Faculty Name: Dr.

Saibal Manna

KOE-074 RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES 3L:0T:0P 3 Credits

Unit Topics Lectures

Solar Thermal Energy: Solar radiation, flat plate collectors and their
materials, applications and performance, focussing of collectors and
II 8
their materials, applications and performance; solar thermal power
plants, thermal energy storage for solar heating and cooling, limitations.

Introduction
The sun radiates energy uniformly in all directions in the form of electromagnetic waves. It is
clean, inexhaustible, abundantly and universally available source of renewable energy. The
main drawbacks are that it is a dilute form of energy, which is available intermittently and
uncertainly, and not steadily and continuously.
The output of the sun is 2.8×1023 kW/year. The energy reaching the earth is 1.5×1018 kWh/year.
Solar energy can be utilized directly in two ways: (i) by collecting the radiant heat and using it
in a thermal system (ii) by collecting and converting it directly to electrical energy using
photovoltaic system. The former is referred as “solar thermal” and the letter as “solar
photovoltaic system”.
Solar energy is also used by various well-known natural effects and appears in nature in some
other forms of energy. These are indirect forms of solar energy. Thus, solar energy is the mother
of all forms of energy: conventional or non-conventional, renewable or non-renewable, the
only exception being nuclear energy. Various sources of energy find their origin in the sun, as
mentioned below:
1) wind energy 2) biomass energy 3) tidal energy 4) ocean wave energy 5) ocean thermal
energy 6) fossil fuels and other organic chemicals 6) hydro energy

IRRADIANCE AND IRRADIATION

The term irradiance is defined as the measure of power density of sunlight received at a location
on the earth and is measured in W/m2.
Irradiation is the measure of energy density of sunlight and is measured in kWh/m2. It is
denoted by the symbol H.

EXTRATERRESTRIAL AND TERRESTRIAL RADIATIONS [AKTU

2021-22]
Solar radiation incident on the outer atmosphere of the earth is known as extra-terrestrials
radiations, Iext.
The solar constant, Isc is defined as the energy received from the sun per unit time, on a unit
area of surface perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the radiation at the top of the
atmosphere and at the earth’s mean distance from the sun. The World Radiation Center (WRC)
has adopted the value of the solar constant is 1367 W/m2. This has been accepted universally
as a standard value of solar constant.

1
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

The extraterrestrial radiation deviates from solar constant value due to two reasons. The first is
the variation in the radiation emitted by sun itself. The variation due to this reason is less than
±1.5% with different periodicities. The second is the variation of the earth-sun distance arising
from the earth’s slightly elliptic path. The variation due to this reason is ±3% and is given by
&'()
𝐼!"# = 𝐼$% #1 + 0.033𝑐𝑜𝑠 , &'* -. W/m2

The solar radiation that reaches the earth surface after passing through the earth’s atmosphere
is known as terrestrial radiation. The term solar insolation is defined as the solar radiation
received on a flat horizontal surface on the earth.
The positions of extraterrestrial and terrestrial regions are indicated in Fig.1.

Fig.1. Propagation of solar radiation through the atmosphere

SPECTRAL ENERGY DISTRIBUTION OF SOLAR RADIATION
Solar radiation covers a continuous spectrum of electromagnetic radiation in a wide frequency
range. About 99% of the extraterrestrial radiation has wavelengths in the range from 0.2 to 4
µm with maximum spectral intensity at 0.48 µm (green portion of visible range). About 6.4%
of extraterrestrial radiation energy is contained in the ultraviolet region (λ < 0.38 µm); another
48% is contained in the visible region (0.38 µm < λ <0.78 µm) and the remaining 45.6% is
contained in the infrared region (λ > 0.78 µm). There is almost complete absorption of short-
wave radiation in range (λ < 0.29 µm) and infrared radiation in range (λ > 2.3 µm) in the
atmosphere. Thus, from the point of view of terrestrial application of solar energy, the radiation
only in the range of wavelengths between 0.29 and 2.2 µm is significant. The spectral solar
2
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

irradiation distribution, both for extraterrestrial and terrestrial radiation shown in Fig. 2. The
areas under these curves indicate the total radiation intensities in W/m2 respectively for
extraterrestrial and terrestrial regions.

Fig. 2. Spectral solar irradiation, exterrestrial and terrestrial

DEPLETION OF SOLAR RADIATION

The earth’s atmosphere contains various gaseous constituents suspended dust and other minute
solid and liquid particulate matter. These are air molecules, oxygen, CO2, CO, nitrogen, water
vapour, dust and water droplets.
1. Absorption
The absorbed radiation increases the energy of the absorbing molecules, thus raising their
temperatures.
(a) Nitrogen, molecular oxygen and other atmospheric gases absorb the X-rays and
extreme ultraviolet radiations.

(b) Ozone absorbs a significant amount of ultraviolet radiation in the range (λ < 0.29 µm).
(c) Water vapour and CO2 absorb almost completely the infrared radiation in the range (λ
> 0.29 µm) and deplete to some extent the near infrared radiation below this range.

(d) Dust particles and air molecules also absorb a part of solar radiant energy, irrespective
of wavelength.

3
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

2. Scattering
Scattering by dust particles and air molecules involves redistribution of incident energy. A part
of the scattered radiation is reflected back to the space and the remaining is directed downwards
to the earth’s surface from different directions as diffuse radiation.
In a cloudy atmosphere,
• Major part of incoming solar radiation is reflected back into the atmosphere by the
clouds.
• Another path is absorbed by the clouds
• The rest is transmitted downwards to the earth surface as diffused radiation.
The energy reflected back to the space by
i. Reflection from the clouds
ii. Scattering by the atmospheric gases and dust particles
iii. By reflection from the earth’s surface is called the albedo of the earth-atmosphere
system and has a value of about 30% of the incoming solar radiation for earth as a
whole.
Thus, on the surface of the earth, we have two components of solar radiation:
(a) Direct or Beam Radiation: Solar radiation propagating in straight line and received at
the earth surface without change of direction, i.e. in line with the sun is called beam or
direct radiation.
(b) Diffused Radiation: Solar radiation scattered by aerosols, dust and molecules is known
as diffused radiation. It does not have unique direction.
Global Radiation: The sum of beam and diffused radiation is referred as total or global
radiation.

The radiation available on the earth’s surface is less that what is received outside the earth’s
atmosphere and this reduction in intensity depend on the atmospheric conditions and the
distance travelled by beam radiation through the atmosphere before it reaches a location on the
earth’s surface. The latter factor in turn depends on solar altitude. The path length of a solar
beam through the atmosphere is accounted for in the term air mass, which is defined as the
ratio of the path length through the atmosphere, which the solar beam actually traverses up to
the ground to the vertical path length (which is minimum) through the atmosphere. Thus at sea
level the air mass is unity when the sun is at its zenith (highest position), i.e., when the
inclination angle α is 90 degrees. Mathematically
Path length traversed by beam radiation
Air mass, m =
vertical path lenth of atmosphere

4
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

Fig.3. Direction of sun’s ray with respect to atmosphere

From Fig. 3.
+,
𝑚= -,
= 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝜃. = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼 as 𝜃. + 𝛼 = 90(

Where α is the inclination angle and 𝜃. is the zenith angle.

MEASUREMENTS OF SOLAR RADIATION

I. Pyranometer
It is designed to measure global radiation, usually on horizontal surface, but can also be used
on an inclined surface.
II. Pyrheliometer
It measures beam radiation by using a long narrow tube to collect only beam radiation from the
sun at normal incidence.
III. Sunshine Recorder
It measures the sunshine hours in a day.

5
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DIRECT RADIATION AND DIFFUSE

RADIATION [AKTU 2017-18]
Direct Radiation Diffuse Radiation
Definition It is used to describe solar radiation It describes the sunlight that has
travelling on a straight line from the been scattered by molecules and
sun down to the surface of the earth. particles in the atmosphere but
that has still made it down to the
surface of the earth.
Scattering No scattering Scattering can be observed
Path of Certain and direct Uncertain and indirect
radiation
Direction Definite direction Scattered directions
Absorption by No absorption occurs Absorption occurs by the
atmosphere particles in the atmosphere.

SOLAR RADIATION DATA

The radiation data are mostly measured on a horizontal surface. Typical records of global and
diffused radiation versus solar time on a horizontal surface for a clear day and partially cloudy
day are shown in Fig. 4.

(a) Clear days (b) Cloudy days

Fig.4. Daily variation of global and diffuse radiation on horizontal surface

SOLAR TIME (LOCAL APPARENT TIME) [AKTU 2015-16]

Solar time is measured with reference to solar noon, which is the time when the sun is crossing
the observer’s meridian. At solar noon, the sun is at the highest position in the sky. The sun
traverses each degree of longitude in 4 minutes. The standard time is converted to solar time
by incorporating two corrections, as follows,
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 ± 4(𝐿$# − 𝐿/0% ) + 𝐸
Where 𝐿$# and 𝐿/0% are the standard longitude used for measuring standard time of the country
and the longitude of the observer’s location respectively.
The +ve is used if the standard meridian of the country lies in the western hemisphere with
reference to the prime meridian and –ve if that lies in the eastern hemisphere.
E is the correction arising out of the variation in the length of the solar day due to variations in
the earth’s rotation and orbital revolution and is called the equation of time.

6
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

E can be determined either by using the following equation or from the chart given in Fig.
𝐸 = 9.87 sin 2𝐵 − 7.53 cos 𝐵 − 1.5 sin 𝐵
&'(
Where 𝐵 = ,&'1- (𝑛 − 81)

n= day of the year, starting from 1st January.

SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
(a) Latitude (Angle of Latitude), (ϕ): The latitude of a location on the earth’s surface is the
angle made by the radial line joining the given location to the centre of the earth with its
projection on the equator plane as shown in Fig.5(a).

(b) Declination (𝛿) : It is defined as the angular displacement of the sun from the plane of the
earth equator as shown in Fig.5(b). It is determined from the equation:

&'(
𝛿 = 23.45 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 #&'* (284 + 𝑛). degree
where n is day of the year counted from 1st January.

Fig. 5. Latitude and declination angle

Fig.6. Variations in suns declination

7
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

Example: Calculate the angle of declination for 7th may of a leap year? [AKTU 2021-22]
n = 31+29+31+30+7 = 128
360
𝛿 = 23.45 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 a (284 + 128)c = 16.96
365

(c) Hour angle (𝜔): It is the angle representing the position of the sun with respect to clock
hour and with reference to the sun’s position at 12 noon. It is constant and equal to 15 ̊/hr.
It can be calculated as:
𝜔 = [𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 − 12: 00](𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠) × 15 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒

Fig. 7. Hour angle

(d) Inclination Angle (α): The angle between the sun’s ray and its projection on a horizontal
surface is known as the inclination angle as shown in below figure.
(e) Zenith Angle (𝜃. ): It is the angle between the sun’s ray and the perpendicular to the
horizontal plane.
(f) Solar Azimuth Angle (𝛾$ ) : It is the angle on a horizontal plane, between the line due south
and the projection of the sun’s ray on the horizontal plane. It is taken +ve when measured
from south towards west.

Fig. 8. Solar altitude angle, solar azimuth angle and zenith angle

8
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

(g) Tilt Angle (𝛽): Is the angle between the inclined plane surface (collector), under
consideration and the horizontal. It is taken positive for the surface sloping towards south.
(h) Surface Azimuth Angle (γ): It is the angle in the horizontal plane, between the line due
south and the horizontal projection of the normal to the inclined plane surface (collector).
(i) Angle of Incidence (𝜃2 ): It is the angle between the sun’s ray incident on the plane surface
(collector) and the normal to the surface.

Fig.9. Surface azimuth angle and slope

Fig.10. Angle of latitude, tilt angle, angle of incidence

SOLAR DAY LENGTH [AKTU 2015-16]

At sunrise, the sun’s rays are parallel to the horizontal surface. Hence, the angle of
incidence 𝜃2 = 𝜃2 = 90, The Hour angle is represented by
𝜔$ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 34 (−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿)
The angle between sunrise and sunset is given by
2𝜔$ = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 34 (−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿)

9
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

Since 15 deg. of hour angle is equivalent to one hour duration, the duration of sunshine
hours (𝑡5 ) or daylight hours is given by
2
𝑡5 = o p 𝑐𝑜𝑠 34 (−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿)
15
The variation of 𝑡5 with latitude (ϕ) for different days (n) of the year is shown in below
Fig. 11.

Fig. 11. Variation of sunshine hours with latitude

EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS FOR ESTIMATING SOLAR RADIATION

ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE
• The correlation for estimating monthly average daily total (global) radiation on a horizontal
surface can be given as
rrrr
𝐻6 𝑛r
= 𝑎+𝑏o p
rrrr
𝐻0 𝑁u

where
rrrr
𝐻6 = monthly average, daily total radiation on a horizontal surface at a location
rrrr
𝐻0 = monthly average, daily extraterrestrial radiation that would fall at the location on a
horizontal surface (in the absence of an atmosphere)
𝑛r = monthly average, daily hours of bright sunshine obtained from actual records at the location
(i.e., bright sunshine hours)
u = monthly average of maximum possible daily hours of sunshine (i.e., the day length of the
𝑁
average day of the month)
a, b = regression parameters are constant for a particular location and obtained by fitting data

24 360𝑛
𝐻0 = 3600 × 𝐼$% a1 + 0.033 𝑐𝑜𝑠 o pc (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔$ + 𝜔$ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿)
𝜋 365

10
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

Example: Calculate the angle of declination for 7th may?

n = 31+28+31+30+7 = 127
360
𝛿 = 23.45 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 a (284 + 127)c = 16.68
365

Example: Calculate the angle of declination for 7th April?

n = 31+28+31+7 = 97
360
𝛿 = 23.45 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 a (284 + 97)c = 6.377
365
Example: Calculate the angle of declination for 15th Feb?
n = 31+15 = 46
360
𝛿 = 23.45 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 a (284 + 46)c = −13.29
365

Example: Calculate the number of daylight hours (sunshine hours) in Srinagar on January 1.
The latitude of Srinagar is 34 ̊ 05’ N.
n=1
360
𝛿 = 23.45 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 a (284 + 1)c = −23.01
365

2 2
𝑡5 = o p 𝑐𝑜𝑠 34 (−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿) = o p 𝑐𝑜𝑠 34 (− tan(34.083) tan(−23.01)) = 9.77ℎ
15 15

Example: Calculate the number of daylight hours (sunshine hours) in Srinagar on July 1. The
latitude of Srinagar is 34 ̊ 05’ N.
n=182
360
𝛿 = 23.45 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 a (284 + 182)c = 23.12
365

2 2
𝑡5 = o p 𝑐𝑜𝑠 34 (−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿) = o p 𝑐𝑜𝑠 34 (− tan(34.083) tan(23.12)) = 14.24ℎ
15 15

11
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

Example: Estimate the monthly average of the daily global radiation on a horizontal surface
at agra (27 ̊ 10´, 78 ̊ 05´ E) during the month of January, if the average sunshine hour per day
is 7h. Consider a= 0.25 and b= 0.57
Solution:

12
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

MONTHLY AVERAGE DAILY DIFFUSED RADIATION

rrrr
𝐻 5
rrrr
𝐻 6
= 1.354 − 1.570 w x
rrrr
𝐻 6
rrrr0
𝐻

where
rrrr
𝐻5 = monthly average, daily diffused radiation on a horizontal surface at a location
Example: From the data given in previous example, estimate the monthly average of the daily
diffused and beam radiations on a horizontal surface.
Solutions:

13
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

SOLAR COLLECTOR
Ø Solar collectors are used to collect the solar energy and convert the incident radiations
in the thermal energy by absorbing them.

Ø This heat is absorbed by flowing fluid in the tube of collector.

Ø The heat-transport fluid delivers this heat to a thermal storage tank/ boiler/ heat
exchanger to be utilized in the subsequent stages of the system.

Classification [AKTU 2016-17, 2021-22]

Fig. 12. Types of solar collectors

Comparison of concentrating and non-concentrating types (flat-plate

type) of solar collector [AKTU 2017-18]
Flat Plate Solar Collector Concentrating Solar Collector
1. The collector area is equal to the 1. The collector area is very large
absorber area. sometimes hundreds of times more than
that of the absorber area.
2.It absorb both beam as well as diffused 2. It mainly make use of the beam radiation
radiation. component.
3. The intensity of insolation is small 3. The intensity of insolation is very large.
4. The working fluid in this type of 4. The working fluid in this type of
collector does not attain a high temperature. collector attains very high temperature.
5. There is no use of mirrors and lenses to 5. For focusing the sun’s radiation, an
concentrate the sun’s ray. arrangement of lenses and mirrors is
designed.
6. The efficiency is low. 6. The efficiency is high.
7. These collectors are cheaper 7. These collectors are expensive

14
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

PERFORMANCES INDICES
i. Collector efficiency: It is the ratio of energy actually absorbed and transferred to the
heat-transport fluid by the collector to the energy incident on the collector.

ii. Concentration ratio (CR): It is defined as the ratio of the area of aperture of the system
to the area of the receiver. The aperture of the system is the projected area of the
collector facing the beam.

iii. Temperature range: It is the range of temperature to which the heat-transport fluid is
heated up by the collector.

A. FLAT-PLATE COLLECTOR: [AKTU 2016-17, 2017-18, 2021-22]

Ø It is simplest in design and absorbs direct and diffused radiations both and converts it into
useful heat.
Ø No optical system is utilized to concentrate the solar radiation and hence the CR is 1.
Ø The temperature range is less than 100 ̊C
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Less maintenance requires 1. Larger heat losses by conduction and
2. Utilizes the both beam as well as radiation
diffuse radiation for heating 2. No tracking of sun
3. Low water temperature is achieved.

A.1. Liquid Flat-plate Collector

Ø A flat plate collector is placed at a location in a position such that its length aligns with
the line of longitude and is suitably tilted towards south to have maximum collection.

Fig. 13. Positioning of flat-plate collector

15
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

Working:
ü As solar radiation strikes on a specially treated metallic absorber plate, it is absorbed
and raises the plates temperature.
ü The heat is transferred to the heat-transfer liquid circulating in the tube, beneath the
absorber plate and in intimate contact with it.
ü In the bottom and along the side walls, thermal insulation provided by a thick layer of
glass wool prevents heat loss from rear surface and sides of the collector.
ü The glass cover permits the entry of solar radiation as it is transparent for incoming
short wavelengths but is largely opaque to the longer infrared radiation reflected from
the absorber.
ü As a result, the heat remains trapped in the airspace between the absorber plate and
glass cover in a manner similar to a green house.
ü The glass cover may reflect 15% of incoming solar radiation, which can be reduced by
applying anti-reflective coating on the outer surface of the glass.

Fig. 14. Construction of flat plate collector

Fig. 15. Construction of flat plate collector

16
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

Efficiency:
The instantaneous collector efficiency of a flat-plate solar collector is defined as follows:
𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑞7
𝜂2 = =
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐴8 𝐼9

Where
𝐼: = total radiation on an inclined plane surface
𝐼; & 𝐼5 =hourly beam & diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface respectively.
𝑟; , 𝑟5 & 𝑟9 are known as tilt factor for beam, diffuse and reflected components respectively.

17
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

18
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

The typical value of the overall loss coefficient is in the range of 2 to 10 kW/m2-K.

A modified equation in which the plate temperature Tpm is placed by the local fluid temperature
Tf (temperature of fluid flowing in the tubes) can also be obtained as follows:

19
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

For a properly designed flat-plate collector, an instantaneous efficiency of the order of 50-
60% may be achieved.

EFFECT OF VARIOUS PARAMETERS ON PERFORMANCE

i. Selective Surface: High value of absorptivity for incoming solar radiation and low
value of emissivity for outgoing re-radiation are called selective surface. Such surface
is desirable because they maximize the net energy collection. Example: copper oxide,
nickel black and black chrome.

ii. Number of Covers: with increase in the number of covers, the flux absorbed by
absorber plate decreases. The value of heat loss from the absorber plate also decrease.
However, the amount of decrease is not the same in both cases. Maximum efficiency is
obtained with one or two covers.

iii. Spacing: Heat loss also varies with spacing between two covers and that between the
absorber plate and first cover. Spacing in the range from 4 to 8 cm is normally
suggested.

iv. Collector Tilt: Flat plate collector are normally used in a fixed position and do not
track the sun. Therefore, the tilt angle at which they are fixed is very important.
Optimum tilt depends on the nature of the application. The usual practice is to
recommended a value of (ϕ +10 ̊) or (ϕ +15 ̊) for winter applications (water heating,
space heating) and (ϕ -10 ̊) or (ϕ -15 ̊) for summer applications (absorption refrigeration
plat etc.).

v. Dust on the Top of the cover: When dust gets accumulated over collector, it reduces
the transmitted flux through the cover. This required continuous cleaning of the cover,
which is not possible in a practical situation. For this reason, it is recommended to use
some correction factor. In general, a correction factor from 0.92 to 0.99 seems to be
indicated.

A.2. Flat-Plate Air-Heating Collector (Solar Air Heater, Solar Air Collector) [AKTU
2018-19]
• Almost working and construction is similar to the liquid heating collector.
• Main difference is that tubes are not attached with absorber plate.
• Fins are attached with absorber plate. It is used to increase the contact area.
• As an insulation mineral wool is used which maintain the heat.
Working:
• When radiation strikes on the plate. Absorber plate absorbed the heat from the radiation.
• Since, Fins are attached with the absorber plate, so Fins also heated.
• When air flow along Fins. Air is heated due to high temperature.
• And we used that hot air for general purpose.

20
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

Fig. 16. flat-plate air heating collector

Fig. 17. Various types of flat-plate air heating collector

Advantages: (Over liquid flat-plate collector)
1. It is compact, simple in construction and requires little maintenance.
2. Air is used directly as the working fluid.
3. Corrosion is completely eliminated.
4. Leakage of air from the duct is less severe.
5. Possibility of freezing of working fluid is also eliminated.
6. The pressure inside the collector does not become very high.

21
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

Disadvantages:
1. Heat transfer between the absorber plate and air is poor.
2. There is less storage of thermal energy due to low heat capacity.
Evacuated Tube Collector:
• The performance of a flat-plate collector can be improved by suppressing or reducing the
heat lost from the collector by convection and conduction.
• This is done by having vacuum around the absorber.
• As a consequence, it becomes essential to use a glass tube as the cover because only a
tubular surface is able to with stand the stresses introduced by the pressure differences as a
result of vacuum.
• The collector consists of a number of long tubular modules stacked together.

Fig. 18. Various designs of evacuated tube collectors

NON-FOCUSING TYPE COLLECTORS [AKTU 2017-18]
A. Modified Flat-Plat Collector (Flat-plate collector with Booster Mirrors)

Ø By providing plane reflectors at the edges of a flat plate collector to reflect additional
radiation into the receiver, the concentration of solar radiation can be increased. These
mirrors are also called booster mirrors.
Ø Such a design (V-though) is aligned in the east-west direction and required periodic tilt
adjustment.
Ø These collectors utilize direct and diffuse both type of radiations and achieved fluid
temperature higher by 30 deg. Celsius than in Flat plat collector.
Ø The concentration ratio achieved from this collector is in the range of 4.

22
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

Fig. 19. Modified flat-plate collector

B. Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC):

v It consists of two parabolic mirror segments, attached to a flat receiver.

v It collects both direct and diffuse solar radiation with high acceptance angle and
requires occasional tracking.
v The temperature attained in the range from 100-150 ̊ C. However, temperature up to
200 ̊ C can be achieved using evacuated type of tubular absorber.
v The concentration ratio achieved from this collector is in the range of 3-7.

Fig. 20. Compound Parabolic Concentrator

FOCUSING TYPE COLLECTORS:
C. Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator

ü It consists of a cylindrical parabolic trough reflector and a metal tube receiver at its focal
line as shown in Fig.21.
ü The receiver tube is blackened at the outside surface to increase absorption.
ü It is rotated about one axis to track the sun.
ü This type of collector may be oriented in any one of the three directions: east-west, north-
south or polar.
ü The concentration ratio achieved from this collector is in the range of 5-30.

23
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

Fig. 21. Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator

D. Fixed-Mirror Solar Concentrator

§ The concentrator consists of fixed mirror strips arranged on a circular reference cylinder
with a tracking receiver tube.
§ The receiver tube is made to rotate about the centre of curvature of the reflector module to
track the sun.
§ The image width at the absorber is ideally the same as the projected width of a mirror
element; the concentration ratio is the same as the number of mirror strip.

E. Linear Fresnel Lens Collector

• In this collector, a Fresnel lens, which consists of fine, linear grooves on the surface of the
refracting material on one side and flat on the other side, is used.
• The angle of each groove is designed to make the optical behaviour similar to a spherical
lens.
• The beam radiation, which is incident normally, converges on the focal line, where a
receiver tube is provided to absorb the radiation.
• A concentration ratio of 10 to 30 may be realized which yields temperature between 150 to
300 ̊ C.

Fig. 22. Linear Fresnel Lens Collector

F. Paraboloidal Dish Collector

o When a parabola is rotated about its optical axis, a paraboloidal shape is produced.
o Beam radiation is focused at a point in the paraboloidal.
o This requires two-axis of tracking.
o It can have a concentration ratio ranging from 10 to few thousands and can yield a
temperature up to 3000 ̊ C.

24
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

Fig. 23. Paraboloidal Dish Collector

SOLAR THERMAL POWER PLANT

A solar power plant converts solar energy into electrical energy. They can be divided into
following categories:
1. Low temperature solar power plant using flat plate collectors
2. Medium temperature solar power plant using concentrated solar collectors
3. High temperature solar power plant using tower system.
1. Low Temperature Solar Power System
• The low temperature solar power plants use the working fluid temperatures in the range of
600 ̊C to 1000 ̊C which can be obtained using flat plate collectors.
• Since the water can be only heated 800 ̊C in FPC, the systems needs to use a working fluid
having low boiling temperature like butane gas.
• The cold water is circulated into the collector with the help of a circulating pump.
• The heated water is circulated in a heat exchanger called butane boiler, where it generates
the butane gas at high pressure. This butane gas supplied to a butane turbine to produce
mechanical power due to expansion of butane gas.
• The vapour coming out of the turbine is condensed in a condenser and sent back for
recirculation with the help of feed pump.
• The mechanical power output of turbine is converted into electric power by generator.

25
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

Fig. 24. Working of low temperature solar power plant

2. Medium Temperature Solar Power System
o These systems employ an array of parabolic through concentrating collectors spread over
a large area.
o The general range of working temperature is between 2500 C to 4000 C.
o The working fluid, usually water, is heated as it circulates through the receivers.
o This heat is transferred to storage tank and fed to water where the steam is generated in
the steam generator.
o This steam is utilized to run a turbine coupled to a electric generator, which converts it
into electrical energy by electro-mechanical energy conversion.
o The exhaust of steam turbine is condensed in the condenser with the help of cold water
circulated in the condenser.
o A 30 MW plant have been installed in Rajasthan under the department of non-
conventional energy sources.

Fig. 25. Medium temperature solar power plant

26
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

3. High Temperature Solar Power System

v Such plants use heliostatsand have high thermal efficiency, can build in the capacity of
50 MW to 200 MW.
v The solar dish collectors receive solar radiations which are collected at a common
focusing point. Small volumes of the fluid are heated at this point high temperature.
v In central tower receiver an array of plane mirrors called heliostats which are
individually controlled and tracked to reflect the solar radiations on a receiver kept on a
tower of tower of about 500 m height.
v The feed water in the absorber-receiver called boiler is converted into high steam of
about 600 ̊C- 700 ̊C.
v This steam is supplied in a conventional steam power plant coupled to an electric
generator to generator electrical power.

Fig. 26. Central tower receiver power plant using heliostats

SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM

A solar thermal system is use to convert solar energy into other forms of energy which may be
utilized for various applications like:
1. Heating water for domestic use and for swimming pools; 2. Heating and cooling of buildings;
3. Day lighting of buildings; 4. Cooking food; 5. Solar distillation (water treatment etc); 6.
Electricity generation; 7. Powering earth satellites etc.

27
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

SOLAR WATER HEATER

Ø A tilted flat-plate solar collector with water as a heat-transfer fluid is used.
Ø A thermally insulated hot-water storage tank is mounted above the collector.
Ø The heated water of the collector rises up to the hot water tank and replaces an equal
quantity of cold water, which enters the collector.
Ø The cycle repeats, resulting in all the water of the hot water tank getting heated up.
Ø When hot water is taken out from the hot water outlet, the same is replaced by cold water
from the cold-water make up tank fixed above the hot water tank.
Ø The scheme is known as passive heating scheme, as water is circulated in the loop naturally
due to thermos-siphon action.
Ø When the collector is fixed above the level of the hot-water tank, a pump is required to
induce circulation of water in the loop and the scheme will be known as active or forced
solar thermal system.
Ø An auxiliary electrical emersion heater may be used as a back-up for use during cloudy
periods.
Example:
§ A typical 100 litres per day rooftop solar water heater costs approx. Rs. 18K-21.9K (year
2008) and delivers water at 60-80̊ C. It has a life span of 10-12 years and a payback period
of 2-6 years.

Fig. 27. Solar water heater

SOLAR PASSIVE SPACE-HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS

[AKTU 2018-19]
§ Passive systems do not require any mechanical device and make use of the natural process
of convection, radiation and conduction for transport of heat.
§ Use of passive heating/cooling systems puts restriction on the building design to make
possible the flow of heat naturally.
§ Such a specially designed building is called a solar house.

ü Active heating/cooling systems employ mechanical devices, e.g. pumps, blowers etc., to
circulate the working fluid for transportation of heat.

28
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

ü Therefore, a special building design is not necessary as required in the case of passive
heating.
ü Nevertheless, careful building design and insulation is desirable and will be less expensive
than an additional heating/cooling load due to poor design.
Solar Passive Space-Heating System:
Convection is the process of heat transfer by the bulk movement of molecules within fluids
such as gases and liquids. The initial heat transfers between the object and the fluid takes place
through conduction, but the bulk heat transfer happens due to the motion of the fluid.
Ø A solar passive space-heating system is shown in Fig. 28.
Ø The south-facing thick wall, called Trombe Wall is made of concrete, adobe, stone or
composites of brick blocks and sand, designed for thermal storage.
Ø In order to increase the absorption, the outer surface is painted black.
Ø The entire south wall is covered by one or two sheets of glass or plastic with some air gap
(usually 10-15 cm) between the wall and inner glazing.
Ø Solar radiation after penetration through glazing is absorbed by the thermal storage wall.
Ø The air in the air gap between the glazing and the wall thus gets heated, rises up and enters
the room through the upper vent while cool air from the room replaces it from the bottom
vent.
Ø The circulation of air continues till the wall goes on heating the air.
Ø Thus, the thermal wall collects, stores and transfers the heat to the room.
Ø Heating can be adjusted by controlling the air flow through the inlet and outlet vents by
shutters.
Ø Opening the damper at the top of the gazing allows the excess heat to escape outside, when
heating is not required.

Fig. 28. Solar space heating

Solar Passive Cooling System:
For natural cooling the first and best approach is to reduce unnecessary thermal loads entering
the building. For example:
i. Direct sunlight entering the building, which can be reduces by use of sun breakers or
shading the windows, walls, roofs, etc.

29
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

ii. Conduction of heat through building elements, which can be reduced by proper thermal
insulation
iii. Infiltration of outside warm air, which can be reduced by proper sealing.
The techniques, generally used for passive cooling of the buildings include
I. Shading: This method prevents heating from the direct sun light entering the house.

II. Ventilation: In this method, warm air is driven out and cool outside air is sucked inside
by utilizing the chimney effect.

III. Evaporation: This method is effective in dry regions, where cooling is maintained by
utilizing the internal heat to evaporate water. A pond may be used above a thin roof to
maintain cooling below it. A desert cooler is another example of evaporative cooling.

IV. Radiation: In radiation cooling, black plastic water bags kept over a metal roof are
exposed to the sky at night. Nocturnal radiation cools the water during night. This water
absorbs heat from the space below it and keeps it cool. During daytime, the roof is
covered by a thermal insulating sheet to prevent heating of water due to solar radiation.

V. Ground coupling: This system makes use of the fact that in summer the ground
temperature is always lower than the air temperature. The lower temperature of the
ground can be used for cooling a building by partially sinking it into the ground.

VI. Dehumidification
Solar Passive Cooling Through Ventilation:
• Fig. 29 shows the scheme for solar passive cooling through ventilation.
• This scheme utilizes a solar chimney effect and is effective where outside temperatures are
moderate.
• Solar radiation is allowed to heat up the air between the glazing and the interior south wall.
• The heated air rises up, is ducted outside and the warm air from the room is drawn into the
space due to the natural draught thus produced.
• As a result, cool outside air enters the room from the bottom air vent on the other side of
the room.

Fig. 29. Solar passive cooling through ventilation

30
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

Solar Passive Cooling Through Dehumidification:

Ø In a dehumidification system, the moisture content of the air in the room is reduced and
cooling is maintained by adsorption and evaporation.
Ø The east and west facing walls of a specially designed house are provided with solid
adsorbent materials and water baths.
Ø Air circulation is maintained using a chimney effect as shown in figure.
Ø In the morning when the east wall is heated by solar radiation, the air gets heated, rises up
and is ducted outside.
Ø Due to the natural draught thus produced, air is drawn inside from the west side.
Ø The incoming west-side air first gets dried up by a solid absorbent material, is evaporatively
cooled by passing over water baths and then enters the room.
Ø The hot air going out through the east facing wall regenerates the solid absorbent material.
Ø In the evening when the west wall is heated up by the sun, a reversal of air flow occurs and
the functions of east and west walls reverse.

Fig. 30. Solar passive cooling through dehumidification

SOLAR REFRIGERATION AND AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

[AKTU 2018-19]
Refrigeration is a process of lowering the temperature by removing unwanted heat from the
selected object and transfer the heat to the another object, substant or space.
A. Aqua-Ammonia Absorption Cooling System

• The most commonly used refrigerant in absorption system is ammonia. It is cheap and
readily available and has great affinity with water is used as absorbent and absorbs NH3
very fast.
• The ammonia-water absorption system is used for cooling duties up to -50̊ C. The heat
required in generator is supplied by water heated in FPC.
• Its main components and their working can be explained as:

31
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

Fig. 31. Aqua –Ammonia Absorption Cooling System

Ø Here we have an absorber, inside the absorber we have a solution of NH3+H2O.
Ø The function of pump is to help the solution in circulation.
Ø The basic function of solar collector is to collect more rays from sun and then converted
to heat energy.
Ø The function of generator is to collect heat energy from solar collector through pump
and boil aqua ammonia solution to convert it in vapour form.
Ø When the NH3 and H2O vapour is passed through the analyser, the analyser send back
the water to the generator. Then it only left NH3 vapour.
Ø Then the generator residue H2O vapour passed back to the absorber.
Ø The main function of rectifier is to separate water and ammonia vapour.
Ø The liquid H2O passed back to the generator and ultimately reached to the absorber.
Ø The main function of condenser is to change the phase of vapour refrigerant means
convert it vapour to liquid.
Ø High pressure liquid NH3 converted in low pressure and low temperature liquid NH3
through expansion valve.
Ø The basic function of evaporator is to produce cooling effect by absorbing the space
heat.
Ø The low pressure NH3 vapour leaves the evaporator and enters the absorber.
Advantages:
1. It can provided both air conditioning and refrigeration.
2. The refrigerant has low molecular weight and therefore, a high heat of vaporization.
3. The absorbent (water) is non-toxic and inexpensive.
Disadvantages:
1. As the absorbent (water) is volatile, a rectifier unit is required to separate and drain it
out.

32
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

2. A comparatively high pumping power is required to pump working fluid from absorber
pressure to the generator pressure.
3. Ammonia is inflammable and toxic. Therefore, special precautions are required in its
use.

B. Lithium Bromide (LiBr)-Water Absorption Cooling System

Fig. 32. LiBr absorption refrigeration system

Advantages:
1. The system is comparatively simpler.
2. It works at a comparatively higher coefficient of performance (COP is the ratio of
amount of cooling produced to the energy input)
3. Less pumping power is required due to low pressure.
4. The refrigerant, i.e., water has high latent heat of vaporization
5. LiBr absorbent is non-volatile and therefore, avoids the need of rectifying equipment
which is necessary in an ammonia water cycle.
6. Water-lithium bromide solution is non-toxic.
7. Non-inflammable
Disadvantages:
1. It can be used for air-conditioning only (temperatures not lower than 4 ̊ C).
2. The LiBr-water solution is corrosive.
3. The system works under high vacuum conditions
4. It requires a water-cooled condenser to attain temperatures corresponding to air
conditioning as the refrigerant is water.

33
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

SOLAR COOKERS
A variety of solar cookers have been developed, which can be clubbed in four types of basic
designs (i) box type (ii) dish-type (iii) community solar cooker (iv) advanced solar cooker
i. Box Type Solar Cooker:

ü The construction of the most common box-type solar cooker is schematically shown in Fig.
33.
ü An insulated box of blackened aluminium contains the utensils filled with food materials.
ü The box receives direct radiation and also reflected radiation from the reflector mirror fixed
on the inner side of the box cover hinged to one side of the box.
ü A glass cover consisting of two layers of clear-window glass sheets serves as the box
cooker.
ü The glass covers traps heat due to greenhouse effect.
ü The maximum air temperature obtained inside the box is around 140-160 ̊ C.
ü This is enough for cooking boiling type food stuffs slowly in about 2-3 hours.

Fig. 33. Box Type Solar Cooker

iv. Advanced Solar Cooker
The main disadvantage of the above cooker is that there is no provision for storing thermal
energy, hence, cooking is possible only when the sun is available.
• The cooker is schematically shown in Fig. 34.
• Basically it consists of two parts (a) an outdoor, parabolic cylindrical reflector of a size (b)
an indoor, insulated hot-box reservoir, kept at a level higher than the collector.
• Oil is used as a heat transport fluid from the collector to hot-box reservoir.
• The oil in the receiver tube rises up due to natural convection after absorbing the heat from
the reflector and stores it in the reservoir.
• The reflector has an equatorial mounting with adjustments for seasonal variation of the sun
or an arrangement for automatic solar tracking using a simple clock mechanism.

34
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

• The temperature at the top of the reservoir on sunny day reaches 150 ̊ C and rarely falls
below 100 ̊ C even during night.

Fig. 34. Advanced Solar Cooker

The major reasons for non-acceptability of the solar cooker are:
§ It is too expensive for individual family ownership.
§ It is incompatible with traditional cooking practices.
§ It requires comparatively more time and the menu has to be pre-planned.
§ It is to be used outdoors.
§ Cannot be used during nights and cloudy days (except advanced solar cooker)

SOLAR FURNACES
Ø A solar furnace is an ideal tool to study the chemical. Optical, electrical and thermodynamic
properties of the materials at high temperature.
Ø It is basically an optical system in which solar radiations are concentrated over a small area.
Ø It has two main components (i) a concentrator (b) a single piece of a large sized heliostat
or a system of a large number of small heliostats.
Ø The large number of heliostats direct solar radiation onto a paraboloidal reflector surface.
Ø The heliostats are adjusted such that they direct the radiation parallel to the optical axis of
the paraboloid.
Ø The concentrators focus the incoming rays at the target placed at their foci.

35
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

Fig. 35. Solar Furnace

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. Heating without contamination 1. Their use is limited to sunny days and
2. Easy control of temperature. that too for 4-5 hours only.
3. Simple working 2. Their cost is high.
4. High heat flux obtainable 3. Very high temperatures are obtained
5. Continuous observation possible only over a very small area.
6. Absence of electromagnetic field

SOLAR DRYER
v The drying process removes moisture and helps in the preservation of any product.
v A simple cabinet-type solar dryer is shown in Figure below.
v It is an enclosed with a transparent cover, similar to a greenhouse.
v The material to be dried is placed on perforated trays.
v Solar radiation enters the enclosure and is absorbed by the product as well as the
surrounding internal surfaces of the enclosure, increasing its temperature.
v The inside air heats up to a temperature ranging from 50 to 80 ̊ C, and rises above.
v Natural circulation of air is ensure by providing suitable opening at the bottom and top.
v The circulating air removes the moisture from the product.

Fig. 36. Solar cabinet dryer

36
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

SOLAR DISTILLATION (DESALINATION OF WATER)

q A simple basin-type solar still consists of a shallow blackened basin filled with saline or
blackish water to be distilled.
q The depth of water is kept about 5-10 cm.
q It is covered with a slopey transparent roof.
q Solar radiation, after passing through the roof, is absorbed by the blackened surface of the
basin and thus increases the temperature of the water.
q The evaporated water increases the moisture content, which gets condensed on the cooler
underneath the glass.
q The condensed water slips down the slope and it collected through the condensate channel
attached to the glass.
q The construction is schematically shown in below.

Fig. 37. Simple basin-type solar still

SOLAR POND [AKTU 2021-22]

A solar pond is a pool of salt water which collects and stores solar thermal energy, thereby
proving a sustainable source of heat and power.

q The concept of solar pond is based on the observation that some natural lakes have higher
temperature at bottom where salt concentration is higher.
q The heat of hot brine solution from solar pond is used to evaporated the working substance
at constant pressure in the boiler.
q This vapour is used to run the vapour turbine to produce mechanical power is utilized to
run a generator to produce the electrical power.
q The exhaust of the turbine is condensed in the condenser at constant pressure with the help
of cooling water.
q The condensate is returned to the boiler by a pump. Thus the cycle is repeated.

37
 Faculty Name: Dr. Saibal Manna

Fig. 38. Solar Pond

Fig. 39. Solar pond structure

38