1

Network Analysis
Electronics and Communication
Engineering Department

Jabalpur Engineering College

Jabalpur M.P.
 2 First Order Circuits
A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-order differential equation.
A first-order circuit can only contain one energy storage element (a capacitor or an inductor).
The circuit will also contain resistance. So there are two types of first-order circuits:
 RC circuit
 RL circuit
There are two ways to excite the ckt.
1. By initial conditions of the energy storage elements in the ckt. & these ckts are so
called as Source-free circuit . i.e. energy is initially stored in the Capacitor or
Inductor. The response of these ckts is called as Natural Response.
A source-free circuit is one where all independent sources have been disconnected from
the circuit after some switch action.
The voltages and currents in the circuit typically will have some transient response due to
initial conditions(initial capacitor voltages and initial inductor currents)..
2. The
3 second way of exciting first-order circuits is by independent sources. The
independent sources we will consider are dc sources, sinusoidal and exponential
sources. The response of these ckts is called as Forced Response.
The two types of first-order circuits and the two ways of exciting them add up to the
four possible situations. Which we will see later on.
The natural response or transient response (due to initial conditions of
the energy storing elements present in the ckt. ) is the circuit’s
temporary response that will die out with time.

RESPONSE
The forced response or steady-state response (due to the independent
energy sources ) is the behaviour of the circuit a long time after an
external excitation is applied.
 Applications Modeled by a 1st Order RC Circuit
 Computer RAM
 A dynamic RAM stores ones as charge on a capacitor.
 The charge leaks out through transistors modeled by large resistances.
 The charge must be periodically refreshed.
5 Important Concepts
 The differential equation
 Forced (particular) and natural (complementary) solutions
 The time constant
 Transient and steady-state waveforms

Lt. Sunil K Singh

 6 SOURCE-FREE RC CIRCUITS
A source-free RC circuit occurs when its dc source is suddenly disconnected.
The energy already stored in the capacitor is released to the resistors.
Consider the RC circuit shown.
Note that it is source-free because no sources are connected to the circuit for t > 0.
Use KCL to find the differential equation:
Consider a series combination of a resistor and an initially charged
capacitor, as shown in Fig. (The resistor and capacitor may be the
equivalent resistance and equivalent capacitance of combinations of
resistors and capacitors.) Our objective is to determine the circuit
response
 Assume that at time t = 0, the capacitor has initial voltage is V0
i.e. v(0) = V0
and v(t) is the voltage across capacitor.
Applying KCL at the top node of the circuit in Fig.,
iC + iR = 0
By definition, iC = C dv/dt and iR = v/R.
Thus, 𝑑𝑣 𝑣
𝑐 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
𝑑𝑣 𝑣
or 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
or 𝑑𝑡 This is a first-order differential equation.
Integrating both side
 ln𝑣 𝐴

or ln
/
or 𝑣 𝑡 𝐴𝑒
at t=0, v(0) = V0 =A
then 𝑣 𝑡 𝑉0𝑒 /
𝑣 𝑡 𝑉0𝑒 /𝝉 Where time const. 𝝉 𝑅𝐶
This is natural response of the ckt.
i.e. The natural response of a ckt. refers to the behaviour of the ckt. itself, with no external
sources of excitation.
 Interpretation of 𝜏
 The time constant of a circuit is the time required for the response to decay by a
factor of 1/e or 36.8 percent of its initial value.
 -1/ 𝜏 is the initial slope of an exponential with an initial value of 1.
Implications of the Time Constant
 Should the time constant be large or small:
 Computer RAM
 A sample-and-hold circuit
 An electrical motor
 A camera flash unit
 Slower Decay
Faster Decay
 SOURCE-FREE RL CIRCUITS
A source-free RL circuit occurs when its dc source is suddenly disconnected.
The energy already stored in the inductor is released to the resistors.
Consider the RL circuit shown.
Note that it is source-free because no sources are connected to the circuit for t > 0.
Use KVL to find the differential equation:

Fig. Consider a series combination of a resistor and an

initially charged inductor, as shown in Fig. (The resistor
and inductor may be the equivalent resistance and
equivalent inductance of combinations of resistors and
inductors.) Our objective is to determine the circuit
response
 12 Assume that at time t = 0, the inductor has initial current is I0
i.e. i(0) = I0
Applying KVL in the loop
vL + vR = 0
Thus,
𝑑𝑖
𝐿 𝑅𝑖 0
𝑑𝑡
Or 𝑖 0
𝑑𝑡
Integrating both side
𝑑𝑡
ln𝑖 𝑡 𝑙𝑛𝐼0 𝑡 0
𝑖 𝑡 𝑅
Or 𝑙𝑛
𝐼0 𝐿
𝑡 where time const. 𝝉 𝐿/𝑅
/
𝑖 𝑡 𝐼0𝑒 This is natural response of the ckt
Example:- Given vC(0) = 15 V. Find vC, vx , and ix for t > 0.
Solution:- For time constant 𝝉 𝑅𝑒𝑞. 𝐶
Now 𝑅𝑒𝑞 5II 8 12 4Ω
𝝉 4x(0.1) = 0.4s
𝑣 𝑡 𝑣 0 𝑒 /𝝉
/ .
𝑣 𝑡 15𝑒
.
𝑣 𝑡 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 15𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
For vX Req

.
𝑣𝑥 =12/(12+8)v(t) = 12/20(15𝑒
𝑣𝑥 9𝑒 . 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
.
Finally 𝑖𝑥 𝑡 𝑣𝑥 𝑡 /12 0.75𝑒 𝐴𝑚𝑝
Example- The switch is opens at t = 0, find v(t) for t ≥ 0 and wC(0).
Solution:- For time constant 𝝉 𝑅𝑒𝑞. 𝐶
Now 𝑅𝑒𝑞 4 12 3Ω
𝝉 3x(1/6) = 0.5s
24
𝑣𝐶 0 3 8 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
6 3
/𝝉
𝑣 𝑡 𝑣 0 𝑒
/ .
𝑣 𝑡 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 8𝑒 8𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙t
For wC(0)
wC(0)= ½ CVC2(0)
= 5.33 J
 Example:- Given i(0)=10A.Calulate i(t), ix(t).
Solution:-
For Loop I KVL -I
1
2
Ldi/dt-2ix=0 di/dt=4ix
For Loop II
-3i+4(i+2ix)+2ix=0

Or ix= -1/6 i
di/dt = 4(-1/6)
= -2/3i

𝑑𝑡
i(t) =10 e-2/3tA
Example:-
16 Calculate the current iL .
Solution:-
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡 0 Inductor behave like short ckt.
Total current from voltages source
i = 24/(10 40)=3.0A
Initial current in inductor will 𝑡 0
iL(0)=3x(40/10+40)=2.4A.
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡 0
Req= 10+40 = 50ohm
𝝉 𝐿/𝑅eq= 5/50 = 1/10
/
i(t) = iL(0) 𝑒
= 2.4 𝑒 𝐴
𝑡 0
 STEP RESPONSE OF AN RC CIRCUIT
The step response of a circuit is its behaviour when the excitation is the step
function, which may be a voltage or a current source.
Consider the RC circuit in Fig.(a) which can be replaced by
the circuit in Fig. (b), where Vs is a constant, dc voltage source.
Again, select the capacitor voltage as the circuit response to
be determined.
Assume an initial voltage V0 on the capacitor, although this
(a)
is not necessary for the step response.
Since the voltage of a capacitor cannot change instantaneously,
v(0−) = v(0+) = V0
where v(0−) is the voltage across the capacitor just before
switching and v(0+) is its voltage immediately after switching. (b)
 Applying KCL, we get
𝐶 =0

= 𝑢 𝑡
where v is the voltage across the capacitor.
For t > 0
= , 𝑢 𝑡 =1, for For t > 0

Or 𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑉𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑡
Or
𝑣 𝑉𝑠 𝑅𝐶
Integrating both sides and substituting the initial conditions
 𝑡
ln 𝑣 𝑉𝑠
𝑅𝐶
Or ln{(v(t)-Vs}-ln(V0-Vs) = -t/RC +0
Or ln −
/𝝉
𝑣 𝑉𝑠 𝑉0 𝑉𝑠 𝑒
/𝝉
𝑣 𝑡 𝑉𝑠 𝑉0 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 , t 0
Thus
𝑉0 , 𝑡 0
𝑣 𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 𝑉𝑠 𝑉0 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 /𝝉
, t 0
This is known as the complete response of the RC circuit to a sudden
application of a dc voltage source, assuming the capacitor is
initiallycharged.
The natural response or transient response is the circuit’s temporary response that will
die out with time.
The forced response or steady-state response is the behavior of the circuit a long time
after an external excitation is applied.
The complete response of the circuit is the sum of the natural response and the
forced response. Therefore,

where v(0) is the initial voltage at t = 0+ and v(∞) is the final or steady-state value.
Thus, to find the step response of an RC circuit requires three steps
1. The initial capacitor voltage v(0).
2. The final capacitor voltage v(∞).
3. The time constant τ .
Example:- The switch in Fig. has been in position A for a long time. At t = 0, the switch
moves to B. Determine v(t) for t > 0 and calculate its value at t = 1 s and 4 s.
Solution:- 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡 0 The switch is at position A.
Since v is the same as the voltage across the 5-
kresistor, the voltage across the capacitor just
before t = 0 is obtained by voltage division as

Using the fact that the capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously,

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡 0 The switch is in position B.

The Thevenin resistance connected to the capacitor is RTh = 4 k, and the time constant is

Since the capacitor acts like an open circuit to dc at steady state, v(∞) =30 V.
Thus,
At t = 1,

At t = 4,

Assignment:- Find v(t) for t > 0 in the circuit in Fig.

Assume the switch has been open for a long time and
is closed at t = 0. Calculate v(t) at t = 0.5.
Ans:- −5 + 15e−2t V, 0.5182 V.
Example- In Fig. , the switch has been closed for a long time and is opened at t = 0. Find i and v
for all time.
Solution:- By definition of the unit step function,

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡 0
the switch is closed and 30u(t) = 0, so that the 30u(t)
voltage source is replaced by a short circuit and
should be regarded as contributing nothing to v.
Since the switch has been closed for a long
time, the capacitor voltage has reached steady
state and the capacitor acts like an open circuit.
From circuit we obtain

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡 0
 Since the capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously,
v(0) = v(0-) = 10 V
For t 0 the switch is opened and the 10-V voltage source is disconnected from the circuit.
The 30u(t) voltage source is now operative, so the circuit becomes that shown in Fig.
After a long time, the circuit reaches steady state and the
capacitor acts like an open circuit again.
v(∞) can be obtained by using voltage division,

i is the sum of the current through the 20- resistor and the
capacitor; that is, time constant is
Assignment:- The switch in Fig.is closed at t = 0. Find i(t) and v(t) for all time. Note that
u(−t) = 1 for t < 0 and 0 for t > 0. Also, u(−t) = 1 − u(t).

Assignment:- The switch in Fig. has been closed for a long time. It opens at t = 0. Find i(t)
for t > 0.
 STEP RESPONSE OF AN RL CIRCUIT
Consider the RL circuit in Fig. (a), which may be replaced by
the circuit in Fig.(b).
Again, our aim is to find the inductor current i as the circuit
response.
Let the response be the sum of the natural current and the forced current,
(a)
i=in+if
We know that the natural response is always a decaying exponential,
that is, i = Ae−t/τ, τ= L/R
n
where A is a constant to be determined.
The forced response is the value of the current a long time (b)
Fig. An RL circuit with a
after the switch in Fig.(a) is closed. step input voltage.
We know that the natural response essentially dies out after five time constants.
 At that time, the inductor becomes a short circuit, and the voltage across it is zero.
The entire source voltage Vs appears across R. Thus, the forced response is
if = Vs/R
Substituting in & if , We get the overall response which is given by
i=in+if = Ae−t/τ+Vs/R
Now determine the constant A from the initial value of i.
Let I0 be the initial current through the inductor, which may come from a source other than Vs .
Since the current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously,
i(0+) = i(0−) = I0
Thus at t=0, above equation becomes
I0=A+VS/R
Or A = I0- VS/R
i(t)=in+if = (I0- VS/R)e−t/τ+Vs/R
= Vs/R + (I0- VS/R)e−t/τ This the complete response of RL Circuit
 = Vs/R + (I0- VS/R)e−t/τ This the complete response of RL Circuit

The complete response may also be written as

𝑖 𝑡 𝑖 ∞ +[𝑖 0 𝑖 ∞ 𝑒−t/τ
Where i(0) & 𝑖 ∞ are the initial & final values of i.
Thus for finding the step response of an RL ckt ,we require three things:
1. The initial inductor current i(0) at t = 0+.
2. The final inductor current i(∞).
3. The time constant τ .
We obtain item 1 from the given circuit for t < 0 and items 2 and
3 from the circuit for t > 0.
Once these items are determined, we obtain the response using Eq. of
the complete response of RL circuit. Fig. Total response of the
RL circuit with initial
inductor current I0.
 Again, if the switching takes place at time t = t0 instead of t = 0, Eq. becomes
𝑖 𝑡 𝑖 ∞ +[𝑖 𝑡0 𝑖 ∞ 𝑒−t/τ
If I0 = 0, then

Or This is the step response of the RL circuit.

The voltage across the inductor is
Or

Step responses of an RL circuit with no initial

inductor current: (a) current response, (b) voltage
response.
(a) (b)
 Example:-Find i(t) in the circuit shown in Fig. for t > 0. Assume that the switch has been
closed for a long time.
Solution:- For t < 0,
The 3- resistor is short-ckted, and the inductor acts like a short circuit.
The current through the inductor at t = 0− (i.e., just before t = 0) is
i(0−) = 10/2 = 5 A
Since the inductor current cannot change instantaneously,
i(0) = i(0+) = i(0−) = 5 Ak8
For t > 0, The switch is open. The 2- and 3- resistors are in series, so that
10 & 𝑅𝑒𝑞 2 3 5 Ohm ,
i ∞ 2A ,
2 3
1/3 1
𝜏 𝐿 𝑅 5 Sec
𝑒𝑞 15
𝑖 𝑡 𝑖 ∞ +[𝑖 0 𝑖 ∞ 𝑒−t/τ
= 2+(5-2)e-15t = 2+3e-15tA, t>0
 Example:- At t = 0, switch S1 in Fig. is closed, and switch S2 is closed 4 s later. Find i(t) for t
> 0. Calculate i for t = 2 s and t = 5 s.
Solution:- We need to consider the three time intervals t ≤ 0, 0 ≤ t ≤ 4, and t ≥ 4 separately.
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡 0 Switches S1 and S2 are open so that i = 0.
Since the inductor current cannot change instantly,
i(0−) = i(0) = i(0+) = 0
𝐹𝑜𝑟0 ≤ t ≤ 4
S1 is closed so that the 4-𝜴 and 6- 𝜴 resistors are in series.
Hence, assuming for now that S1 is closed forever,
40
𝑖 ∞ 4 𝐴 , 𝑅𝑒𝑞 4 6 10𝜴 𝜏 1/2 s
4 6
Thus
𝐹𝑜𝑟t ≥ 4 S2 is closed; the 10-V voltage source is connected, and the circuit changes.
This sudden change does not affect the inductor current because the current cannot
change abruptly. Thus, the initial current is
i(4) = i(4−) = 4(1 − e−8) ≅4 A
To find 𝑖 ∞ , 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑣 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑃 𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑖𝑔. 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐾𝐶𝐿
40 𝑣 10 𝑣
𝑣/6 𝑣 180/11𝑉
4 2
𝑣 30 At t = 2,
𝑖 ∞ 2.727 𝐴 , & 𝑅𝑒𝑞 4 2 6 22/3𝜴
6 11
𝜏 15/22 s At t = 5,
/
Hence,

Putting all this together,

Prob.1. In the circuit shown in Fig.

(a) Find the values of R and C.

(b) Calculate the time constant τ .
(c) Determine the time required for the voltage to decay half its initial value at t = 0.
Ans- (a) C= 0.7143μF, R= 7KΩ, (b) τ =1/200= 5 ms, (c) 3.466 ms
Prob2. For the circuit in Fig.
(a) Find R and C (b) Determine the time constant.
(c) Calculate the initial energy in the capacitor.
(d) Obtain the time it takes to dissipate 50 percent of the initial energy.

Ans- (a) C= 5mF, R= 50Ω, (b) τ =1/4= 0.25 s, (c) 250 mJ (d) 86.6 ms
Prob3. In the circuit of Fig., find i(t) for t > 0 if i(0) = 2 A.
Ans-

Prob4. A circuit is described by dt / di + 3i = 2u(t). Find i(t) for t > 0 given that i(0) = 0.
Ans-
Prob5. Consider the circuit in Fig. Find i(t) for t < 0 and t > 0.
Ans-

Prob6. Determine v(t) for t > 0 in the circuit of Fig. if v(0) = 0.

Ans-
 Prob7. Find v(t) for t < 0 and t > 0 in the circuit of Fig.
Ans-

Prob8. For the circuit in Fig., calculate i(t) if i(0) = 0.

Ans-

Prob9. If the input pulse in Fig.(a) is applied to the circuit in Fig.(b), determine the response i(t).

Ans-