to centuries in the atmosphere, trap the heat and cause the planet to get hotter. That's what's
known as the greenhouse effect.
Effects of Global warming
i) Ocean Warming
ii) Ice Loss
iii) Change in climate
iv) Sea level rise
v) Depletion of ozone layer
vi) Causes for unseasonal rains
vii) Causes for different types of skin diseases
Ozone Layer Depletion
The ozone layer is an invisible layer of protection around the planet that protects us from the Sun’s
harmful rays (Ultra-Violet Rays). In other words it acts as nature’s umbrella against UV radiations.

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The ozone layer is about 3mm thick.

Ozone depletion is the thinning of earth’s ozone layer. This is caused due to the presence of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Depletion of the ozone layer is mainly due to the interaction
of ozone with chlorine and bromide present in Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s). Once these toxic
gases reach the upper atmosphere, they cause a hole in the ozone layer causing its depletion. This
is one of the most important current environmental challenges.

Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion

i) Increases the flux of UV radiations over earth’s biosphere
ii) Causes skin cancer and eyes disorders
iii) Decreases the rate of photosynthesis
iv) Leads to greenhouse effect
v) It causes decrease in the yield of crops
vi) Adversely affects human immunity system and causes genetic abnormalities
vii) Causes the degradation of plaints, plastics and other polymer materials
viii) It affects the marine life
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