EXPERIMENT NO.

01

Title : To study the linear measuring instruments

Objective : To locate the centre of circular spigot using slip gauge set
and Vernier height gauge.

Apparatus : Slip gauge set, Vernier height gauge, specimen,

Micrometer screw gauge, V-block, Clamp etc.

Pre lab : 1. Various precision measuring instruments.

2. Various types of standards.
3. Use of slip gauges.

Theory: -
Slip gauges are also called as Johannsen gauges. These are rectangular blocks of
steel having a cross section of about 30*10 mm. These are first hardened to resist the
wear and carefully stabilized so that they are independent of any subsequent variation
in shape or size. After being hardened blocks are carefully finished on measuring faces
to such a fine degree of finish, flatness and accuracy that any two such faces when
perfectly clean may be ‘wrung’ together. This is accomplished by pressing the faces into
contact and then imparting a small twisting motion whilst maintaining the contact
pressure. The contact pressure is just sufficient in order to hold the two slip gauges in
contact and no additional intentional pressure. it is found that phenomenon of wringing
occurs due to molecular adhesion between a liquid film. (Whose thickness may be
between 6 to 7 * 10-4mm) and the mating surfaces. When two gauges are wrung
together and a overall dimension of pile made of two or more blocks so joined is exactly
the sum of the constituent gauges. It is on the property of wringing units together for
building up combinations that the success of the system depends, since by combining
gauges selected from suitably arranged combination, almost any dimension may be
built up.
These may be used as reference standard for transferring the dimension of the
unit of length from primary standard to gauge blocks of lower accuracy and for the
verification and graduation of measuring apparatus, and length measures for the
regulation and adjustment of indicating measuring apparatus and for the direct
measurement of liner dimensions of industrial component.
Slip gauges are classifieds according to their guaranteed accuracy:
AA for master slip gauges.
A for reference purpose, and
B for working slip gauges.
Johannsen AA slip gauges are accurate to plus or minus toe micros per metres
millionth of an inch per inch. Type A is guaranteed accurate unto plus or minus four
millionth of an inch per inch, while type B for plus or minus eight millionths of an inch
per inch. The guaranteed error is not divided for a block, which is less than 1 inch; such
a slip gauge has same tolerance as 1-inch gauge. The workshop type i.e. B type gauges
are finished on their measuring faces approximately to within 10 millionths of an inch
for flatness and parallelism. The corresponding figures for A and AA are 5 and 3
millionths of inch respectively.
As regards grades or classes of slip gauges, these could also be designed in five
grades as under.
Grade 2.
Grade 1.
Grade 0.
Grade 00.
Calibration grade.
Except for the calibration grade, all slip gauge sets are manufactured to within
specified limits; the closer the limits the more expensive the slip gauges, but in the case
of calibration grade, greater tolerances on length are permissible. Because the actual
lengths are known or recorded in the calibration chart, due to allowance can be made
when the slips are used.
Slip gauges are available in sets both in inch units and in metric units.
The five most usual sets available in inch units contain 81, 49, 41, 35, and 25 pieces
respectively.
In metric units, sets of 103, 76, 56, 48 and 31 pieces are available.
Many times to reduce the wear on inspection workshop grades a pair of protector
gauge blocks (1 or 1.5 or 2mm length) are also supplied and these are made of
tungsten carbide or similar wear resisting material.

Spigot
Stand

h1 h2 h1

Surface Plate

CIRCULAR SPIGOT ON STAND

These do not wear out and protect the slip gauges from wear. These are marked with
letter ‘p’ on one measuring face.

Vernier height gauge: this is also the sort of Vernier calliper with a special base lock and
other attachments, which make the instrument suitable for height measurement. Along
the sliding jaw assembly, arrangement is provided to carry a removal clamp. The upper
and lower surfaces of the measuring jaw are parallel to the base. So that it can be used
for the measurements over or under a surface.

The Vernier height gauge is mainly used in the inspection of parts and layout works.
With the scriber attachment in place of measuring jaw, this can be used to scribe lines
at certain distance above surface. However dial indicators can also be attached in the
clamp and may useful measurements made as it exactly gives the indication when the
dial tip is just touching the surface.
Causes of errors:
1. Effect of environmental temperature.
2. Effect of support.
3. Effect of alignment.
4. Error due to vibrations.
5. Error due to deflections.
6. Error due to poor contacts.

Procedure: -
1. Hold the circular spigot in V-block with the help of clamp on the surface plate.
2. Use the combination blocks of slip gauges to measure the bottom surface
distance of spigot with respect to surface plate and note down the reading.
3. Measure the top surface distance of spigot using the Vernier height gauge and
note down the reading.

Observations for Spigot: -

1. Height of upper surface circular spigot above the reference (h1) = ………
2. Height of lower surface circular spigot above the reference (h2) =. ………
3. Diameter of specimen (d) =………

Calculations: -
Observations for Vernier Caliper and Micro Meter Screw Gauge: -
Precision
Accuracy

Vernier Caliper Micro Meter

Range Least Count Range Least Count
SN SN SN SN SN SN
1 11 21 1 11 21
2 12 22 2 12 22
3 13 23 3 13 23
4 14 24 4 14 24
5 15 25 5 15 25
6 16 26 6 16 26
7 17 27 7 17 27
8 18 28 8 18 28
9 19 29 9 19 29
10 20 30 10 20 30
Mean = True Value = Mean = True Value =
N= Error = N= Error =
S.D.= S.D.=
Classes = Class Range Classes = Class Range
Histogram for Vernier Caliper Histogram for Micrometer screw gauge
Result: -

Questions: -
1. Classify the non-precision and precision measuring instruments and explain them
with the help of neat sketch.
2. Classify and explain various methods of precision measurements depending upon
the accuracy required and the amount of permissible error.
3. Explain various metrological characteristics of measuring instruments.
4. What is the difference between accuracy and uncertainty, and precision and
accuracy?
5. What is the relationship between sensitivity and range? What is the disadvantage
of very sensitive instruments?
6. What are the basic principles that should be observed in the design of
instruments and gauges?
7. How slip gauges are manufactured?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 02

Title : Measurement of taper angle using Sine bar.

Objective : Measurement of angle of taper plug gauge with sine bar.

Pre Lab : 1. Various instruments for angular measurement.

2. Use of sine bar and its principle.
Apparatus : Taper plug gauge, sine center, set of slip gauges, surface
Plates, dial indicator, stand.

Theory: -
The most common method of measuring an angle using a sine bar is to raise the front
end with slip gauges until the work surface is parallel to the datum surface. Since the
angle of the component will be near to the nominal size, the theoretical slip gauge pile
is usually calculated first, which can then be adjusted until the work surface is parallel
to the datum surface.
Sine centres: - Due to the difficulty of mounting conical work easily on the
conventional sine bar, sine centres are used. This equipment consists of a self-
contained sine bar, hinged at one roller and mounted on its own datum surface. The
top surface of the bar is provided with a pair of centres for holding the work as shown
in fig. Due to the work, being held exactly between the centres the angle of inclination
will be half the included angle of the work. The use of sine centres provides a
convenient method of measuring the angle of taper plug gauge.
Procedure: -
1. Set up the taper plug gauge on the center of sine center and check that gauge
runs fairly true on its center.
2. Raise one end of sine bar till top edge of the gauge becomes horizontal.
 3. Place slips under the roller of sine bar and test with indicator across the top of
gauge for parallelism with surface plate.
4. Note the difference in the indicator reading and adjust the height H according to
that indicator shows a zero difference in reading as it passed from one end to
other end.
5. If indicator is sufficiently sensitive, radial difference less than 0.0025 can be
noted, particular attention being paid to its direction i.e. whether true angle
larger or smaller than that of given sine bar.
6. Repeat the above procedure once again with gauge rotated through 90 0

Fig. 1 Sine Bar Center

Observations: -
1. Length of sine bar = 200 mm.
2. Length of taper gauge = ……….
3. Combination of slips required = …….
Calculations: -
Angle of taper plug gauge  =
Sine (/2) = Height of total slips / distance between rollers.

Result: -

Causes Of Error: -
1. Effect of support
2. Effect of alignment, error due to wear in gauges.
3. Error due to location, parallax effect and due to poor contact.

Questions: -
1. What are the measures of angle? Name the different elements used for the
purpose and draw a comparative list of their accuracy.
2. Sketch and describe one form of sine bar showing clearly the method of
construction.
3. State the essential requirements for the accuracy of sine bar.
4. Discuss probable sources of error, which would affect the accuracy of the
angular setting of the bar, and hence show that when using the sine bar for
angles approaching 90 degrees, it is better to take the complement of the angle.
5. Briefly outline a method suitable for checking the bar for accuracy.
6. Sketch two forms of sine bar in general use. List the possible sources of error in
a sine bar and derive an expression for the error in angle set uop resulting from
an error in the center distance between the rollers.
7. Explain why the sine bar is not preferred for generating angles greater than 45 0.
how will you use it for generating angles greater than 45 0.
8. Why the holes are drilled in the body of a sine bar?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 03

Title : Calibration of Straight Edge.

Objective : To check the straightness of straight edge by wedge method.
Pre Lab : 1. Various linear measuring instruments.
2. Use of slip gauges.
Apparatus : Straight edge, surface plate grade A, set of slip gauges.

Theory: -
This method may be made as sensitive as required by changing angle and wedge and
numbers of measuring contacts.
Instead of altering size of slips to obtain contact at correct point, distance along straight
edge by which correct slips fails to contact may be translated in terms of + or – metal.
The method assumes no error in surface plate. Compare error found with tolerance laid
down in IS 2220-1962 which state that when supported at points of best support the
error in straightness of working faces over which length should not exceeds.
For A grade (2+10L) m
For B grade (5+20L) m
From this we can determine that given straight edge
i. In the limits
ii. Does not lie in the limit

Fig 1 Calibration of Straight Edge

 Procedure: -
1. Calculate the points of best support or point of minimum deflection for the
given straight edge.
2. Divide the straight edge into equal numbers of parts, which include points
found above.
3. Set straight edge on its side resting on pile of slips differs in height by
0.01 mm/cm of separation.
4. Successive piles are tucked into gap at each line.
5. If the correct pile of slips does not contact at its proper line increase or
decrease it until it does.
Observations: -
1. Straight edge length.
2. Support point distance…
3. Measuring point interval…
4. Ɵ =
A B C D E F G
SN Distance Between Actual Actual Measured Theoretical Deviation
2 Points on Length Height Height (x) Height Between height
Straight Edge D-F
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Graph
Actual Length (X- Axis) Vs Height Difference

Result: -

Questions: -
1. What are the utilities of a straight edge?
2. Make a neat diagram of straight edge and write a short note on the criterion for
its supporting points.
3. Write shortly on toolmakers straight edge.
4. State how the accuracy of a straight edge is specified in Indian Standard IS:
2220.
5. Outline all the important steps for calibrating a straight edge using the wedge
method.
6. In testing the straightness of straight edge no care was taken about the correct
supporting distance. What effect will this have on the calibration curve of
straightness?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4

Title : Study and applications of Profile Projector.

Objective : To study the working of Profile projector and then to measure the
various angles of a single point cutting tool in ASA system.
Pre Lab : 1.Various tool angles in ASA system
2. Optical measurement principle.
Apparatus : Profile projector, Single point cutting tool etc.

Theory: -
Profile projector become an indispensable in modern laboratories because of its versatility
and easy in use. Using optical projector is possible to measure those components, which
are difficult to measured by other methods due to typical size, material composition or
dimensional characteristics. It displays the magnified image of the object. The magnified
image serves as an aid to more precise measurements of dimensions, form, etc.
The projector has following parts.
1. A projector having a light source, a condenser or collimating lens system to direct
the light past the part and into the optical system.
2. Suitable work holding table, which may be fixed or movable.
3. Projection optics including both mirrors and lenses.
4. Screen where the image of the work piece is projected and where measurements
and comparison are made.
5. Measuring devices- a good optical projector must have a precise optical system
and means for precise mechanical measurements.
An optical projector displays a two dimensional projection of a part, it may be noted
that all parts are not ideally suited to optical gauging. Operator’s visual activity and
perceptiveness also matters in the use of optical projectors. The performance of the
optical projector also depends on its optical design, manufacture and assembly.
 All these factors directly influence the quality of the image formed, the accuracy of
the magnified image and the contrast in the image. A beam of light produces the
image of the test piece. The light sources commonly used are tungsten lamp, filament
lamp, high-pressure mercury lamp and xenon arc lamp. Common arrangements of
light sources are shadows and surface. Ther shadow image of the object may be
produced either on horizontal screen or vertical screen. Surface illumination produces
a reflected image of the face of the object.
1 Projector box
2 Projection screen
Projection screen rotating fine band
3
wheel
4 Digital display box
5 Signal Line adaptor board
6 Reflective light adjustment handle
7 Reflective lighting condenser
8 Wicket
9 Y- axis grating ruler
10 X- axis hand wheel
11 Carrying bolts
12 Wicket
13 Lifting hand wheel
14 Foot
15 Operation panel
16 Y- axis hand wheel
17 X- drive group
18 Y- drive group
19 Shading plate
20 Objective lens
21 Instrument signs

Figure 1 Schematic Diagram of Profile Projector

Worktable: - The objects to be tested are placed on the worktable. The focal
clearance or the working distance of the optical system derives the space in which the
parts can be staged. The sectional contour or maximum size of an object that can
normally be projected to the screen is the contour lying in the focal plane. The working
distance however be increased optically by using a relay lens as a part of the
projection system. The projector worktable may be either stationary type or moving
type. Moving type may have facilities for measurements for movements. Some tables
are also equipped with an angular adjustment for positioning the helix threads and
worms. Micrometers in connection with dial indicators are fitted as measuring
attachments. Projector rings are mounted with the viewing screen to simplify the
determination of angular measurements.
Projection system: - The light beam after passing the object to be projected passes
into the projection system comprising of lenses and mirrors which must be held in
accurate alignments on rigid supports. Lenses are used to obtain the desired
magnification. Mirrors are used to obtain the beam of light on the screen. It is possible
to change the magnification by changing the lenses. High magnification is not good
because the image produced, is not defined as with low magnification. Screens are
usually made of glass with the surface facing the operator ground to a very fine grain.
The thickness of the glass must be held close limits.
Measurements technique: - the following measurements techniques are employed in
optical projectors.
1. Measurement by comparison: - In this method the 2-D screen images are
produced to the desired magnification by keeping the object in the focal plane of
the optical system. A master layout of chart gauge is made to represent the high
and low limits of the perfect part at the magnified image. The contour
characteristics such as irregular curves, chamfers, can be all inspected in a single
stretch without resorting to the other inspection methods.
2. Measurements by movements: - The projector should have table travel and
measuring facilities. In this method, the centre cross line on the screen provides
optical reference. Parts containing such features, which can not be projected by a
light beam directly are gauged indirectly by a combination of tracing and optical
projection.
3. Measurement by translation: - In such measurements a tracer that is one at
one pantograph is applied. One arm of the pantograph is stylus, which traces freely
 over the part contour and the other arm carries the follower. It may be noted that
probe follower is an exact duplicate of the stylus tracer in size and shape. In this
case the supporting stem restricts the shadow and so in some cases it is not
preferred. Dot follower is glass reticule having an opaque dot of the same diameter
as stylus tracer. The reticule gauge follower, which is more versatile and not
restricted by part size magnification, is a glass reticule having an exact one to one
actual size remanufacturing of the part profile.
Observations: -

Figure 2 Single point cutting tool geometry.

Procedure: -
Measurement of Tool angles.
1. Switch on the light surface illumination or contour illumination as per
requirement.
2. Set the point of the tool parallel to one of the cross line.
3. Rotate the screen up till the other edge is parallel to the same line.
4. Take the reading
5. Repeat the same procedure for each measurement.
 Measurement of Tool Angles: -

Angle Value Angle Value

Side Cutting Edge Angle (Cs) Back Rake Angle (b)
End Cutting Edge Angle (Ce) Side Rake Angle (s)
End Relief/Clearence Angle (ɤe/ e) Side Relief/Clearance Angle ((ɤs/ s)
Nose Radius

Result: -
The Tool angles as per ASA system are found to be……………………………………..

Questions: -
1. Sketch the optical path of a Profile Projector and discuss its applications.
2. What are the important characteristics with the optical projector?
3. What are the potential applications of optical projectors for precision
measurement and inspection?
4. On what factors the repeat accuracy depends in optical measurements?
5. Write short note on
a. Coordinate measuring machine
b. Virtual measuring system.
6. Describe, with the help of a sketch, the working principle of any instrument used
for the inspection of the profile and size of a cam. How will you check it on this
instrument?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 05
Title : Use of Monochromatic light Interferometer
for flatness checking.

Objective : To determine the flatness of given specimen using the

Optical flat.
Pre Lab : 1. Interference of two rays.
2. Light sources for Interferometry.
3. Interferometry applied to flatness testing.
Apparatus : Optical flat, sodium vapour lamp, machined specimen.

Theory: -
Optical flats: - Optical flats are also called as optical parallels. The glasses of optical
parallels are cylindrical pieces of ground glass used for checking flatness and parallelism
of the measuring instruments with super finished faces, such as faces of micrometre anvil
and spindle, snap gauge buttons, slip gauges and similar measuring instruments. They
are supplied in a set of three or four or as single pieces. To check the surface, flat is put
over the surface, the fringes occur as a result of refraction of light rays, when the work
is brought under the monochromatic light in the shadow of a coloured screen, which
filters back all light except that of one wavelength. The fringes occur due to the thin
wedge shaped layer of air form between a glass face and component face. The shape of
the interference fringes make it possible to judge the shape of the surface, which is being
checked the good flat surface will have vertical fringes. The flatness of surface is judged
by usual observation.
Monochromatic light source: - sodium vapour light is used as a monochromatic light
source. It is used only in application where interference path difference does not exceed
a few hundred wavelengths. Usually yellow sodium light is used whish contains two
separate but closely spaced lines of equal intensity and because of this the interference
fringes wash out for higher path difference. Other light sources are mercury, mercury
198, cadmium, krypton etc.
The formula for flatness tolerance is found to be
h = n / 2
Where h = flatness tolerance,
n = Number of fringe bands,
 = Wavelength of the light source.

Procedure: -
1. The light is switch on and allowed to give full radiation of yellow color.
2. The given specimen placed beneath the light source.
3. The optical flat is placed over the specimen.
4. The light rays develop the fringes on the surface and are counted.
5. Using the formula the flatness tolerance is determined.
Precautions: -
1. If the contacting surfaces of the flat and specimen wrung together, then no air
gap exists and no fringe pattern will be observable.
2. If contacting angle is increased, then fringes brought together and if it is too much
large then fringes will be closely spaced as to be indistinguishable.
3. if contacting angle reduced then fringes spacing increases.

Observations: -
Wavelength of sodium vapour lamp  = …………………….

Observation Table: -
Observer No. of Fringes Mostly repeated
number
1
2
3
4
5
Calculations: -
h = n / 2

Result: -
The flatness tolerance of given specimen is found to be…………….

Questions: -
1. What is meant by interference of light? How does the nature of light source
affect the phenomenon?
2. Show clearly with the aid of sketches, the light ray path difference which results
when an optical flat lies at an angle to a lapped surface, so that a wedge-shaped
air gap is present between the two surfaces.
3. Indicate the essential conditions for obtaining sharp interference fringes.
4. State the property of surface responsible for interference phenomenon.
5. What do you understand by flatness of the surface? What is its symbolic
representation?
6. Sketch typical fringe pattern observed through an optical flat which illustrate
surfaces:
i. Flat ii. Concave iii. Convex.
7. Explain and illustrate two simple tests on an optical flat, which will reveal
whether the surface is convex or concave.
8. Show that two similar adjacent interference fringes represent a change of
separation between surface and optical flat of one half wavelength of the light
used for observation.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 06

Title : Study and use of Pneumatic comparator.

Objective : To determine the ovality and straightness of bore/ bar
Using Pneumatic comparator.
Pre Lab : 1. Various types of Comparators and their characteristics.
2. Systems of pneumatic gauges.
Apparatus : Pneumatic comparator, limit gauge, air compressor, and
standard specimen to be tested.
Theory: -
In pneumatic comparator, air from a compressor, at constant pressure escape through
an air gauge and escape into orifice called as the measuring jet. The air gauge is
calibrated by using the standard piece. Once the air gauge is calibrated, the various
components are inserted in front of the orifice and their deviation from the standard size
is found. If the surface of the work piece closes the air escape port completely, the
pressure in the air gauge will be at the maximum value. As the distance of the specimen
from the orifice increases, the pressure will drop. So the backpressure in the air gap due
to the work piece is used to measure the dimensions of the work piece. Hence the system
measures without the metallic contact at the workpiece. This is an important advantage
of a pneumatic comparator.
Hole sqaureness and Ovality: - the plug shown in fig. May be used to check either
the square ness or ovality of hole. It consists of two separate circuits., A and B, stationary
surface will provide the same each comprising two opposed jets in parallel and in
indicator. The component position shown at (i) causes a high reading on circuit A and
low reading on circuit B. when the component is rotated through 180 0 the readings are
reserved.
The oval condition shown at (ii) produces two low readings and on rotation
successive pairs of high and low readings. Thus the behaviour of indicator clearly
differentiates between lack of square ness and ovality.

Fig.1 Pneumatic Camparator

Procedure: -
1. A suitable pressure is built up in the compressor.
2. The standard plug gauge is inserted in front of the orifice and the scale is
calibrated.
3. The various components are introduced and their deviation from the plug gauge
is determined.
4. Various readings are taken and graphs are plotted.
Observation Table: -
Observer Internal gauging External gauging

Gauge Average Gauge Average

reading reading
1
2
3
4
5

Result: -

Questions: -
1. Explain the purpose of comparator as used in engineering measurements.
2. What are the advantages offered by the use of comparators when making
precision linear checks?
3. Classify the different types of comparators. Describe the advantages and
disadvantages of each type.
4. Explain the basic principle of a typical pneumatic measuring instrument.
5. Explain briefly how a pneumatic comparator can be used:
a. As a comparator
b. For either internal or external gauging.
6. State some uses of pneumatic gauging.
7. State the mathematical relationship between the measured length or thickness
other related parameters.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 07

Title : Surface roughness testing.

Objective : To check the surface roughness of given specimen using surface
roughness tester
Pre Lab : 1. Meaning of surface texture and various definitions.
2. Method of measuring surface finish.
Theory: -
The Mitutoyo Surftest SJ-410 is a shop floor type surface roughness measuring
instrument, which traces the surfaces of various machine parts, calculates their surface
roughness based on roughness standards, and displays the results.
The SJ-410 has a light weight (0.5 Kg design) for excellent portability. In addition it is
made compact so that it can be held and operated in one hand. The built in battery makes
it easy to perform roughness measurement on the shop floor or other sites where there
may be no AC power supply.
The instrument has a maximum measurement range of 350 m (-200 m to +150 m)
or 13780 in (-7880 m to + 5900 m) and can represent surface texture using various
surface roughness parameters. If the SJ-410 is not used for more than 30 seconds, it is
automatically turned off, even if AC power is being supplied. SJ SJ-410 measurement
conditions are however retained. Measurement results are displayed on the large easy to
view LCD unit. These measurement results can also be outputted externally as SPC
(Statistical Process Control) data. If connected to a personal computer, the SJ-410 P can
be remotely controlled (for output or measurement commands) via RS –232-
communication interface. The SJ-410 can save measurement results upto 10 cases of
measurements. It can also call the saved data to display and print the data. The SJ-410
outputs measurement results conforming to a variety of surface roughness standards,
including new JIS, Old JIS, DIN, ISO, and ANSI.
 Fig. 1 Surface roughness tester SJ 410
Procedure: -
1. After calibration for the detector is complete, the measurement of the workpiece
can be performed.
2. Set the parameter and cut off value for evaluation length according to the
requirement.
3. Set the detector parallel to the surface to be measured.
4. Set the direction of machining lay.
5. Press the START/STOP button and the detector traverses the work piece surface
for the specific traversing length, giving the value of the set parameter on the
display.
6. The detector then automatically returns to its original position.
7. Pressing the START/STOP button during measurement aborts and detector return
to its original position.
Observation: -
Sampling Length is =……… mm

Observation Table: -

Sr. Ra Value Ry Value Rz Value

No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Mean
Result: -

Questions: -
1. Discuss what do you understand by the following terms in connection with surface
finish measurement
a. Waviness b. Lay c. Envelope method d. Crest line method
2. Why is the assessment of surface texture is important? Describe two methods to
obtain a numerical value of the texture from a given graphical record.
3. What is the difference between primary texture and secondary texture? Describe
an instrument that may be used to obtain graphical record of the primary texture.
4. Describe the relative merits and demerits of the M and E system of measurement
of surface finish.
5. How CLA Index Number is determined? Explain why CLA index number alone is
not sufficient to specify the surface texture required and to make the information
complete, what else is to be specified? How the required texture is specified on
drawing.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8

Title : Calibration of Dial gauge.

Objective : To calibrate the given Dial gauge using Calibration Tester.

Pre Lab : 1. Different types of comparator

2. Calibration procedure.
Apparatus : Dial Gauge L.C. 0.01 mm, Surface plate, suitable mounting equipment,
Dial calibration tester (Rotating wheel type having L.C. = 0.001)

Theory: -
According to the IS : 2092 dial gauges have been divided into two categories. Type 1 and
type 2 for general engineering purposes depending on the movement of the plunger.
These are manufactured in two grades, Grade A and Grade B, with total plunger
movement or lift 3, 5 and 10 mm. Type 1 dial gauge has the plunger movement parallel
to the plane of dial and type 2 has the plunger movement perpendicular to the plane of
dial.
Dial gauge with lift 3 mm has 50 divisions instead of 100mm. Permissible errors
for two grades of accuracy (Grade A and Grade B) are given below, which prescribes the
error for part measuring range 0.1 mm and for the total measuring range of 1 mm, 2
mm, 3 mm, 5 mm and 10 mm. These errors are applicable only for vertical movement
type plunger. In addition the gauge should be capable of indicating small gradual changes
of the order of 0.025 mm in either direction of the plunger to within 0.003 mm without
resort to tapping.
For very high precision dial gauges reading to 0.001 mm, the permissible deviation in a
part measuring range of 0.05 mm should be 0.003 mm and permissible deviation over
the whole measuring range should not be more than 0.003 mm.
In actual testing, the error over the whole measuring range and part measuring range is
determined by plotting the error curve. The error curve is drawn by obtaining readings
on the gauge in interval of 0.1 mm with the help of slip gauge blocks. The highest and
lowest points on the error curve are further analysed by taking measurements at intervals
of 0.01 mm for a range of 0.1 mm. The error for whole range is the difference between
the highest and lowest points of error curve, whereas for part measuring rage the error
is the difference in the highest and lowest point of that portion of the curve.

Grade of Permissible Error (Plunger moving outwards) Dispersion Reverse

Accuracy Part Total measuring range of Interval
measuring
range of
0.1 mm
A 5 6 7 10 12 15 1 3
B 8 11 13 15 20 25 2 5
Permissible error for dial gauges
All dimensions in microns (1 Micron = 0.001 mm)

In the above table dispersion may be defined as the difference between two or
more readings of the same dimension taken with the same gauge under same conditions
and it is found by taking at least ten individual measurements of the same work with
plunger movement in the same direction. It is actually the quadratic mean deviation of
the individual readings from the mean.

In other words, dispersion =   ( X  X )2

(n  1)

Where x is individual reading, n is number of reading taken and X is the mean of all the
n readings.
The last column in the above table is for reverse interval, which is the difference between
two measured values (one taken with the pointer moving from a higher to a lower value
and second with pointer moving from lower to higher value) on the same work and with
the same gauge. It is found by taking difference between at least 10 readings at any
position of the measuring range by moving plunger inwards and outwards.
The dial gauge tester consist of following
1.Mounting stand 2.Micrometer. 3. Provision for mounting the dial gauge to be
tested.
The arrangement ensures that the stem of the micrometer and the plunger of the dial
are both in line with each other.
Depending on the measuring range of the dial gauge to be tested suitable depth
micrometer can be chosen on the stand.

Fig. 1 Calibration Tester

Procedure: -
A. Calibration of dial for Full Range and Part Range
1. Mount the dial gauge to be calibrated on the calibration tester.
2. Ensure that the axis of the dial gauge is in line with the axis of the micrometer.
3. Set the micrometer to zero. Let the plunger of the dial first touch the stem of the
micrometer. Set the dial to read zero in this position.
4. By lifting the stem of the micrometer through some known values covering the
entire range of the dial gauge note down the readings in the dial gauge. Repeat
the same in the reverse direction i.e. by lowering the stem of the micrometer.
B. To check the error of repeatability.
1. Set the dial gauge vertically above flat surface and pass a cylinder
2. Take readings at different positions.
Observations: -
1. L.C. of micrometer =............
2. L.C. of dial gauge = ............

Observation Table: -

Serial No. Dial gauge Micrometer Actual Cumulative Remark

Reading Reading Error Error
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Calculations: -

Result: -
Questions: -
1. What is measurement? What are the fundamental methods of measurements?
Discuss generally the phases of most measurement systems.
2. Explain the following terms in mechanical measurements:
a. Calibration.
b. Sensitivity.
c. Precision.
d. Standard length.
e. Accuracy.
f. Uncertainty.
3. Explain the following terms: Repeatability, Accuracy and Precision. Also discuss
the relationship of accuracy and cost.
4. What are the various possible sources of error in measurements? What do you
understand by Systematic error and Random Errors? How the random errors are
analysed?
5. What is the role of standardization and standardizing organizations in an industrial
country?
6. What do you understand by cosine errors?
7. The prescribed methods of precision measurements have to be strictly followed
with all precautions and there cannot be any compromise for them. Why?
8. Discuss the importance of calibration system in metrology laboratory.
9. What do you understand by accreditation?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 09

Title : Study and use of Floating Carriage Micrometer

Objective : To measure the effective diameter of screw plug gauge
using floating carriage micrometer.
Pre Lab : 1. Screw terminology.
2. Errors in threads.
3. Measurements of elements of thread.
Apparatus : Floating carriage micrometer with fiducial indicator,
standard roller gauge, two wires, screw plug gauge.

Theory: -
Floating carriage micrometer
The machine is shown in the figure. It consists of three main units. A base casting carries
a pair of centers, on which he threaded work-piece, is mounted. Another carriage is
mounted on it and is exactly at 90 0 to it. On this is provided another carriage capable of
moving thimble-enabling reading up to 0.002 mm is provided. Just opposite to it is a fixed
anvil, which is spring, loaded and its zero position is indicated by a fiducial indicator. Thus
the micrometer elements are exactly perpendicular to the axis of the centers as the two
carriages are located perpendicular to each other. On the fixed carriage the centers are
supported in two brackets fitted on either end. The distance between the two centers can
be adjusted depending upon the length of the threaded job. After job is fitted between
the centers the second carriage is adjusted in correct position to take measurements and
is located in position. The third carriage is moved till the fiducial indicator is against the
set point. The readings are noted from the thimble head. It is now obvious that the axis
of the indicator and micrometer head spindle is same and is perpendicular to the line of
two centers. The indicator is specially designed for this class of work and has only one
index line, against which the pointer is always to be set.
 Fig. 1 Floating carriage Micrometer

This insures constant measuring pressure for all readings. Sufficient friction is provided
by the conical pegs to restrain the movement of carriage along the line of centers. The
upper carriage is free to float on balls and enables micrometer readings to be taken on a
diameter without restraint. Square ness of the micrometer to the line of center can be
adjusted by rotating the pegs in the first carriage which is made eccentric in its mounting.
Above the micrometer carriage, two supports are provided for supporting the wires and
Vee-pieces for measurement of effective diameter etc.

Two Wire Method: -

The effective diameter of a screw thread may be ascertained by placing two wires or rods
of identical diameter between the flanks of the thread, as shown in figure and measuring
the distance over the outside of these wires. The effective diameter E is then calculated
as
E=T+P
Where T = Dimension under the wires = M –2d
M= Dimension over the wires, d = diameter of each wire

Dimension T can also be determined by placing wires over a standard cylinder of diameter
greater than the diameter under the wires and noting the reading R1 and then taking
reading with over the gauge, say R2. Then T = S- (R1-R2)
If P= It is a value which depends upon the diameter of wire and pitch of the thread.
P = pitch of the thread, then
P= 0.9605p-1.1657d (for Whitworth thread).
P = 0.866p-d (for metric thread).

Actually P is constant value, which has to be added to the diameter under the wires to
give the effective diameter. The expression for the value of P in terms of p (pitch), d
(diameter of wire) and thread angle can be derived as follows:

OP = d {cosec (x/2) }/ 2
PA = d {cosec (x/2) –1} / 2
PQ = QC cot x/2 = p/4 cot x/2
AQ = PQ – AP ={P cot x/2} /4 - d {cosec (x/2) -1}/ 2
AQ is the half the value of P
P value = 2AQ
= P/2 cot x/2 –d {cosec (x/2)-1}
Two-wire method can be carried out only on the diameter-measuring machine described
for measuring the minor diameter, because alignment is not possible by 2 wires and can
be provided only by the floating carriage machine. In the case of three wire method, 2
wires on one side help in aligning the micrometer square to the thread while the third
placed on the other side permits taking of readings.
Procedure: -
1. Examine thread-measuring wires they should be clean and straight.
2. Set machine with micrometer on right and adjust the position of indicator and
micrometer so that gauge to be measured within the range of micrometer.
3. Put cylindrical standard between centers and make sure that there is plenty of
movement of saddle on each side.
4. Adjust wires on cylindrical standard between indicator and micrometer anvil. Take
movement over operative position of wires.
5. Records readings when indicator needle is on mark. Take three readings.
6. Now replace cylindrical standard with screw gauge and take the readings.
Observations: -
Type of gauge is M101.5 screw plug gauge.
The value of P is found to be ……………….
Diameter of wire is found to be ……………….

Observation table: -
Serial Reading on Reading on T (mm) E (mm)
no. standard gauge
specimen R2
R1
1
2
3
4

Calculations: -
E=T+P
T = S- (R1-R2)
Result: -
1. Major diameter of plug gauge is found to be ………
2. Effective diameter of Go end is found to be……….
3. Effective diameter of No Go end is found to be……….

Questions: -
1. Describe in detail the types of the screw threads available with ISO system, and
explain the principle underlying the designation of these screw threads.
2. Explain why it is essential to measure the different elements of any threads?
3. Explain why three wires are used when measuring a screw thread with hand
micrometer, but only two when using a floating carriage measuring machine.
4. Why should a screw thread not be placed on centers to measure its major diameter
even though it should be on centers to measure effective or major diameter?
5. What is the ‘Best size’ wire? Derive an expression for the same in terms of the
pitch and angle of the thread.
6. With a neat diagram, show clearly the essential principles or movements of a
machine designed to measure the effective diameter of an external thread using
two wire method.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10

Title : Use and study of Autocollimator.

Objective : To check the flatness (or sqaureness) of a given Surface
plate using Autocollimator.
Pre Lab : 1. Angle measuring instruments.
2. Various optical instruments for angular measurement
and their principles.
Apparatus : Autocollimator, surface plate, specimen, etc.

Theory: -
Autocollimator: - An autocollimator or auto collimating telescope can be defined as an
instrument combining a telescope and a collimator such that the graticule and any
superimposed image can be observed through the eyepiece. The instrument is designed
to measure the small angular deflections by plane mirror or other reflecting device. If the
scale is provided on the graticule then the tilt of the reflecting surface may be measured.
The angle of the reflecting ray relative to the incident ray is twice the angle of tilt of the
reflecting surface.
Principle of working: - O is the point source of the light placed at the principle focus
of a collimating lens as shown in figure (a). the rays of light from O incident on the lens
will now travel as a parallel beam of light to the optical axis. If the reflecting mirror AA is
situated at right angles to the optical axis then the light rays will be reflected back on
their original paths and the return i.e., reflected image of the object will coincide with the
object at O. if the plane reflector be now tilted through a small angle  then parallel beam
will be deflected through twice the angle and will be brought to focus at O in the same
plan at a distance X from O.
Let X be the distance traveled by image from the initial position of the object.
F be the focal length of the lens.
Therefore 2 = x / f
X = 2f
Special features: -
1. The position of the final image does not depend upon the distance of the reflector
from the objective lens i.e. separation x is independent of the position of the
reflector from the lens.
2. If the reflector is made too much back then no image will be formed.
3. For the graticule OO is fixed in the principle focal plane of the objective lens and
is illuminated from a suitable source.
 4. Reflectors may be made of glass, quartz, of steels such a way that it should be
optically flat and with good reflecting quality.
Principle of autocollimator: -
1. A cross line target graticule is positioned at the focal of a telescope positioned at
the focal of telescope objective system with the intersection of the cross line on
the optical axis i.e. at the principle axis.
2. When the target graticule is illuminated, rays of light diverging from the
intersection point reach the objective via a beam splitter and are projected from
the objective as parallel pencils of light.
3. A flat reflector placed in front of the objective and exactly normal to the optical
axis reflects the parallel pencils of light back along their original path.
4. Many factors governs the specification of an autocollimator in particular its focal
length and its effective aperture.
5. Air currents in the optical path between autocollimator and the target mirror cause
fluctuations in the readings obtained.
6. When both the autocollimator and the target mirror gauge can remain fixes,
extremely close reading may be taken and repeatability is excellent.

Procedure: -
1. Draw a straight line on the surface whose straightness is to be measured.
2. Divide the line into number of segments equal to the base of the reflector.
3. Place the autocollimator at a distance of 0.5 to 0.75 meter from the surface to be
tested.
4. The parallel beam from the instrument is projected along the length of the
surface to be tested.
5. The reflector and instrument are set such that the image of the collimator
appears near the center of the field and for the complete movement of reflector
along the surface straight line.
6. The image of the cross wire will appear on the surface in steps equal to the
center distance between the base of the reflector.
 7. The reading for each position is noted down in seconds from the eyepiece.
8. As shown in the figure the reflector is set at a-b ( 1 reading) successive readings
at (b-c), (c-d), (d-e) etc. are taken till the length of the surface to be tested.

Observation Table: -
Focal length of the autocollimator is …………………..
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Position Mean reading of Difference Rise or fall Cumulative Adjustments Errors from
Autocollimator from first in interval rise or fall to bring both straight line
reading length (0.001 ends to Zero (0.001 mm)
min Sec (Sec) (0.001 mm) mm) (0.001 mm)

Calculations: -
Rise or Fall in interval length = Pitch x 1 arc of sec x Difference from first reading
1 arc of sec = 0.000005 mm/mm
Graphs:
1) Cumulative Error Vs Position on Surface

2) Error from Horizontal Straight Line

Result: -
Questions: -
1. State an optical property of the surface, which enables an autocollimator; be
used for its angular measurement.
2. Describe the principle of an Autocollimator.
3. Make a line diagram of an optical system and illustrate the field of view as seen
in the eyepiece.
4. Give two examples of the use of this type of instrument, stating clearly any
auxiliary equipment needed.
5. In above case give the anticipated degree of accuracy.
6. An autocollimator may be used for testing alignment at right angles to a datum.
Show how this may be carried out and describe with the aid of sketches the
accessories used.
7. Explain the practical limitation of an Autocollimator.
8. How may the direction of incident and reflected collimated beams may be
charged?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 11

Title : Process capability study.

Objective : To inspect the given machined parts and determine the
process capability and control limits for X chart and R
chart.
Pre Lab : 1. Basic statistics.
2. Various types of control charts.
Apparatus : Specimen 50 Nos. Mechanical comparator, Slip gauges,
V- Block, Dial gauge, Vernier calliper etc.

Theory: -
The fundamental purpose of statistical quality control is to guard against manufacture of
unacceptable products by utilizing the process of inspection, analysis of data and action.
SQC provides scientific approach to data collection, analysis of data so compiled and to
draw inference in order to install suitable remedial measures.
Process capability may be defined as the “Minimum spread of a specific measurement
variation which will include 99.7% of the measurements from the given process.” In other
words process capability = 6’ since 6’ is taken a measure of the spread oof the process,
which is also called natural tolerance. Process capability study is carried out to measure
the ability of the process to meet the specified tolerances.
By this study it becomes possible to know the percentage of the products, which will be
produced within  3 limits on either side of the mean X.
A process capability analysis consist of:
1. Measuring the process capability to find out whether the process is inherently
capable of meeting the specified tolerance limits.
2. Discovering why the process ‘capable ’is failing to meet specifications.
Procedure: -
1. Divide the given lot of specimens into subgroups of sample size 5.
2. Set the comparator for the nominal value of the dimension, which is to be checked.
Or measure by Vernier calliper.
3. Observe the dimension (X) of the specimen group wise and determine X and R
4. Calculate X and R.
5. Calculate the UCL and LCL values for both X and R charts.
6. if the process is not in control eliminate the samples which are out of control limits
and find out new control limits.

Observation Table: -
Sub Observed Measurement Average Range
Group (X) mm X = X1 + X2+ R =
X3 + X4 + X5 Rmax - Rmin

1 2 3 4 5

1 X 1= R1 =

2 X 2= R2 =

3 X 3= R3 =

4 X 4= R4 =

5 X 5= R5 =

6 X 6= R6 =

7 X 7= R7 =

8 X 8= R8 =

9 X 9= R9 =

10 X 10= R10=

X = X /N R= R /N
=
=
X chart: U.C.L. = X + 3 X X = R / d2. n

L.C.L. = X - 3 X

R chart: U.C.L. = D4 R
L.C.L. = D3 R
D3, D4 and d2 are to be taken from SQC tables
For n = 5, d2 = 2.326
Factor for Lower Control Limit for sub group 5: D3 = 0
Factor for Upper Control Limit for sub group 5: D 4 = 2.11
Process Capability = 6’ Where, ’ = R / d2

Result: -
The given samples have been inspected.
Questions: -
1 Differentiate between the chance causes and assignable causes of variation giving
suitable example.
2 Explain the factors to be considered in determining
a. Sample size
b. Frequency of subgrouping
c. Basis of subgrouping
3. State the objectives of X and R charts.
4. Compare X chart with R chart. Discuss the circumstances in which either of the
two or combination of these will be used for the purpose of control.
5. Name the various methods of calculating process capability. Explain why
the Range Method is preferred for process capability analysis.