THEORIES, PRINCIPLES, AND MODELS IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING 1

THEORIES, PRINCIPLES, AND MODELS IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING

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 THEORIES, PRINCIPLES, AND MODELS IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING 2

Theories, Principles, and Models in Education and Training

Introduction

Models, theories, and principles are relevant because they enable one to make sense

of the world and they also help one in comprehending complex concepts. Learning models

are significant as they provide educators with an organized system to create an appropriate

learning environment. The purpose of this report is to help in understanding the application of

learning models in education and training.

TASK A: RESEARCH REPORT

1.1) Analysis of Theories, Principles, and Models of Learning

Schunk (2012) notes that there are three major theories of learning which include

humanism, cognitive and Behavioral theories. According to the behavioral theory, learning is

as a result of conditioning, which is achieved by rewarding the desired behavior. The

approach requires positive reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of learners to

respond. However, this theory is criticized for focusing on a single dimension and thus does

not account for internal influences of an individual behavior such as mood. The cognitive

theory holds that learning occurs when one obtains knowledge through the senses and

experience. Human beings follow a mental process in terms of how they think and process

information. In this case, educators have a role in helping learners to participate in the

process that helps in establishing knowledge.

Unlike behaviorism, cognitivist believe that learning is an internal process where

information that individuals acquire is internalized. The model, however, does not make an

account for the external and biological influences. Humanism is a holistic model that involves

concepts of behavioral and cognitive theories. The framework focuses on personal

development where learning and gaining knowledge is a process. Maslow’s theory of the

hierarchy of needs is incorporated in this model to show then various individual learning
 THEORIES, PRINCIPLES, AND MODELS IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING 3

needs. Humanism is therefore recognized as the actual learning approach that most educators

should take. Critics claim that it is subjective, which profoundly questions its validity.

Scholars oppose this theory because the concepts lack empirical measurability and

contextualization.

1.3, A) Analysis of Models of Learning Preferences

Individuals have different ways of organizing, gathering and interpreting information;

there are four main learning preferences. The four categories include the information-

processing models. Social interaction models, personality model, and instructional preference

model. The personality model looks into the personal traits of an individual; for instance,

some could be extroverts and others introverts. Social interaction model mainly focuses on

the different ways that students interact with each other in a classroom setting. Ocepek,

Bosnić, Šerbec & Rugelj (2013) assert that the information processing model reflects on the

different ways that people process information step by step while the instructional preference

model focuses on the different ways that learning occurs. Every student has a preferred

learning style to practice and apply information to the real world. As a teacher, one should

determine the methods that are most suitable for learners to ensure that they expand their

range of learning strategies.

VARK is also another model that describes learning preferences; they include visual,

aural, read, and kinesthetic sensory. The theory holds that the material used in learning should

cater to the individual styles of all learners. For instance, there are those who are visual

learners who easily interpret while others are aural because they learn best through sound.

Kinaesthetic learners work with their hands, body language and have excellent physical

coordination (Ocepek et al. 2013). Other learners are verbal as they comprehend information

through reading, writing, speaking and explaining. Once an educator uses a single method to

deliver information to learners, others are likely to feel left out because they cannot relate to
 THEORIES, PRINCIPLES, AND MODELS IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING 4

the mode of teaching. The approaches are criticized because they are simple yet most of the

scientists claim that individuals learn through the collaboration of all senses. Therefore,

placing students into categories can have a substantial detrimental effect, and it creates many

factors that a teacher should consider when passing on information.

1.3, B) Application of Theories, Principles, and Models of Learning to Teaching,

Learning, and Assessment

Education should be fully inclusive to every learner, which means that teachers should

use all the learning models. For example, behavioral theory ensures that teachers prepare and

arrange a learning environment. Also, teachers have to assist the learners in practicing

whatever they have learned, which includes rewarding desired behavior. The theory suggests

that teachers should apply punishment to weaken the undesired behavior in children.

Cognitive models are applied to recognize a change in behavior in learners to know their

intellectual and mental needs. In this case, teachers use a variety of teaching techniques to

help students explore learning concepts from different angles.

Teachers use the cognitive theory to launch new concepts and analyze the learner’s

ability to accommodate information. The humanism theory helps learners to handle complex

challenges depending on their level of development. According to Zimmerman (2013), the

methods help teachers to fulfil their responsibilities and to assess students’ abilities. Besides,

they also assist educators in providing real-life training as they prepare learners on how to

cope with the outside world. Humanism gives learners a chance to reflect and internalize

concepts, which is the main aim of learning. Besides this, the theories create awareness of the

learners’ backgrounds that can largely influence how they process information. The approach

that educators take has a huge impact on learner’s reaction to various assigned tasks. Using

different models is a comprehensive way of meeting each learner’s needs.

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1.4) How Identifying and Taking Account of Learner’s Individual Learning Preferences

Enables Inclusive Teaching, Learning, and Assessment

Teachers should take account of every learner’s preference to recognize their

entitlements and to enable their participation. Applying the most appropriate model

eliminates barriers when delivering information to the learners. For example, for the

kinesthetic learner, an educator should engage them in more practical activities for their

comprehension. Also, the mode of assessment should relate to the student’s learning style.

Even though writing assessment is the most commonly used, teachers should include other

forms of assessments that learners comprehend. Inclusive teaching is a situation where

teachers can provide students with high quality education in spite of their differences.

Effective inclusive education occurs when different factors such as the students’ learning

preferences are observed. Taking into account these preferences maximizes their potential

and encourages them to perform better. The main aim is to ensure that students comprehend

what they are taught and develop a positive attitude for being in an inclusive class.

The preferred systems that educators use is based on the senses that students use to

think. For example, the learning style model explained by Honey and Mumford, theorists

logically learn through analysis of information, Pragmatists like to experiments while the

reflectors use different views to make generalizations. A teacher has to establish a good

rapport with the students by using different modes of representation when passing on

information. While using a verbal description, students are likely to interpret information

differently due to communication barriers. However, the use of sounds or images makes it

easier to translate information without losing the original meaning that the teacher intended.

Inclusive teaching practices assist students in exploring and learning new skills and abilities.

Teachers recognize that learners have varying needs and thus, it is essential to incorporate
 THEORIES, PRINCIPLES, AND MODELS IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING 6

different learning styles. Besides, an inclusive class provides learners with equal

opportunities to receive a quality education.

TASK B: REPORT AND PRESENTATION

2.1) Analysis of Malcom Knowles Theory of Adult Learning

Communication is mainly based on two schools of thought; the process school is the

semiotics school. The process schools focus on communication of a simple way of passing a

message, for example, through music, cultural activities, and different artwork. The school of

thought, the recipient, can interpret the information in any way. The semiotics school sees

communication as a message, signs, and symbols whereby they receive gives specific

reactions. The communication theories in education include the two-step flow theory and

bullet theory. The two-step flow theory was mainly based on mass media whereby the

theorists asserted that the mass media did not have a significant impact on the audience

because the audience consults each other to agree. The bullet theory, on the other hand,

asserts that passing a message through media is like a bullet that gets to the audience so

quickly (Fogel 2017). Aristotle’s model of communication includes five important steps,

which include the speaker, the message, the audience, effect, and occasion. Another model is

by Shannon and Waeaver who assert that communication is a technique that helps one to

convey maximum information through a particular channel. The primary challenge in

communication is the interpretation of information.

The main focus is Malcom Knowles theory of Adult Learning. As different groups of

scholars pursued ways of understanding the learning needs of different age groups, it became

apparent the children and adults learn differently. Therefore, it prompted the development of

different learning and communication theories in the effort of upgrading the teaching

methods of teachers (Brockett & Hiemstra 2018). Malcom Knowles theory has gained
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popularity with the current trend of continuous education and adult learning, especially in

professional circles.

According to Todd, Ravi, and Gray (2017) Malcolm Knowles Adult Education Theory

expresses the science and the art of adult learning. The methods used in educating children

cannot be effective when applied to adults. Malcolm believed that adults learning needs were

different from those of children. It is this belief that led him to develop the above theory.

Malcolm theory is founded on five key assumptions. Some of these assumptions include self-

concept, adult learner experience, readiness to learn, orientation to learning, and motivation

to learning.

Self-concept: As people move from childhood to the adulthood stage, their self-

concept also undergoes a transformation. They move from being dependent on others to a

stage of being self-directed human beings (Brockett & Hiemstra 2018).

Orientation to learning: As people mature, their time perspective on learning also

changes. Generally, there is a change from postponing application of knowledge to immediate

application. Adult orientation to learning shifts from subject centeredness to one that majors

on problem-solving (Todd, Ravi & Gray 2017).

Motivation to learning: As we develop from childhood to adulthood, the motivation

to learning shifts from outwards to internal.

Adult learners’ experience: As people mature, they accumulate knowledge that can be

useful in enhancing their learning experience. Since children have little or no knowledge in

their mind reservoir, this demand a different approach to teaching from that of adult (Todd,

Ravi & Gray 2017).

Readiness to learn: As people mature, their readiness to learn shifts towards

developmental task related to their social roles in the community.

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Based on these five assumptions, the theory suggests five principles that can be

employed in adult learning. Part of these principles emphasizes the need of involving adults

in the evaluation and planning for their learning instructions (Todd, Ravi & Gray 2017). The

rest of the principles include the use of experience to enhance learning. Tailoring adult

learning to focus on their personal lives or jobs. Lastly, making their learning to be problem-

centered rather than focusing on content absorption.

The work of Malcolm has a wide application in contemporary nursing education.

Both nurses and patients can significantly benefit from the application of this theory. The

current learning environment demands learners to be in pursuit of continuous education. This

trend has been initiated by the need to continually improve one’s knowledge and skills in

professional circles. Harris (2017) asserts that research shows that about 70 percent of all

students in higher education are adults. Based on the statistic, nurses who are pursuing higher

education in their respective fields can benefit from the application of the theory.

The teaching programs can be tailored in a way that fit the needs adults. To realize

this, it is important to introduce the following levels of engagement in their studies. Since

adults require an explanation for studying any concept, it is advisable to include an

explanation at the beginning of the course that will help motivate the group. The learning

should also be centered on performing common tasks or activities (Harris 2017). The learning

material used should incorporate the various levels of prior experience held by the learners.

Finally, a self-directed approach should be used. This will allow the students to learn and

discover things on their own. Student can utilize the principles learned in the adult education

theory in carrying out effective patient education (Aubrey & Riley 2018). The objective of

this kind of learning is to use the right information that will foster a change process in the

behaviour of adult patients.

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As earlier noted, the growing trend in continuously improving one’s knowledge and

skill, especially in professional circles has significantly increased the number of adults in

universities and colleges. This is also the case in education and training classrooms. However,

these classrooms also have a significant number of students that can be described as youths:

mostly in their twenties and thirties. This situation presents a challenging learning

environment where no one theory can be effectively used to cater to all the learning needs

(Aubrey & Riley 2018). Currently, many theories are used in the hope of improving the

learning experience of the different age groups found in the nursing classes. Since the number

of adults pursuing nursing is increasing daily, Malcolm theory of adult education plays a

central role in enhancing the learning experience of the mature. The principles laid by the

theory are frequently used in classes. In general, this theory adequately captures the learning

needs of adults and therefore very essential in their learning process. Majority of adult

nursing programs are developed in the light of this theory (Malik 2016). The theory is also

helpful in-patient education: nurses use it in enforcing behaviour change in their patients.

Overall, Malcolm Knowles’ theory of adult education plays a central role in

improving the learning experience of adults for many decades. It is one of the theories that is

widely celebrated because of its impact in transforming society. The benefits yielded by the

theory are easily seen. The current rapid development of communities and the world at large

is closely attributed to the application of this theory. However, it is important to note that the

age group of students in a nursing classroom is not even. It is a mixture of youth and adults.

This composition of students makes it challenging for teachers to apply a single theory in

teaching since the needs of either the youths or the adults will be compromised.

TASK C: RESEARCH ACTIVITY

3.1) Analysis of Theories, Principles, and Models of Assessment

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Assessment is a method used to measure the extent to which learning takes place

outside and within a classroom. Assessments can be summative, formative, or diagnostic;

summative assessment is where teachers provide accredited exams to evaluate the level of

achievement. In diagnostic evaluations, teachers seek to identify the skills and capabilities of

learners through interviews and tests, which enables them to discover the students’

requirements. Formative assessments involve providing vital feedback to ensure that learners

understand concepts. The mode of assessment assists teachers in making necessary

improvements; this can be done through role play, observation, assignments, and reflection

(Parkay, Anctil & Hass 2014). Also, assessments are in different forms, depending on the

evaluation method that an educator chooses. For instance, written questions assess the

acquisition of knowledge, which estimates information that learners obtain in the classroom

sessions. Observation is another way whereby teachers ask learners to perform tasks to

evaluate comprehension. Assessment can be done through oral questioning, especially during

class sessions to determine whether students understand particular topics teachers should also

place their students into groups to ensure that they can evaluate themselves and transfer

skills. Other methods include practical exercises, role-play, computerized assessment and

group work.

3.2) Application of Theories, Principles, and Models of Assessment to Learning

Assessment

The laws of assessment assists teachers to evaluate the ability and progress of

students. For instance, formative assessments enable one to measure the progress throughout

the course because it is essential to understand whether a learner has understood each lesson.

The summative assessments are mainly given at the end of a class to provide evidence of

change and the effectiveness of learning design (Parkay, Anctil & Hass 2014). Considering

that there are many forms of assessment, accreditors ensure that the approach used is
 THEORIES, PRINCIPLES, AND MODELS IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING 11

appropriate and caters for the individual needs of learners. However, some of these methods

depend on the level of education. For instance, peer and self-assessments are appropriate for

students at the tertiary level. All the forms of assessment provide feedback to the learner and

the teacher. Nevertheless, the teacher should give feedback positively to encourage students

to provide better performance in the subsequent evaluations. Besides, teachers have a

responsibility to support students to find the most appropriate way to correct their problems.

Assessment records are valuable tools that provide information on the learner’s background

and the direction that they are taking throughout the course. In final assessments, external

examining bodies are involved in providing an alternative assessment method to prevent

teachers from being biased.

TASK D: RESEARCH REPORT

4.1) Analysis of Theories and Models of Curriculum Development

According to Schiro (2012), curriculum development refers to how the curriculum is

planned, evaluated, implemented, it also covers the process, people and the procedures

involved. A curriculum is a plan that helps in achieving specific learning objectives; the three

main curriculum models include the linear, cyclical and student-centered models (Priestley &

Biesta 2013). The linear model identifies things that a learner should know and practice at the

end of a course. The approach focuses on the learning outcomes, which are evaluated. When

creating this curriculum design, there are four steps; the first is the identification of aims and

particular objectives. A course is then constructed to achieve these objectives alongside its

test capacity. The curriculum should be explained to the teacher who helps to implement.

The cyclical model also identifies objectives and assesses learners’ needs, which is

followed by content, development, and selection of learning activities. The main advantage of

this model is that it is logical and has a structure, which makes it easy for the teachers to

follow. The student-centered model also known as the dynamic model focuses on adding
 THEORIES, PRINCIPLES, AND MODELS IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING 12

value to a student beyond their learning outcome. Students learn through experience,

problem-solving, socialization, objectives, which assist one even while outside the school

environment. The approach emphasizes on the adult learning methods other than those that

are teacher-led. The teacher chooses the best model based on experience, resources and

students’ needs.

On the other hand, the curriculum model is applied by the designers to come up with a

rationale applicable in particular teaching learning assessment approaches. The criteria for

mapping out the rationale is based on systematic and transparent methods. Another concept

dictates that the curriculum development models overlook the personal attitudes, values, and

the feeling that are involved in creating the curriculum. This contrary to the technical

applicability of the model, thus there should not be any personal judgment on the best

approach to the enhancement of student learning (Carl 2009). There are two models which

are amply demonstrated by the simple version of polarity; they include product and the

process model.

Product design emphasizes on the plans and the intentions while the Process model

emphasizes on the activities and effects. The product design is essential in the development

and communication of outcomes to the student. They should be transparent, and the emphasis

is not in vein with the content. It is paramount that the fact not to write learning outcomes

prescriptively.

The process model is an intuitive way which is reassured by the complexity theory,

according to this form of curriculum what matters most is the ingredients that cover all

processes involved, messages and conditions, and the trust that the good results will follow.

Therefore, product model insists on the achievements inclined to both the learning and

teaching activities, the model suggests that both players should write a Programme and

outcomes from module learning.

 THEORIES, PRINCIPLES, AND MODELS IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING 13

Clinical model is similar to the Product design, developed in the year 1967 by

Wheeler; the model insists that the identification of aspirations and objectives should be

based on the requirements of the professional bodies and also the students. Next, the selection

and content development, followed by and assessment/ evaluation. Changes should,

therefore, be planned based on valid and logic process.

Tyler’s objective model suggests that all the learning encompasses what learners can

do at the end of the course. It concentrates on the results of learning by use of the systematic

approach to the planning. Notably, the primary focus of the model is teaching. Schiro (2012)

notes that the model explores on the different steps of curriculum design which are: Outlining

the specific objectives and the broad aims, therefore to arrive at the goals one must construct

the course, test its capacity, demonstrate and explain to the teachers.

4.2) Application of Theories and Models of Curriculum Development in Developing

Curricula in Own Area of Specialism

Active learning would occur when a teacher uses objective and process-based models.

The linear approach is applicable where there are tests at the end of the course, and the

success of a student is dependent on whether they pass or fail. The method is most applicable

in distance learning, which requires a less practical application. In a classroom setting, active

knowledge, which is holistic is necessary to ensure that there is multi-sensory learning of the

students (Priestley & Biesta 2013). Teachers should understand that some learners need more

than a single approach to achieve the desired outcome. A teacher should practice fully

inclusive teaching due to diversity in a class. The main aim is to raise confidence among the

learners until they reach self-actualization and to maximize their real potential. The learner

should obtain numeracy and literacy skills as appropriate, which also helps them to cooperate

with others when engaging in teamwork. Assessments are meant to help teachers to evaluate

the degree of understanding for the learner. Therefore, teachers can use program and product-
 THEORIES, PRINCIPLES, AND MODELS IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING 14

centered learning models to achieve learning objectives and to ensure that learners obtain

skills that will help them after completion of the course. However, Carl (2009) asserts that for

distance learning courses linear model is most appropriate than the rest of the design. In the

event that learners require to overcome the past experiences that were negative through the

education system, the learner should rely on the model while directing to some degree what

they will learn.

TASK E: RESEARCH AND REFLECTIVE ACCOUNT

5.1) Analysis of Theories and Models of Reflection and Evaluation

Reflection and evaluation help a learner to develop self-awareness concerning their

performance and growth. Experiential learning is a theory that allows in reflection based on

the learning context. The theory holds that education begins with a problematic experience,

but it is most efficient when individuals get engaged in the process. Learning is a dynamic

process that involves observation, experience, and reflection. However, the approach is

criticized for lack of sufficient concepts that can be interpreted differently. Another model

relates to structured thinking, which guides a learner when complex situations where they

need to make decisions.

According to Moon (2013), the process includes the help of a supervisor, and thus it is

more beneficial as it achieves behavioural change. The action model developed by Schon

focuses on the assessment of processes especially after new events occur. The theory assesses

different perspectives, and how they affect feelings and individual actions. Kirkpatrick’s

Four-Level Training Evaluation model explains the importance of training to help in

improving a learner’s outcome. The first level is the reaction, which assesses areas that

require improvement, followed by learning, which is marched to specific objectives. The

third level is behaviour that evaluates how learners apply what they learn, and finally results
 THEORIES, PRINCIPLES, AND MODELS IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING 15

that analyse the outcome. The model has however been criticized as it consumes a lot of time

and cannot be involved in all situations.

Moreover, the theory of Murphy: Murphy argued about the situation. He claimed that

“things will go wrong if you give only one chance.” Because new situation and new problems

arise, the competency of tackling those problems is the ultimate success. In this theory,

Murphy advised being aware while taking choice in new situation because it will lead to

succeeding step of experience. Learners should identify, at first, why and whatever

knowledge is required for a new situation. Finally, the learners manage to identify the lacking

and to analyse the perspective of new experience

Kolb’s learning cycle: It is from Kolb’s learning cycle (1984) that the theory of

learning developed. There are four stages being cycled every time in this theory. Those are

concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization and active

experimentation. The first stage is having experience on which college stresses. In the second

stage, the instructors review their experience. Thirds stage, the instructors, conclude learning,

and in the last step, they plan to reverse the planning. College follows the Kolb’s learning

style to evaluate the learner’s performance and give feedback about what is supposed to be

corrected (Bilyk 2010). To its favour, this model enables effective group learning. Besides,

parameters of knowledge increase due to cultural diversity.

Furthermore, there is Gibs reflective cycle. This model helps the learner to make

sense of their experiences and enable them to evaluate those said experiences and adapt

behaviours as required. It is a simples and systematic process that encourages clear

description and evaluation of or situations. experiences

5.2) Application of Theories and Models of Reflection and Evaluation in Reviewing Own

Practice
 THEORIES, PRINCIPLES, AND MODELS IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING 16

The reflective cycle model explains feelings, and helps the learners to make sense of

experiences that they face. The approach is systematic and simple to adapt as it encourages

evaluation in different learning experiences. The model has however been criticized since it

does not ask particular questions in a learning context. The discussed models enable a better

and more profound level of self-evaluation, and remembering past events. Schon’s theory

helps both the learner, and the teachers to take control of situations whenever they occur.

Therefore, learners find it easy to develop their skills, and to start reflecting on the things that

they have comprehended (Moon 2013).

Most of these models have similar content because they help to evaluate past

experiences. Schon’s approach is most appropriate because it is systematic, and it relates

learners’ behaviour to their skills. Finlay (2008) asserts that the model accounts for both

reflection during and after the event, this enables more in-depth reflection and teaches

learners to take control of situations as they are occurring and develop the skills to be able to

think on one’s feet. However, reflection in action is seen as a process for professional’s self-

evaluation as it requires greater skill to achieve, for our learners the are just starting on this

process so it is unlikely that they will be able to achieve the deeper levels of reflection.

Nevertheless, it is a model that can be used to help learners

Scaffold questioning: Scaffolding is a technique by which the students are geared

toward the better understanding and strength of knowledge. Following this technique, the

learners can get freedom in terms of acquiring knowledge. In analysing personal experience,

the learners can focus on the analysis of personal experience. This is a self-generated skills

and weakness report where learners invent the way to progress in their capability.

Under formal course evaluation, the learners can create a formal book where they

gauge their performance in every course or training. The accurate evaluation depends on the

learner’s efficiency and capturing power. On the other hand, identifying ways to adapt,
 THEORIES, PRINCIPLES, AND MODELS IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING 17

Learners can have to go through a new environment where they have to choose the adapting

way because college is the institution only which they can show the path, but cannot make

the learners do in favour of him.

Conclusion

Overall, learning theories are applied to enhance the comprehension of students as

they take different courses. The research paper has discussed methods of learning, preference,

communication, assessment, reflection, and evaluation. Also, it has provided the different

ways that each theory can be applied by learners and teachers to enhance growth.
 THEORIES, PRINCIPLES, AND MODELS IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING 18

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