Fundamentals of

Computer

COMPUTER

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Fundamentals of Computer
A computer system primarily comprises a central processing unit (CPU), memory, input/output devices, and
storage devices.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

There are three basic units of a computer system:
1. Input Unit: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Light pen, Trackball etc.
2. Central Processing Unit
3. Output Unit: Monitor and Printer

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Central Processing Unit (CPU): It is the most important unit, where all the processing jobs take place. CPU is
the control centre of the computer and hence it is said to be the brain of the computer. CPU has three main
components:

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): It performs all the arithmetic operations like addition (+), multiplication (*),
subtraction (-), division (/) on the numerical data directed by the control unit. All the logical operations,
like less than (<), greater than (>), equal to (=), not equal to (≠), etc. are also carried out by ALU.

2. Control Unit (CU): It controls and coordinates all the operations taking place in the system. It controls the
flow of data and information from one unit to the other.

3. Registers/Memory Unit (MU): To execute a program, data and instructions need to be stored temporarily.
This storage is done in the MU. The data and instructions are retrieved from MU by Control Unit for
supplying to ALU when required by the program.

4. Internal bus: To transfer the data

Introduction to Computer System:

Evolution of Computer

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Generations of Computer
Concept:
Computer generations are differentiated on the basis of major technological changes in computers and when
they occurred. As of 2018, there are five generations of computers.

1. First Generation: Vacuum Tubes

2. Second Generation: Transistors

3. Third Generation: Integrated Circuits

4. Fourth Generation: Microprocessors

5. Fifth Generation: Artificial Intelligence

Explanation:
• Fourth Generation of computers was between 1971 and 1980. These computers used the VLSI technology
or the Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuit technology. Hence, they were also known as
microprocessors.

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• Intel was the first company to develop a microprocessor. The first “personal computer” or PC developed
by IBM, belonged to this generation.

• VLSI circuits had almost about 5000 transistors on a very small chip and were capable of performing many
high-level tasks and computations.

• These computers were thus very compact and thereby required a small amount of electricity to run.

Computer Memory
Explanation:-
• Many types of memory devices are available for use in modern computer systems.

• Memory is an essential element of a computer. Without its memory, a computer is of hardly any use.
Memory plays an important role in saving and retrieving data.

• The performance of the computer system depends upon the size of the memory.

Memory is of the following types:

1) Primary Memory / Volatile Memory.

2) Secondary Memory / Non Volatile Memory.

1) Primary Memory / Volatile Memory:

Primary Memory is the internal memory of the computer. RAM and ROM both form part of primary memory.
The primary memory provides the main working space for the computer.

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Random Access Memory (RAM):

The primary storage is referred to as random access memory (RAM) because it is possible to randomly select
and use any location of the memory directly store and retrieve data.

Read Only Memory (ROM):

• There is another memory in a computer, which is called Read Only Memory (ROM). Again it is the ICs
inside the PC that is from the ROM.

• The storage of programs and data in the ROM is permanent.

• The ROM stores some standard processing programs supplied by the manufacturers to operate the
personal computer.

• The ROM can only be read by the CPU but it cannot be changed.

PROM:
• There is another type of primary memory in computers, which is called Programmable Read Only Memory
(PROM).

• You know that it is not possible to modify or erase programs stored in ROM, but it is possible for you to
store your program in the PROM chip.

EPROM:
• This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which overcomes the problem of PROM &
ROM.

• EPROM chip can be programmed time and again by erasing the information stored earlier in it.

Cache Memory:
• The speed of the CPU is extremely high compared to the access time of the main memory. Therefore the
performance of the CPU decreases due to the slow speed of the main memory.

• To decrease the mismatch in operating speed, a small memory chip is attached between the CPU and the
Main memory whose access time is very close to the processing speed of the CPU. It is called CACHE
memory.

2) Secondary Memory / Non-Volatile Memory:

• Secondary memory is external and permanent in nature. Secondary memory is concerned with magnetic
memory.

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• Secondary memory can be stored on storage media like floppy disks, magnetic disks, and magnetic tapes,
This memory can also be stored optically on Optical disks - CD-ROM.

Memory units
• Computers do all calculations using a code made of just two numbers i.e., 0 and 1. This system is called
binary code.

• Bits and bytes are the basic building blocks of memory. "Bit" stands for binary digit.

• A bit is a one or a zero, on or off, which is how all computer information is stored. A byte is made up of
eight bits.

• A nibble (also spelled 'nybble') is 4 bit, half of a byte.

Unit of Memory Abbreviation Exact Memory Amount

Binary Digit Bit, b 1 or 0
Byte B 8 bits
Kilobyte KB or K 1024 bytes
Megabyte MB 1024 KB
Gigabyte GB 1024 MB
Terabyte TB 1024 GB

Data Transfer between Memory and CPU

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Data and Information

Data and Its Types

A computer system has many input devices, which provide it with raw data in the form of facts, concepts,
instructions, etc., Internally everything is stored in binary form (0 and 1).

Structured Data:
Data that follows a strict record structure and is easy to comprehend is called structured data. Such data with
a pre-specified tabular format may be stored in a data file to access in the future.

Unstructured Data:
Data that are not organized in a pre-defined record format is called unstructured data. Examples include
audio and video files, graphics, text documents, social media posts, satellite images, etc.

Semi-structured Data:
Data that have no well-defined structure but maintain internal tags or markings to separate data elements
are called semi-structured data. Examples include email documents, HTML pages, comma-separated values
(csv file), etc.

Data Capturing, Storage, and Retrieval

Data Capturing:
Microprocessor:

• A microprocessor also called a logic chip, is a computer processor on a microchip.

• The microprocessor contains all or most of the central processing unit (CPU) functions.

• A microprocessor is designed to perform arithmetic and logic operations that make use of small number-
holding areas called registers.

• Typical microprocessor operations include adding, subtracting, comparing two numbers, and fetching
numbers from one area to another.

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There are several applications of microprocessors. Some of the important applications are:

• Industrial Applications (cars, boats, planes, trucks, heavy machinery, elevators, gasoline pumps, credit-
card processing units, traffic control devices, computer servers, etc.)

• Transportation Industry (Automobiles, trains, and planes)

• Household Applications (Remote, Wi-Fi Modem, Telephone, Washing Machine, AC, etc)

Software

Operating System
Operating System
• An operating system (OS) is the system software that, after being initially loaded into the computer by a
boot program, manages all of the other application programs in a computer.

• The application programs make use of the operating system by making requests for services through a
defined application program interface (API). In addition, users can interact directly with the operating
system through a user interface, such as a command-line interface (CLI) or a graphical UI (GUI).

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Some of the major types of Operating System-

• Multi-user Operating System-

 This operating system allows multiple users to work together.

 Hundreds of users can do their jobs at a time on this operating system.

• Single-user Operating System-

 In contrast, the Single-User Operating System allows only one user to work at a time.

 Many users cannot work on this operating system at the same time.

• Major Operating System Name Windows OS, Mac OS, Linux OS, Ubuntu, etc.

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