Dunder Methods or Magic

Functions

Magic functions (also called "dunder methods") are special predefined

methods in Python classes that start and end with double underscores (
__). They allow you to define how objects of a class behave in various
situations.

Origin of Magic Functions

Magic functions are built into Python's object-oriented programming (OOP)
model. They are inherited from the base object class, which means every class
in Python automatically has access to these methods. When you create a new
class, you're essentially extending the base object class.

How Classes Obtain Magic Functions

python
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# Every class implicitly inherits from object
class MyClass:# This is equivalent to class MyClass(objec
t):
pass

Key Magic Functions (Non-Operator)

1. Initialization and Representation

__init__(self)
Constructor method called when creating an object

Used to initialize object attributes

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 python
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class Student:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

__str__(self)
Defines string representation of the object

Called by str() function and print()

python
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def __str__(self):
return f"Student: {self.name}, Age: {self.age}"

__repr__(self)
Provides a detailed string representation

Used for debugging and development

Typically shows how to recreate the object

python
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def __repr__(self):
return f"Student(name='{self.name}', age={self.age})"

2. Comparison Magic Functions

__eq__(self, other)
Defines equality comparison ( == )

Compares object attributes

Dunder Methods or Magic Functions 2

 python
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def __eq__(self, other):
if not isinstance(other, Student):
return False
return self.name == other.name and self.age == other.ag
e

__lt__(self, other)
Defines less than comparison ( < )

Useful for sorting objects

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def __lt__(self, other):
return self.age < other.age

3. Container and Sequence Magic Functions

__len__(self)
Returns the length of the object

Used with len() function

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def __len__(self):
return len(self.attributes)# Example

__getitem__(self, key)
Allows indexing or key-based access

Enables iteration-like behavior

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 python
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def __getitem__(self, index):
return self.data[index]

4. Context Management

__enter__(self) and __exit__(self)

Used for context management with with statement

Manage resource allocation and cleanup

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class FileManager:
def __init__(self, filename):
self.filename = filename

def __enter__(self):
self.file = open(self.filename, 'r')
return self.file

def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb):

self.file.close()

Best Practices
1. Implement magic methods to make your classes more Pythonic

2. Be consistent with expected behavior

3. Handle type checking and edge cases

4. Keep implementations simple and intuitive

Complete Example

Dunder Methods or Magic Functions 4

 python
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class Library:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
self.books = []

def __str__(self):
return f"Library: {self.name}"

def __len__(self):
return len(self.books)

def add_book(self, book):

self.books.append(book)

Summary
Magic functions provide special behaviors to classes

They are inherited from the base object class

Implement them to create more powerful and intuitive custom classes

Dunder methods were not a part of programming before Object-Oriented

Programming (OOP). They are specifically a feature of Python's implementation
of OOP, drawing inspiration from earlier object-oriented languages like
Smalltalk and C++.

The concept evolved with Python's development:

Python was created by Guido van Rossum in the late 1980s

Early versions of Python (pre-1.0) did not have comprehensive dunder

methods

With Python 2.0 (released in 2000), the protocol for special methods
became more formalized

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 Python 3.x further refined and expanded these methods

The design philosophy behind dunder methods was to:

1. Allow objects to interact with built-in Python functions and operators

2. Provide a consistent way to customize object behavior

3. Enable more intuitive and flexible object-oriented programming

Key milestone: Python 2.2 introduced the concept of "new-style classes" which
significantly expanded and standardized the use of special methods (dunder
methods).

So while the concept of special methods existed in other OOP languages,

Python's implementation of dunder methods as we know them today is
relatively modern, emerging in the late 1990s and early 2000s.

Python Magic Methods Detailed

Breakdown
Object Creation and Initialization
__new__

Called to create a new instance of a class

Called before __init__

Used for controlling instance creation

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class Singleton:
_instance = None
def __new__(cls):
if cls._instance is None:
cls._instance = super().__new__(cls)
return cls._instance

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 __init__
Initialize object attributes

Called after __new__

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class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

__del__
Called when object is about to be destroyed

Used for cleanup tasks

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class FileHandler:
def __del__(self):
print("Object is being deleted")
self.close_resources()

String Representation
__str__
User-friendly string representation

Called by str() and print()

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class Point:
def __str__(self):
return f"Point(x={self.x}, y={self.y})"

__repr__

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 Detailed, unambiguous representation

Used for debugging

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class Point:
def __repr__(self):
return f"Point({self.x}, {self.y})"

Comparison Methods
Comparison Magic Methods
__lt__ : Less than <

__le__ : Less than or equal <=

__eq__ : Equal ==

__ne__ : Not equal !=

__gt__ : Greater than >

__ge__ : Greater than or equal >=

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class Product:
def __init__(self, price):
self.price = price

def __lt__(self, other):

return self.price < other.price

Container and Iteration Methods

__len__
Returns length of object

Used with len()

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 python
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class CustomList:
def __len__(self):
return len(self.items)

__getitem__
Enables indexing

Used with obj[key]

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class CustomDict:
def __getitem__(self, key):
return self.data[key]

__iter__ and __next__

Make object iterable

Used in for loops

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class CountDown:
def __iter__(self):
self.n = 5
return self

def __next__(self):
if self.n > 0:
result = self.n
self.n -= 1
return result
raise StopIteration

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 Arithmetic Operator Methods
Basic Arithmetic
__add__ : Addition +

__sub__ : Subtraction

__mul__ : Multiplication

__truediv__ : Division /

python
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class Vector:
def __add__(self, other):
return Vector(self.x + other.x, self.y + other.y)

Reverse Arithmetic Methods

__radd__ : Right-side addition

Used when left operand doesn't support operation

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def __radd__(self, other):
return self + other# Fallback implementation

Context Management
__enter__ and __exit__
Used with with statement

Manage resource allocation

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class DatabaseConnection:
def __enter__(self):
self.connect()

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 return self

def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb):

self.close()

Conversion and Utility Methods

Type Conversion
__bool__ : Truthiness evaluation

__int__ : Integer conversion

__float__ : Float conversion

python
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def __bool__(self):
return len(self.data) > 0

Numeric Methods
__abs__ : Absolute value

__round__ : Rounding

__floor__ : Floor value

__ceil__ : Ceiling value

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def __abs__(self):
return math.sqrt(self.x**2 + self.y**2)

Advanced Methods
Attribute Handling
__getattr__ : Called for missing attributes

__setattr__ : Attribute setting

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 __delattr__ : Attribute deletion

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def __getattr__(self, name):
return f"Attribute {name} not found"

Asynchronous Methods
Async Context and Iteration
__await__ : Make object awaitable

__aiter__ : Async iteration

__anext__ : Next async item

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async def __aiter__(self):
# Async iteration implementation
pass

Pickling and Copying

__copy__ and __deepcopy__

Control object copying behavior

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def __copy__(self):
return self.__class__(**self.__dict__)

Metaclass and Class Creation Methods

__init_subclass__
Called when class is subclassed

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 python
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def __init_subclass__(cls, **kwargs):
# Custom subclass initialization logic
pass

Special Decorator Methods

__call__

Make object callable like a function

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class Multiplier:
def __call__(self, x):
return x * self.factor

Performance and Memory Methods

__slots__
Declare fixed set of attributes

Reduce memory usage

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class Point:
__slots__ = ['x', 'y']

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