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ALGORITHM

6 GRAPH ALGORITHMS

1. GRAPHS

A graph is a pictorial representation of a set of objects where some pairs of objects are
connected by links. The interconnected objects are represented by points termed as vertices,
and the links that connect the vertices are called edges.
Formally, a graph is a pair of sets (V, E), where V is the set of vertices and E is the set of
edges, connecting the pairs of vertices. Take a look at the following graph −

In the above graph,

V = {a, b, c, d, e}
E = {ab, ac, bd, cd, de}
Graph Data Structure
Mathematical graphs can be represented in data structure. We can represent a graph using
an array of vertices and a two-dimensional array of edges. Before we proceed further, let's
familiarize ourselves with some important terms −
● Vertex − Each node of the graph is represented as a vertex. In the following example,
the labeled circle represents vertices. Thus, A to G are vertices. We can represent them
using an array as shown in the following image. Here A can be identified by index 0. B
can be identified using index 1 and so on.
● Edge − Edge represents a path between two vertices or a line between two vertices. In
the following example, the lines from A to B, B to C, and so on represent edges. We can
use a two-dimensional array to represent an array as shown in the following image.
Here AB can be represented as 1 at row 0, column 1, BC as 1 at row 1, column 2 and
so on, keeping other combinations as 0.
● Adjacency − Two node or vertices are adjacent if they are connected to each other
through an edge. In the following example, B is adjacent to A, C is adjacent to B, and
so on.

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● Path − Path represents a sequence of edges between the two vertices. In the following
example, ABCD represents a path from A to D.

Basic Operations
Following are basic primary operations of a Graph −
● Add Vertex − Adds a vertex to the graph.
● Add Edge − Adds an edge between the two vertices of the graph.
● Display Vertex − Displays a vertex of the graph.

2. Types of Graphs

2.1 Null Graph

A graph having no edges is called a Null Graph.
Example

In the above graph, there are three vertices named ‘a’, ‘b’, and ‘c’, but there are no
edges among them. Hence it is a Null Graph.
2.2 Trivial Graph
A graph with only one vertex is called a Trivial Graph.
Example

In the above shown graph, there is only one vertex ‘a’ with no other edges. Hence it is
a Trivial graph.

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2.3 Non-Directed Graph
A non-directed graph contains edges but the edges are not directed ones.
Example

In this graph, ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’, ‘e’, ‘f’, ‘g’ are the vertices, and ‘ab’, ‘bc’, ‘cd’, ‘da’, ‘ag’, ‘gf’,
‘ef’ are the edges of the graph. Since it is a non-directed graph, the edges ‘ab’ and ‘ba’
are the same. Similarly other edges are also considered in the same way.
2.4 Directed Graph
In a directed graph, each edge has a direction.
Example

In the above graph, we have seven vertices ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’, ‘e’, ‘f’, and ‘g’, and eight
edges ‘ab’, ‘cb’, ‘dc’, ‘ad’, ‘ec’, ‘fe’, ‘gf’, and ‘ga’. As it is a directed graph, each edge
bears an arrow mark that shows its direction. Note that in a directed graph, ‘ab’ is
different from ‘ba’.

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2.5 Simple Graph
A graph with no loops and no parallel edges is called a simple graph.
● The maximum number of edges possible in a single graph with ‘n’ vertices
is nC2 where nC2 = n(n – 1)/2.
● The number of simple graphs possible with ‘n’ vertices = 2 nc2 = 2n(n-1)/2.
Example
In the following graph, there are 3 vertices with 3 edges which is maximum excluding
the parallel edges and loops. This can be proved by using the above formulae.

The maximum number of edges with n=3 vertices −

C2 = n(n–1)/2
n

= 3(3–1)/2
= 6/2
= 3 edges
The maximum number of simple graphs with n=3 vertices −
2nC2 = 2n(n-1)/2
= 23(3-1)/2
= 23
=8
These 8 graphs are as shown below −

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2.6 Connected Graph
A graph G is said to be connected if there exists a path between every pair of
vertices. There should be at least one edge for every vertex in the graph. So that we
can say that it is connected to some other vertex at the other side of the edge.
Example
In the following graph, each vertex has its own edge connected to another edge. Hence
it is a connected graph.

2.7 Disconnected Graph

A graph G is disconnected, if it does not contain at least two connected vertices.
Example 1
The following graph is an example of a Disconnected Graph, where there are two
components, one with ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’ vertices and another with ‘e’, ’f’, ‘g’, ‘h’ vertices.

The two components are independent and not connected to each other. Hence it is
called disconnected graph.
Example 2

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In this example, there are two independent components, a-b-f-e and c-d, which are not
connected to each other. Hence this is a disconnected graph.
2.8 Regular Graph
A graph G is said to be regular, if all its vertices have the same degree. In a graph,
if the degree of each vertex is ‘k’, then the graph is called a ‘k-regular graph’.
Example
In the following graphs, all the vertices have the same degree. So these graphs are called
regular graphs.

In both the graphs, all the vertices have degree 2. They are called 2-Regular Graphs.
Complete Graph
A simple graph with ‘n’ mutual vertices is called a complete graph and it is denoted by
‘Kn’. In the graph, a vertex should have edges with all other vertices, then it called
a complete graph.
In other words, if a vertex is connected to all other vertices in a graph, then it is called a
complete graph.
Example
In the following graphs, each vertex in the graph is connected with all the remaining
vertices in the graph except by itself.

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2.9 Cycle Graph
A simple graph with ‘n’ vertices (n >= 3) and ‘n’ edges is called a cycle graph if all its
edges form a cycle of length ‘n’.
If the degree of each vertex in the graph is two, then it is called a Cycle Graph.
Notation − Cn
Example
Take a look at the following graphs −
● Graph I has 3 vertices with 3 edges which form a cycle ‘ab-bc-ca’.
● Graph II has 4 vertices with 4 edges which form a cycle ‘pq-qs-sr-rp’.
● Graph III has 5 vertices with 5 edges which form a cycle ‘ik-km-ml-lj-ji’.

Hence all the given graphs are cycle graphs.

3. Graph Traversal

Graph traversal is a technique used for a searching vertex in a graph. The graph traversal is
also used to decide the order of vertices visited in the search process. A graph traversal finds
the edges to be used in the search process without creating loops. That means using graph
traversal we visit all the vertices of the graph without getting into a looping path.
There are two graph traversal techniques and they are as follows.
1. DFS (Depth First Search)
2. BFS (Breadth First Search)
DFS (Depth First Search)
DFS traversal of a graph produces a spanning tree as final result. Spanning Tree is a graph
without loops. We use Stack data structure with maximum size of total number of vertices in
the graph to implement DFS traversal.

We use the following steps to implement DFS traversal...

● Step 1 - Define a Stack of size total number of vertices in the graph.
● Step 2 - Select any vertex as starting point for traversal. Visit that vertex and push it on
to the Stack.

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● Step 3 - Visit any one of the non-visited adjacent vertices of a vertex which is at the top
of stack and push it onto the stack.
● Step 4 - Repeat step 3 until there is no new vertex to be visited from the vertex which is
at the top of the stack.
● Step 5 - When there is no new vertex to visit then use backtracking and pop one vertex
from the stack.
● Step 6 - Repeat steps 3, 4 and 5 until stack becomes Empty.
● Step 7 - When stack becomes Empty, then produce final spanning tree by removing
unused edges from the graph.
Depth First Search (DFS) algorithm traverses a graph in a depth ward motion and uses a
stack to remember to get the next vertex to start a search, when a dead end occurs in any
iteration.

As in the example given above, the DFS algorithm traverses from S to A to D to G to E to B

first, then to F and lastly to C. It employs the following rules.
● Rule 1 − Visit the adjacent unvisited vertex. Mark it as visited. Display it. Push it in a
stack.
● Rule 2 − If no adjacent vertex is found, pop up a vertex from the stack. (It will pop
up all the vertices from the stack, which do not have adjacent vertices.)
● Rule 3 − Repeat Rule 1 and Rule 2 until the stack is empty.

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Step Traversal Description

Initialize the stack.

Mark S as visited and put it onto the

stack. Explore any unvisited adjacent node
from S. We have three nodes and we can
pick any of them. For this example, we
shall take the node in an alphabetical
order.

Mark A as visited and put it onto the

stack. Explore any unvisited adjacent node
from A. Both S and D are adjacent
to A but we are concerned for unvisited
nodes only.

Visit D and mark it as visited and put onto

the stack. Here, we have B and C nodes,
which are adjacent to D and both are
unvisited. However, we shall again choose
in an alphabetical order.

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Step Traversal Description

We choose B, mark it as visited and put

onto the stack. Here B does not have any
unvisited adjacent node. So, we
pop B from the stack.

We check the stack top for return to the

previous node and check if it has any
unvisited nodes. Here, we find D to be on
the top of the stack.

Only unvisited adjacent node is

from D is C now. So we visit C, mark it as
visited and put it onto the stack.

As C does not have any unvisited adjacent node so we keep popping the stack until we find a
node that has an unvisited adjacent node. In this case, there's none and we keep popping
until the stack is empty.
Breadth first Search
Breadth First Search (BFS) algorithm traverses a graph in a breadthward motion and uses a
queue to remember to get the next vertex to start a search, when a dead end occurs in any
iteration.

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As in the example given above, BFS algorithm traverses from A to B to E to F first then to C
and G lastly to D. It employs the following rules.
● Rule 1 − Visit the adjacent unvisited vertex. Mark it as visited. Display it. Insert it in
a queue.
● Rule 2 − If no adjacent vertex is found, remove the first vertex from the queue.
● Rule 3 − Repeat Rule 1 and Rule 2 until the queue is empty.

Step Traversal Description

Initialize the queue.

We start from visiting S (starting node),

and mark it as visited.

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Step Traversal Description

We then see an unvisited adjacent node

from S. In this example, we have three
nodes but alphabetically we choose A,
mark it as visited and enqueue it.

Next, the unvisited adjacent node

from S is B. We mark it as visited and
enqueue it.

Next, the unvisited adjacent node

from S is C. We mark it as visited and
enqueue it.

Now, S is left with no unvisited adjacent

nodes. So, we dequeue and find A.

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Step Traversal Description

From A we have D as unvisited adjacent

node. We mark it as visited and enqueue
it.

At this stage, we are left with no unmarked (unvisited) nodes. But as per the algorithm we
keep on dequeuing in order to get all unvisited nodes. When the queue gets emptied, the
program is over.

Difference between DFT and BFT

BFT DFT

BFS stands for Breadth First Search. DFS stands for Depth First Search.

BFS(Breadth First Search) uses Queue data DFS(Depth First Search) uses Stack data
structure for finding the shortest path. structure.

BFS can be used to find a single source

In DFS, we might traverse through more
shortest path in an unweighted graph, because
edges to reach a destination vertex from a
in BFS, we reach a vertex with minimum
source.
number of edges from a source vertex.

BFS is more suitable for searching vertices DFS is more suitable when there are solutions
which are closer to the given source. away from source.

DFS is more suitable for game or puzzle

BFS considers all neighbours first and
problems. We make a decision, then explore
therefore not suitable for decision making
all paths through this decision. And if this
trees used in games or puzzles.
decision leads to win situation, we stop.

The Time complexity of BFS is O(V + E) when The Time complexity of DFS is also O(V + E)
Adjacency List is used and O(V^2) when when Adjacency List is used and O(V^2) when
Adjacency Matrix is used, where V stands for Adjacency Matrix is used, where V stands for
vertices and E stands for edges. vertices and E stands for edges.

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