SQL

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Database
Database is collection of data in a format that can be easily accessed (Digital)

A software application used to manage our DB is called DBMS (Database Management System)

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Types of Databases
Relational Non-relational (NoSQL)

Data stored in tables data not stored in tables

** We use SQL to work with relational DBMS APNA

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What is SQL?
Structured Query Language

SQL is a programming language used to interact with relational databases.

It is used to perform CRUD operations :

Create
Read
Update
Delete

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Database Structure

Database

Table 1 Table 2

Data Data

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What is a table?

Student table

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Creating our First Database
Our first SQL Query

CREATE DATABASE db_name;

DROP DATABASE db_name;

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Creating our First Table
USE db_name;

CREATE TABLE table_name (

column_name1 datatype constraint,
column_name2 datatype constraint,
column_name2 datatype constraint
);

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SQL Datatypes
They define the type of values that can be stored in a column

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SQL Datatypes
Signed & Unsigned

TINYINT UNSIGNED (0 to 255)

TINYINT (-128 to 127)

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Types of SQL Commands

DDL (Data Definition Language) : create, alter, rename, truncate & drop

DQL (Data Query Language) : select

DML (Data Manipulation Language) : select, insert, update & delete

DCL (Data Control Language) : grant & revoke permission to users

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TCL (Transaction Control Language) : start transaction, commit, rollback etc.

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Database related Queries

CREATE DATABASE db_name;

CREATE DATABASE IF NOT EXISTS db_name;

DROP DATABASE db_name;

DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS db_name;

SHOW DATABASES;
See database and table in microsoft and oracel Use

SELECT name FROM sys.databases; APNA

SHOW TABLES;
SELECT TABLE_NAME
FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.TABLES
WHERE TABLE_TYPE = 'BASE TABLE';
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Table related Queries
Create

CREATE TABLE table_name (

column_name1 datatype constraint,
column_name2 datatype constraint,
);

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Table related Queries DISTINCT
Select & View ALL columns * DISTINCT removes duplicate rows and records from the result set based on the selected columns.

* It is useful when you want to fetch only unique values or combinations of values from a table.

SELECT * FROM table_name; EX:-

SELECT DISTINCT Country
FROM Customers;

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Table related Queries
Insert

INSERT INTO table_name

(colname1, colname2);
VALUES
(col1_v1, col2_v1),
(col1_v2, col2_v2);

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Keys
Primary Key

It is a column (or set of columns) in a table that uniquely identifies each row. (a unique id)
There is only 1 PK & it should be NOT null.

Foreign Key

A foreign key is a column (or set of columns) in a table that refers to the primary key in another table.
There can be multiple FKs.
FKs can have duplicate & null values.
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Keys
table1 - Student table2 - City

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 Constraints
SQL constraints are used to specify rules for data in a table.

NOT NULL columns cannot have a null value

UNIQUE all values in column are different

PRIMARY KEY makes a column unique & not null but used only for one

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 Constraints
FOREIGN KEY prevent actions that would destroy links between tables

DEFAULT sets the default value of a column

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Constraints
CHECK it can limit the values allowed in a column

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Create this sample table Insert this data

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Select in Detail
used to select any data from the database

Basic Syntax

SELECT col1, col2 FROM table_name;

To Select ALL

SELECT * FROM table_name;

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Where Clause
To define some conditions

SELECT col1, col2 FROM table_name

WHERE conditions;

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Where Clause
Using Operators in WHERE

Arithmetic Operators : +(addition) , -(subtraction), *(multiplication), /(division), %(modulus)

Comparison Operators : = (equal to), != (not equal to), > , >=, <, <=

Logical Operators : AND, OR , NOT, IN, BETWEEN, ALL, LIKE, ANY

Bitwise Operators : & (Bitwise AND), | (Bitwise OR)

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Operators

AND (to check for both conditions to be true)

OR (to check for one of the conditions to be true)

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Operators

Between (selects for a given range)

In (matches any value in the list)

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NOT (to negate the given condition)

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 Limit Clause

Sets an upper limit on number of (tuples)rows to be returned In microsoft and oracle sql server
use type like this :-

SELECT TOP 3 *
FROM student;
SELECT col1, col2 FROM table_name
LIMIT number;

Using a OFFSET WITH LIMIT:-

SELECT *

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FROM student
WHERE marks > 90
ORDER BY marks DESC

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OFFSET 3 ROWS FETCH NEXT 3 ROWS ONLY;
Order By Clause

To sort in ascending (ASC) or descending order (DESC)

SELECT col1, col2 FROM table_name

ORDER BY col_name(s) ASC;

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Aggregate Functions
Aggregare functions perform a calculation on a set of values, and return a single value.

COUNT( )
MAX( )
Get Maximum Marks
MIN( )
SUM( )
AVG( )

Get Average marks

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Group By Clause
Groups rows that have the same values into summary rows.
It collects data from multiple records and groups the result by one or more column.

*Generally we use group by with some aggregation function.

Count number of students in each city

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Having Clause
Similar to Where i.e. applies some condition on rows.
Used when we want to apply any condition after grouping.

Count number of students in each city where max marks cross 90.

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General Order

SELECT column(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition Put a condition on row's.
GROUP BY column(s)
HAVING condition Put a condition on group's.
ORDER BY column(s) ASC;

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Having Clause
Similar to Where i.e. applies some condition on rows.
Used when we want to apply any condition after grouping.

Count number of students in each city where max marks cross 90.

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Table related Queries
Update (to update existing rows)

UPDATE table_name
SET col1 = val1, col2 = val2
WHERE condition;

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Table related Queries
Delete (to delete existing rows)

DELETE FROM table_name

WHERE condition;

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Cascading for FK
On Delete Cascade
When we create a foreign key using this option, it deletes the referencing rows in the child table
when the referenced row is deleted in the parent table which has a primary key.

On Update Cascade
When we create a foreign key using UPDATE CASCADE the referencing rows are updated in the child
table when the referenced row is updated in the parent table which has a primary key.

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Table related Queries
Alter (to change the schema)

ADD Column
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD COLUMN column_name datatype constraint;

DROP Column
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP COLUMN column_name;

RENAME Table
ALTER TABLE table_name
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Table related Queries

CHANGE Column (rename)

ALTER TABLE table_name
CHANGE COLUMN old_name new_name new_datatype new_constraint;

MODIFY Column (modify datatype/ constraint)

ALTER TABLE table_name
MODIFY col_name new_datatype new_constraint;

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ADD Column DROP Column

MODIFY Column RENAME Table

CHANGE Column (rename)

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Table related Queries
Truncate (to delete table's data)

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name ;

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 Joins in SQL
Join is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a related column between them.

Alias Name:-
* Column Alias is used to temporarily rename a column in the result set.
Ex:-
SELECT FirstName AS Name
FROM Students;

* Table Alias is used to temporarily rename a table, especially useful in joins.

Ex:-
SELECT C.CustomerName, O.OrderID
FROM Customers AS C
JOIN Orders AS O
ON C.CustomerID = O.CustomerID;

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* Aliases don’t change the actual schema; they only affect the way
the query is written and the results are displayed.

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Types of Joins

Inner Join Left Join Right Join Full Join

Outer Joins

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Inner Join
Returns records that have matching values in both tables

Syntax
SELECT column(s)
FROM tableA
INNER JOIN tableB
ON tableA.col_name = tableB.col_name;

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 SELECT *
Inner Join FROM student
Example INNER JOIN course
ON student.student_id = course.student_id;
student course

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Result

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Left Join
Returns all records from the left table, and the matched records from
the right table

Syntax
SELECT column(s)
FROM tableA
LEFT JOIN tableB
ON tableA.col_name = tableB.col_name;

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 SELECT *
Left Join FROM student as s
Example LEFT JOIN course as c
ON s.student_id = c.student_id;
student course

Result

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Right Join
Returns all records from the right table, and the matched records
from the left table

Syntax
SELECT column(s)
FROM tableA
RIGHT JOIN tableB
ON tableA.col_name = tableB.col_name;

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 SELECT *
Right Join FROM student as s
Example RIGHT JOIN course as c
ON s.student_id = c.student_id;
student course

Result

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Full Join
Returns all records when there is a match in either left or right table

Syntax in MySQL
LEFT JOIN
UNION
RIGHT JOIN

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Full Join
Example
course
student

Result

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Think & Ans
Qs: Write SQL commands to display the right exclusive join :

Left Exclusive Join Right Exclusive Join

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Self Join
It is a regular join but the table is joined with itself.

Syntax

SELECT column(s)
FROM table as a
JOIN table as b
ON a.col_name = b.col_name;

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Self Join
Example

Employee

Result

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Union
It is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT statements.
Gives UNIQUE records.

To use it :
every SELECT should have same no. of columns
columns must have similar data types
columns in every SELECT should be in same order

Syntax
SELECT column(s) FROM tableA
UNION APNA
SELECT column(s) FROM tableB
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SQL Sub Queries
A Subquery or Inner query or a Nested query is a query within another SQL query.

It involves 2 select statements.

Query

Syntax Sub Query

SELECT column(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE col_name operator
( subquery );

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 SQL Sub Queries
Example
Get names of all students who scored more than class average.

Step 1. Find the avg of class

Step 2. Find the names of students with marks > avg

Cartesian product :-
The Cartesian product (also known as the cross join) in SQL is a result of multiplying every row from
one table with every row from another table. It happens when there is no explicit relationship or
condition (like JOIN with ON clause) between the two tables, resulting in every possible combination

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of rows from the two tables.

* Cartesian product returns all possible combinations of rows between two tables.

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* It can lead to large result sets if not used carefully, especially with large tables.
SQL Sub Queries
Example
Find the names of all students with even roll numbers.

Step 1. Find the even roll numbers

Step 2. Find the names of students with even roll no

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SQL Sub Queries
Example with FROM
Find the max marks from the students of Delhi

Step 1. Find the students of Mumbai

Step 2. Find their max marks using the sublist in step 1

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MySQL Views
A view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.

*A view always shows up-to-date data. The

database engine recreates the view, every time a
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user queries it.
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