SECTION 2 Di�ens· ion� �f Learner-Centered Learning

Relate the� dimensions of learning in selecting effective strategies and

methodologies.

Developmental and Socio-Cultural

Module D Dimensi_ons of Learning
Introduction
In the earlier chapters, the basic theories of learning have been discussed. One
view is that learning is explained �y outside_processes, where learning is thought to have
occurred because ·of wh�t the individual shows in his external behavior. Another school
of thought also posits that learning happens because of internal cognitive processes. In
addition, there is another thinking which tries to explain that learning occurs because of the
ability of the individual to construct his own learning using as his base, the socio-cultural
context upon which ·he exists or operates. This school of thought argue_s that learning is
socially constructed. It keeps to the idea that learning is influenced by social interactions,
interpersonal relations, and communication with others. This is because human beings
are social creatures and that much of learning involves interacting with people, as well as
acquiring knowledge and skills from them. It should be mentioned again that theories try
to explain from a particular perspective why and how learni�g occurs and in this case, the
socio-cultural perspective.

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Analyze the developmental and socio-cultural dimensions of learning.

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LEARNING POINT: DEFINING KEY TERMS RELATED TO SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
This chapter deals with the views on learning as explained by socio-cultural fac�ors.
This perspectiv� argues that learning is a result of the socio-cultural context in which it
occurs - social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with others. How
we develop, particularly how we learn and think is primarily a function of the socio-cultural
environment in which we are reared. Socio-cultural theorists see cognitive development in
a different light1 i. e., cognitive development is inseparable from culture. This means that
while socio-cultural factors do not explain everything about learning, nevertheless, they
interact with cognitive factors to influence learning.
To better understand the socio-cultural dimensions of learning, it would be good to
define and understand first the related key terms which you may come across later in the
chapter.
a. Context. The ,surrounding circumstances, or conditions or the environment upon which
learning occurs in th�m.
b. Community of practice. A group of people who share common interests or goals, and
regularly interact and coordinate their efforts, in pursuit of their interests and goals.
Communities of practice tend to adhere to certain standards of actions and interactions
(Ormrod, 2015). (The school is an example of a community of practice.)
c. Authenticity. Closeness or resemblance to real-life situations and real-world tasks
and problems; close resemblance of an activity or a task to what one will most likely
encounter in the outside world.
d. Scaffolding. It is the help and support provided by an expert to a person or student
while in the process of learning.
e. Culture. Refers to characteristics of the individual or society or of some subgroup
within a society. It includes the values, beliefs, notions about acceptable and
unacceptable be.havior and other socially constructed ideas that members of the group
are taught as "true".
f. Social Constructivism. Refers to the emphasis on the social contexts of learning and
the idea that knowledge is mutually built and constructed. That involvement with
others. creates opportunities for students to evaluate and refine their understanding as
they are exposed to the thinking of others and as they participate in creating shared
understanding. Social contexts, provide an important mechanism for developing
students' thinking (Santrock, 2011).

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LEARf'.IING POINT: THE SOCIO-CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW OF LEARNING
Lev Vygotsky, a developmental psychologist has laid some of the groun�work for
contextual theories by espousing that society and culture provide many concepts and ,
strategies that children can use in thinking about anq solving everyday' problems. Other
psychologists �Iso believe that learning and development are inextricably dependent on and
bound to various physical, social and cultural contexts. The different theod�s developed
along this thinking, however, differ in the contexts which they focus on, but they can all be
considered as contextual theories in learning. Vygotsky's theory later came to be known as
socio-cultural theory of learning.

Following are the key ideas and

.
·concepts in Vygotsky's theory (Ormrod, 2015).
'

1. Some cognitive processes are seen in a variety of specie�, but some are unique to
human beings. Lower species exhibit lower mental functions like knowing what to
eat, and how best to get food from various locations. But humans use their higher
mental functions: deliberate, focused cognitive processes that enhance learning,
memory and logical' reasoning.
2. Through both informal conversations and formal schooling, adults convey to
children the ways in which the culture interprets and responds to the world.
Through these kinds of interactions, children learn from adults the kind of behavior
they are expected to exhibit within their own culture.
3. Every culture not only teaches its members-how to interpret their experiences,
but also. passes along the physical and cognitive tools that make daily living more
effective and efficient. Physical tools like sewing machines, drills, simple machines
make work easier and more efficient, but cognitive tools like use of symbols, or
strategies for doing things like reviewing for an exam, or reading maps, which are
symbolic and mental in nature greatly enhance children's thinking skills.
4. Thought and language become incr�asingly interdependent the first few years of life.
For adults, thought and language are closely interconnected. For infants and young
toddlers, thought and language are two different functions.
5. Complex mental processes emerge out of social activities; as children develop,. t,hey
gradually internalize the processes they use in social contexts and begin to use them
independ�ntly. It is" advanced that higher mental functions have their foundations
in social activities, as children learn new things and develop higher cognitive skills
a� a result of their verbal exchanges with other children or other people.
6. Children appropriate their culture's tools in their own idiosyncratic manrier.
Children do not necessarily internalize what they see or hear in a social context, but
transform these ideas, strategies and other cognitiv� tools to suittheir own needs
and purposes. This point of view has a constructivist basis.

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7. Children can accomplish more difficult tasks if they are assisted by people more
advanced and competent than they are.
8. Challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth. The zone of proximal
development (ZPD) identifies the range of tasks that children cannot yet perform
indepenqently but can perform to the maximum, if there is help, support and
guidance of others. The process of helping and supporting learners perform to the
maximum is called "scaffolding".
9. Play allows children to cognitively "stretch" themselves. Play serves as the children's
training ground for adulthood. This is where they learn rules and standards in acting
out their adult roles. Playing house for example, is where children try their hand at
exercising their future rol�s as father or mother through play activities like cooking,
taking care of their children and the like.
Analyzing Vygotsky's theory, focus is more on the processes through which children
develop their social and cognitive skills for learning, as opposed to what developmental
theorists claim (one of whom is Jean Piaget) that children develop the characteristics
that they_ are most likely to exhibit at the appropriate developmental stages. To digress
a bit, developmental theories advance the view that humans go through developmental
stages, characterized by the appearance of certain characteristics.
Comparatively though, Vygotsky's concept of learning from a developmental point
of view, is often unclear and speculative, making it more difficult to test, verify or
prove, than th�t of Piaget's theory (Gauvain, 2001, as cited in Ormrod, 2015). But even
while there is this limitation' in Vygotsky's perspective, it has general implications for
educational practice on the following: social reconstruction of meaning, scaffolding,
participation in adult activities, apprenticeships, acquisition of teaching skills, and
dynamic assessment. Think of a classroom situation. In some instances, students
prefer to work alone, but sometimes they are asked to wor� together to solve a problem,
a situation from which they can learn from each other, and subsequently create new
knowledge. This is social constructivism.
Interaction with adults will help the child make sense of the world through
discussion of a phenomenon or event which both of them are experiencing. This
encourages the child to think about the particular phenomenon, attach labels to
it, or even recall the principles underlying it. This type of learning is mediated
learning experience. For example, a teacher and his class visit the museum, and
they d_iscuss the implements used by farmers 500 years ago. In addition to the
question-and-answer between teacher and students, they (students) also discuss
among themselves what could be inferred about these farm implements. The
discussion bet�een teacher and students may help the latter make inferences about
the kind of vegetables and cereals grown and raised by the farmers at that time.
This example illustrates the social construction of meaning.

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 Scaffolding is a supportive technique, carried out by experts or competent people
which helps students of any age to p'erform and ac,complish challenging tasks even
if at that time, they cannot yet perform these tasks independently - in Vygotsky's
terms,, even if such tasks are within their zone of proximal development. Following
are some forms of scaffolding (Ormrod, 2015).

a. Modeling the correct way of performing a task

· b. Dividing a big or complex task into smaller and simpler activities
c. Setting guidelines for accomplishing a task
d. Providing technology aids to make the task easier
e. Keeping students' attention focused on critical aspects of the task
f. Asking questions that get the students focus on the task
g. Giving frequent feedback about how student is progressing

Participation and gradual entry into adult activities increase the probability that
children will engage in behaviors and thinking skills within their zone of proximal
development. In such a situation, the children's involvement should be mediated,
supervised, and scaffolded by more competent adults.

Apprenticeship is actually a guided participation where a novice works with

an expert mentor for a certain period to learn how to perform complex tasks in
a particular domain. The mentor provides structure and guidance throughout
the whole process, gradually weaning off the learner from the help and support
(scaffolding), a�d giving him more responsibility as his competence increases.
Apprenticeship can show novices how experts typically think about a task or
activity'. This is known as cognitive apprenticeship. Cognitive apprenticeships are
important in the classroom. Researchers found that students' learning benefits from
teachers who think of their relationship with a student as cognitive apprenticeship
using scaffolding, guided participation or tutoring to help the student learn. All
kinds of apprenticeships have the following features: (Collins, 2006 & 1989; in
Ormrod, 2015).

a. Modeling. The mentor performs the task at the same time thinking aloud
or talking about the process while the learner listens.
b. Coaching. The mentor frequently gives suggestions, hints and feedback as
learner performs the task.
c. Scaffolding. The mentor provides different forms of support for the learner,
like simplifying the task, breaking a task into smaller and more manageable
units, or providing less complicated equipment.
d. Artic_ulation. The learner explains what he is doing and why, allowing
. the mentor to examine or analyze the learner's knowledge, reasoning and
problem-solving strategies.
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 e. Reflection. The mentor asks the learner to compare his performance with
. that of experts, or with
\
a model of how the
. .
task should. be done.
· f. · Increasing Complexity and Diversity of Tasks. With increasing learner's
proficiency, the mentor presents more complex, challenging and varied tasks
to accomplish: i
g. Exploration. The mentor encourages the learner t� frame questions and
problems on his own and in doing so refine and expand his acquired skills.
• Acquisition of teaching skills is also one benefit gained from the use of socio­
constructivist approach to learning. As children acquire and gain .new and first-han�
. infor�ation and skills from experienced members of the community, they can·, in
turn, teach. their new knowledge �o others.
• Dynamic assessment often reveal more objective evaluation of children's cognitive
capabilities, than general assessments do. Dynamic assessment requires, first the
identification of'tasks that children cannot do independently, then provide in-depth
instruction, and practice in developing cognitive behaviors along these tasks; and
· finally determine the extent to which the learner benefited from the intervention.
There are certain teaching methodologies, approaches, and techniques that the
teacher can use - methods that are in keeping Vygotsky's socio-constructivist view
of learning.
a. Peer Tutoring. This involves allowing students to act as tutors and tutees.
Time shoul� be spent on training tutors.
b. Cooperative Learning. This is giving opportunity for students to wor!< in
small groups and help each other learn. Groups may vary in si�e, as in a
dyad or groups of four.
c. Group Discussion. A problem-solving task may be assigned to a group,
and the group can develop its own structure on how to go about solving the
problem.

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 LEARNING POfNT: THE SITUATED LEARNING THEORY
'
The situated learning theory is one theory which exemplifies the view that learning is
a product of the cultural context where one lives or e�sts. Situated cognition or situated
learning is a theory that suggests learning is "naturally tied to authentic activity, context'
and culture" (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989). It means that most learning occurs naturally
through social activities, contexts, and the culture which learners are exposed to.
This theory ;ugge�ts that it is more difficult to learn from unnatural activities. For
example, in a science class, changes in the earth's surface could be learned and understood
better if students are allowed to.go out of the classroom, say, go to the mountains, and make
lengthy· observations, rather than by reading books or looking at pictures, to study these
changes.
Situated learning is deriving and creating meaning from the real activities, of
daily living where learning occurs in a pro-social but informal setting. It suggests that
learning takes place through social relationships, within a cultural milieu. The concept of
communities of practice assumes that learning should not be viewed as a mere transmission
of knowledge but as a distinctly embedded and active social process. Such type of learnin�
is stim_ulated by specific contexts (where learning is socially-situated) and within authentic,
social and physical environments. This is saying that the learning experiences in school,
should not "unsituate" learning materials. Instead, these materials should be meaningful
and within the experiential reach of the students.
A sociologist-anthropologist and learning theorist Jean Lave, is one of the not�ble
proponents of situated learning theory. Following are the highlights or the main ideas of
the situated learning theory that she advanced (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989, Vol 89, pp.
32-42).
a. Knowledge is socially-constructed. Knowledge is acquired and developed thru social
experiences. It means that the learner constructs and develops knowledge on the
basis of his experiences as a member of a social group.
b. Knowledge evolves naturally as a result of individuals participating 'in and
negotiating their way through new situations. New knowledge is built as the learner
experiences and deals with new situations.
c. Knowing, learning and cognition are socially-constructed, that are seen or expressed
in actions of people and people interacting.
d. Construction of meaning is tied to specific contexts and purposes.•
e. Learning is fundamentally social and inseparable from the practice it is supposed to
develop. Learning is viewed as dependent on and inseparable from its context.

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f. , Learning is situated within authentic activity, context, and culture. To create
authenticity, what is being taught needs to be aligned with the learners' community
of practice.
g. Situated cognition is a way of naming the kind of learning that takes place in and
through common practices among a group of people with similar goals and interests.
h. Learning is in part about increased participatioR and that it is leg�timate to
participate in different ways.
i. Culturarmodels are not held by individuals but live in the practices of a community,
and how people engage with each other, as well as any tools they use, and the
specific cultural context.
J. De�ignin.g learning experiences from situated learning perspectives start with some
· assumptions that learning is grounded in the actions of everyday situations:
Knowledge is· acquired situationally and transfers only to similar situations.
Social processes influence the way people think, perceive, solve problems,
perform procedures, build declarative knowledge and interact.
Learni11:g i� enmeshed in participation in complex social environments where
there are people, situations and activities.
k. Knowledge undergoes construction and transformation through continuous use.
· Brown, Collins & Duguid (1989) further rationalize the· importance of authenticity
in situated learning. These are:
1. Kn<?wledge is a product of making and creating meanings, and cannot be
separated from its context.
2. Learning is a continuous, life-long process from acting within and reacting to

situations.
3. The tools of learning and their usage reflect the particular accumulated insights
of communities.of practice.
4 . Learning is a process of encultu.ration. Given the chance to obserye and practice
actual behaviors of members of a culture-group, people pick up relevant jargon,
imitate behaviors and start to act in accordance with norms �nd expectations of
that culture.

These concepts highlight the role and importance of socio-cultural factors in creating
learning and deriving meaning using materials, meaningful and real-life experiences, and
even culturally desired behaviors and expectations. Concepts related to situated learning
and are worth remembering and applying in classroom activities ·and situations are:
authenticity, constructing meaning, community of practice, and social context.

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 It should be borne in mi_nd that the school or the classroom is_ a comm,u nity of
practice, where -there are rules ,md standards to be followed and where certain desired
behaviors are expected to be exhibited by learners. On the other hand, teachers may apply .
in their teaching methodologies and content or subject matter, the important concepts '
. '
related to situated learning theory. These are exposure of learners to real-life learning
materials and experiences, the use of techniques where students as a group can construct

.
their own �\mowledge as a result of learning and ·interacting with each other; and emphasis
.
on culture as an important tool and source of learning.

Activity 1

Request a teacher preferably of science, histo.ry, or civics to lend you his/her lesson
plan. Read through the lesson plan and list down evidences of learnin� material which
considers, integrates, or {Uakes use of socio-culturally related concepts and experiences in
developing the lesson.

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-=ftPPL Y
..,, I/,

Name: ___________________ Date: _______

A. A ssume you are a teac her. Wr ite an e ssay on the topic: "What teaching
methodologies can I use to improve the performance of my students." Apply the
ideas and concepts about the socio-cultural dimensions of learning.

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 B. List down three classroom activities, based on your readings or observations which
are suggestive of the application of Situated Learning theory.

Classroom Activity 1
·,

Classroom Activity 2

Classroom Activity 3

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Name: __________________ Date: _______

A. What is yofir idea about the follo�ing?

1. Authentic learning

2. Zone of proximal development

· 3. Socio-cultural factors related to learning

B. - Expound on two of the main ideas of Jean Lave's situated learning theory.

Facililati11;.: /,ectr11e1 - Cenlel'ed '/'eal'hin;.:

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