3.

1 Functions

A relation is a set of ordered pairs (x, y).

Example: The set{(l,a), (1, b), (2,b), (3,c), (3, a), (4,a)}is a relation
A function is a relation (so, it is the set ofordered pairs) that does not contain two pairs with the
same first component. Sometimes we say that a function is a rule (correspondence) that assigns
to each element of one set , X, one and only one element of another set, Y. The elements of the
set X are often called inputs and the elements of the set Y are called outputs.
A function can be visualized as a machine, that takes x as an input and returns y as an output.
The domain of a function is the set of all first components, x, in the ordered pairs.
The range of a function is the set of all second components, y, in the ordered pairs.

We will deal with functions for which both domain and the range are the set (or subset) of real
numbers

A function can be defined by:

(i) Set ofordered pairs
Example: {(1,a), (2,b), (3,c), (4,a)} is a function, since there are no two pairs with the
same first component. The domain is then the set {1,2,3,4}and the range is the set
{ a,b,c}
Example:{ (1,a), (2,b), (1,c), (4,a)}is not a function, since there are two pairs with the
first component 1
(ii) Diagram which shows how the elements oftwo sets are paired.

X
y

1 is paired with a, so (1,a) belongs to function

The domain is the set X={1,2,3,4} and the range is the subset {a,b,c}ofY.

(iii) A formula or equation which specifies how they is obtained when xis given.

Example: y = 3x +2 defines a function since we can easily find the output y when the
input, x, is given. If x is 1 then y =3(1) +2 = 5, for example. So every x has a
corresponding y value.
 We say that a function is given explicitly by an equation, if the equation is of the form
y = (formula that contains only x variable). We say that a function is given implicitly, if
it is given by an equation that is not in the above form. For example, y = 3x + 2 is a
function given in an explicit form, and 3x - y + 2 = 0 is the same function given in an
implicit form.

When we use a formula to define a function we often give a name to a function(f,g,h,etc.)

and use a special notation for the output, y. If x is the input, then we denote the output by
f(x) (read "f of x").
Caution: f(x) is not a multiplication of f and x. It is an entity that can't be split. f(x)
denotes output that corresponds to the input x.
For example, instead of writing y = 3x+2, we often write f(x) = 3x+2. With this notation
f(l) denotes the output (y) that correspond to the input 1, that is f(l) = 3·(1)+2= 5.
lf we say that f(4) = -5, that means that when the input is 4, the output is -5. This also
means that the function f contains a pair (4, -5)

When a function f is given by a formula and its domain is not given, then it is assumed
that the domain is the largest set of real numbers for which f (x) can be computed and is a
real number.
An equation defines a function if it can be solved for y and the solution is unique.

Example: 3x+2y = 4 is a function, because we can solve it for y, y = (-3/2)x + 2 and the
solution is unique. The equation x2 + y2 = 1 is not a function, because when we solve it
for y, we get y = ±�, two solutions.

(iv) The graph, which is the set of all pairs (x,y) that are plotted in the coordinate system.
The graph is the set of all points (x, f(x)), where x belongs to the domain of a function
f.
A point (a,b) is on the graph of a function!, if and only if b = f(a)
A graph represents a function, if it passes the Vertical Line Test, which says that If any
vertical line crosses the graph at most at one point, then the graph is that of a function.
The domain of a function given by a graph is the set of all x -coordinates of the points on
the graph. The range is the set of all y-coordinates of the points on the graph

Example: Find f(0), f(l), f(-2), f(-x), -f(x), f(x+1), f(2x), f(x+h) for f(x) = 3x2 -2x- 4
f(0) = 3(0)2 -2(0)- 4 = -4
f(l) = 3(1)2- 2(1)- 4 = -3
f(-2) = 3(-2)2 -2(-2)- 4= 12
 f(-x) = 3(-x/-2(-x) -4 = 3x2 + 2x - 4
f(x+ 1) = 3(x+ 1/ -2(x+ 1) - 4 = 3(x2 + 2x +l)-2x-2 -4 = 3x 2 + 6x + 3 -2x - 6= 3x2 + 4x -
3
f(2x) = 3(2x)2 -2(2x) - 4 = 3( 4x 2) - 4x - 4= 12x 2 - 4x - 4
f(x+h) = 3(x+h)2 -2(x+h) - 4 = 3(x2 + 2xh +h 2) - 2x- 2h -4 = 3x2 + 6xh + 3h 2 -2x - 2h - 4
- f(x) = - (3x2 - 2x - 4) = -3x2 + 2x + 4

Example: Find f(x + h)-f (x) (the difference quotient for f) for f(x) = 3x 2 -2x - 4
h
2
3(x 2 +2xh+h 2 )-2x-2h-4--3x 2 +2x+4- _
2
f(x+h)-f (x) _ -
(3(x+h) -2(x+h)-4)- (3x -2x-4) _- -
h h h
3x 2 +6xh+3h 2 -2h-3x 2 = 6xh+3h 2 -2h = h(6x+3h-2) =
6x+3h-l
h h h

Operations on functions

Suppose two functions f and g are given and their domains are Df and Dg respectively.
We can form new functions using f and g:
The sum, f + g, is the function defined as (f+g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
The difference, f - g, is the function defined as (f- g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
The product, f-g, is a function defined as (f-g)(x) = f(x)·g(x)
The domain of these functions is the intersection of the domains Df nDg

We can also form the quotient, f/g, which is defined as (

1 )(x) = f(x). The domain of f/g is
g g(x)
the intersection of Df n Dg except for those values x for which g(x) = 0. We will write this as
D(f/g)= {xix E Df n Dg and g(x) tO}

Example: Suppose that f( x) = ✓x and g(x) = -1 . Find a) (f-g) (4), b) (f/g)(x) and its domain.
X

a) (f-g)(4) = f(4) - g(4) = '\/'+ -

r; 1 1 7
= 2- =
4 4 4

b) ( 1 J(x) = f(x) = ✓x = x✓x

g g(x) _!_
X
Df = [O, +oo), Dg = {x Ix -:;cc O}. Df n Dg= (0, +oo), since g(x) = 0 has no solutions, there is nothing to
exclude form DfnDg and D(f/g) = DfnDg = (0, +oo)
 Domains of functions

When a function f is given by a formula and its domain is not given, then it is assumed that the
domain is the largest set of real numbers for which f (x) can be computed and is a real
number.

To find a domain of a function (in this course) you should ask three questions
A) Does the formula contain a variable in the denominator?
If yes, the domain will consist of all real numbers except the ones that make the
denominator zero.
To find the domain in this case:
(i) Solve the equation: denominator = 0
(ii) Write the domain: Df = {xlx -:t:- (list the solutions found in (i))}
Example: Find the domain of J(x) =
3 +2
X - 5x
t
(i) x - 5x 0
3 =

x(x2 - 5) = 0
x = 0 or x2 - 5 = 0
x2 = 5 S
x =± ✓
5 5
(ii) DJ = {x Ix -:t:- 0, ✓ ,-✓ }
B) Does the formula have a variable inside the square root (or even index radical)?
If yes, the domain will consist of all values x for which the radicand is nonnegative
To find the domain in this case:
(i) Solve the inequality: radicand 2: 0
(ii) Write the domain: Df = solution from (i) in the interval notation
Example: Find the domain of J(x) = x 2 -2x-8✓
(i)
x 2 -2x-8 � 0
x 2 -2x-8 = 0
(x-4)(x+2) = 0
x =4 x =-2

(ii) ►

positive negative Gsitive

◄ . .

)
-2 4
(iii) DJ = (-oo,-2] u [4, oo)

C) Does the formula contain a logarithm? We will deal with such functions in Chapter 6
Remarks: 1) If you answer no to questions A) andB) then the domain of the function is the set
of all real numbers
2) If you answer yes to two of these questions, you must follow the procedure for each
question and the domain of the function will be the intersection of all sets obtained in each
question.

The intersection of two sets is the common part of those two sets, that is the set that contains
numbers that be! ong to both sets.
Example: The intersection of the red and green intervals, is the blue interval

3. 2 The graph of a function

The graph of a function f is the set of all points (x,f(x)), where x belongs to the domain off
Example:
,.

.J 4 .J �

Since the point (a, b) is on the graph then b = f(a)

The domain of a function given by a graph is the set of all x, such that (x, y), for some y, is on
the graph.
The range of a function is the set of all y, such that the point (x,y), for some x, is on the graph.

To find value f(a) from the graph, locate the point on the graph whose x-coordinate is a . The y ­
coordinate of that point is f(a).
The x-intercepts are the points where the graph crosses or touches the x-axis. They are found by
solving the equation f(x) = 0. They are the points at which f has value zero, and therefore they
are often called the zeros of function f.
To find y-intercept, compute f(O). A function can have at most one y-intercept.

Example: The graph of a function f is given below. Find the domain and the range. Find f ( 2- ).
Find x-and y-intercepts , if any.
-+----+---+---+---+---t---l·······-5
-+---< --+---+---+---t---1
- 4

I ± -t----+------+-,
X

-1 � _, -4 -3 -2 fl I 2 3 4 � � 7

• ••••••,•••••
-t---
---+-----i-t---�

.......... -)
-+----e ---;---;------;.--
- ' 1. . : "6

-+---+---+---+---+-•(-2;-;l) ,1+---+---+----+______ _,__...,___.;......._

J

Ify ou follow the graph from left to right, the x -coordinate changes from - oo to 6, so
Df=(-oo, 6]. At the same time, they- coordinate changes from - oo to 4, so Range off= (-oo, 4].
To find f(- 2), find the point on the graph with x- coordinate-2. This pointis (-2,-7). They­
coordinate of this point is -7, hence f(-2) =-7.
The graph crosses x- axis at (-1,0), so the x-interceptis (-1,0). They-interceptis (0,1)