Computer Science for Class 12th

Energized Study Material of
Computer Science XII
BY
Mr. Javeed Hassan Sofi (MCA/BEd)

Teacher GMS Brar Bandipora
Mr. Sajad Akbar Rather (MCA/MEd)

I/C ICT DIET Sopore
Mr. Javaid Ahmad Wani (MCA/BEd)

Teacher MS Takiya Batapora Zone Kunzar
A complete energized Study material of Computer

Science for Class XII
Prepared by DSEK and SIE Kashmir
Copyright © 2020 by DSEK, SIE Kashmir
As per Latest Syllabus of JKBOSE

A complete energized Study material of Computer Science for Class XII
Contents
Structure Page No’s
Unit 1: Programing in C++(Review from Class XI) 2

Basics 2
Data Types, Variables & Constants 13
Operators And Expressions 15
Statements 20
Functions in C++ 34
Structured Data type: Arrays 43
User Defined Data Types(Structures) 49
Unit 2: Objected-Oriented Programing in C++ 57

Classes &Objects 57
Constuctor And Destructor 70
Inheritance -Extending Classes 79
Data File Handling In C++ 89
Pointers 99
Unit 3: Data Structures using C++ 111

Stacks, Queues And Linked List 121
Exercise 133
Unit 4: Databases Management System And SQL 135

Syntax of some SQL commands 141
Practice work 146
Unit 5: Boolean Algebra 151

Boolean Algebra & Theorems 151
Basic Logic Gates 163
Exercise 175
Unit 6: COMMUNICATION & OPEN SOURCES CONCEPTS 177

Switching Techniques 180
Data Communication Terminologies 181
Transmission Media 182
Network Security Concepts 198
Web Servers 199
Open Source Terminologies 201
************************
1
Unit 1 (Review C++ covered in Class XI)

Programing in C++
Basics:
Introduction:
This chapter describes the fundamental characteristics of the object oriented C++
programming language. In addition, you will be introduced to the steps necessary
for creating a fully functional C++ program .The examples provided will help you
retrace these steps and also demonstrate the basic structure of a C++ program.
Objectives:
In this Chapter you will learn about:
o Fundamental characteristics of the object oriented C++ programming

language.
o Steps necessary for creating a fully functional C++ program.
o Basic structure of a C++ program.
o Object oriented Concept.
Historical Perspective:
The C++ programming language was created by Bjarne Stroustrup and his team
at Bell Laboratories (AT&T, USA) to help implement simulation projects in an
object-oriented and efficient way. The earliest versions, which were originally
referred to as ―C with classes,‖ date back to 1980. As the name C++ implies, C++
was derived from the C programming language: ++ is the increment operator in C.
As early as 1989 an ANSI Committee (American National Standards Institute) was
founded to standardize the C++ programming language. The aim was to have as
many compiler vendors and software developers as possible agree on a unified
description of the language in order to avoid the confusion caused by a variety of
dialects. In 1998 the ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
approved a standard for C++ (ISO/IEC 14882).
Characteristics of C++:
2
C++ is not a purely object-oriented language but a hybrid that contains the
functionality of the C programming language. This means that you have all the
features that are available in C:
■ Universally usable modular programs
■ Efficient, close to the machine programming
■ Portable programs for various platforms.
The large quantities of existing C source code can also be used in C++ programs.
C++ supports the concepts of object-oriented programming (or OOP for short),
which are:
■ data abstraction, that is, the creation of classes to describe objects

■ data encapsulation for controlled access to object data
■ inheritance by creating derived classes (including multiple derived classes)
■ polymorphism (Greek for multiform), that is, the implementation of instructions
that can have varying effects during program execution.
Various language elements were added to C++, such as references, templates, and
exception handling. Even though these elements of the language are not strictly
object-oriented programming features, they are important for efficient program
implementation.
Object-Oriented Programming:
Traditional Concept:
In traditional, procedural programming, data and functions (subroutines,

procedures) are kept separate from the data they process. This has a significant
effect on the way a program handles data:
o The programmer must ensure that data are initialized with suitable values
before
use and that suitable data are passed to a function when it is called.
o If the data representation is changed, e.g. if a record is extended, the

corresponding functions must also be modified.
3
Both of these points can lead to errors and neither support low program
maintenance
requirements.
Object-oriented concept:
Object-oriented programming shifts the focus of attention to the objects, that is, to
the
aspects on which the problem is centered. A program designed to maintain bank
accounts would work with data such as balances, credit limits, transfers, interest
calculations, and so on. An object representing an account in a program will have
properties and capacities that are important for account management.
OOP objects combine data (properties) and functions (capacities). A class
defines a certain object type by defining both the properties and the capacities of
the objects of that type. Objects communicate by sending each other ―messages,‖
which in turn activate another object‘s capacities.
Advantages of OOP:
Object-oriented programming offers several major advantages to software
development:
o Reduced susceptibility to errors: an object controls access to its own data.
More specifically, an object can reject erroneous access attempts
o Easy re-use: objects maintain themselves and can therefore be used as
building
blocks for other programs.
o Low maintenance requirement: an object type can modify its own internal
data representation without requiring changes to the application.
4
Developing A C++ Program:

Translating a C++ program:
The following three steps are required to create and translate a C++ program:
1. First, a text editor is used to save the C++ program in a text file. In other
words, the source code is saved to a source file. In larger projects the programmer
will normally use modular programming. This means that the source code will be
stored in several source files that are edited and translated separately.
2. The source file is put through a compiler for translation. If everything

works as planned, an object file made up of machine code is created. The object
file is also referred to as a module.
3. Finally, the linker combines the object file with other modules to form an
executable file. These further modules contain functions from standard libraries or
parts of the program that have been compiled previously.
It is important to use the correct file extension for the source file‘s name.
Although the file extension depends on the compiler you use, the most commonly
found file extensions are .cpp and .cc.
Prior to compilation, header files, which are also referred to as include files,
can be copied to the source file. Header files are text files containing information
needed by various source files, for example, type definitions or declarations of
variables and functions. Header files can have the file extension .h, but they may
not have any file extension.
The C++ standard library contains predefined and standardized functions that
are
available for any compiler.
Modern compilers normally offer an integrated software development
environment, which combines the steps mentioned previously into a single task. A
graphical user interface is available for editing, compiling, linking, and running the
application. Moreover, additional tools, such as a debugger, can be launched.
In addition to error messages, the compiler will also issue warnings. A

warning does not indicate a syntax error but merely draws your attention to a
possible error in the program‘s logic, such as the use of a non-initialized variable.
5
A Beginner’s C++ Program:
Structure of function main():
6
A Simple C++ program:

/******************************************************
A simple C++ program with comments
******************************************************/
#include <iostream> //Header file
using namespace std;
int main() // main function

{
cout << "Hello! The program starts in main()." << endl; //output function
cout << "At the end of main()." << endl;
}
Screen output
Hello! The program starts in main().
At the end of main().
Start with the main() function as this function controls the program flow. In other
words, main() calls functions that have yet to be defined. This is made possible by
supplying the compiler with a function prototype that includes all the information
the compiler needs. This example also introduces comments. Strings enclosed in /*
. . . */ or starting with // are interpreted as comments.
7
Check your Progress:

Q1: Write a C++ program that outputs the following text on screen:
Oh what
a happy day!
Oh yes,
what a happy day!
Q2: What is the output of following C++ program?

#include <stream>
int main()
{
cout << "If this text”;
cout >> "appears on your display";
cout << “you can pat yourself on”;
return 0;
)
1.6 SOLUTIONS:
Q1:
#include <iostream>
int main()
{
cout << " Oh what " << endl;
cout << " a happy day! " << endl;
cout << " Oh yes, " << endl;
cout << " what a happy day! " << endl;
return 0;
}
Q2:
If this text
appears on your display
you can pat yourself on
8
Getting Started with C++:

C++ Character Sets:
Letters A-Z , a-z

Digits 0-9
Special Symbols Space + - * / ^ \ ( ) [ ] { } = != <> . „ ―
$ , ; : % ! & ? _ # <= >= @
White Spaces Blank spaces, horizontal tab, carriage
return
Other Characters Any of the 256 ASCII character
C++ Tokens:
The smallest individual unit in a program is known as token. Tokens used in C++
are:
KEYWORDS :
Keywords are the certain reserved words that convey a special meaning to the
compiler. These are reserve for special purpose and must not be used as identifier
name.eg for , if, else , this , do, etc.
IDENTIFIERS:
Identifiers are programmer defined names given to the various program elements
such as variables, functions, arrays, objects, classes, etc.. It may contain digits,
letters and underscore, and must begin with a letter or underscore. C++ is case
sensitive as it treats upper and lower case letters differently. The following are
some valid identifiers: Pen time580 s2e2r3 _dos _HJI3_JK
LITERALS:
The data items which never change their value throughout the program run. There
are several kinds of literals:
· Integer literals
· Character literals
· Floating literals
· String literals
INTEGER LITERALS:
Integer literals are whole numbers without any fractional part. An integer literal
must have at least one digit and must not contain any decimal point. It may contain
either + or - sign. A number with no sign is assumed as positive. C++ allows three
types of integer literals:
9
(i) Decimal Integer Literals:- An integer literal without leading 0 (zero) is

called decimal integer literals e.g., 123, 786 , +97 , etc.
(ii) Octal Integer Literals:- A sequence of octal digit starting with 0 (zero) is
taken to be an octal integer literal ( zero followed by octal digits). e.g.,
0345, 0123 , etc.
(iii) Hexadecimal Integer Literals :- Hexadecimal Integer Literals starts with

0x or 0X followed by any hexa digits. e.g., 0x9A45, 0X1234, etc.
CHARACTER LITERALS:
Any single character enclosed within single quotes is a character literal. e.g ‗ A‘ ,
‗3‘
FLOATING LITERALS:
Numbers which are having the fractional part are referred as floating literals or real
literals. It may be a positive or negative number. A number with no sign is
assumed to be a positive number. e.g 2.0, 17.5, -0.00256
STRING LITERALS:
It is a sequence of character surrounded by double quotes. e.g., ―abc‖ , ―23‖.
PUNCTUATORS:
The following characters are used as punctuators which are also known as
separators in C++ [ ] { } ( ) , ; : * ……….. = #
10
OPERATORS:
An operator is a symbol or character or word which trigger some operation

(computation) on its operands.
(i) Unary operators: Those which require only one operand to operate upon.
e.g. unary - , unary + , ++ , - - ! .
(ii) Binary operators: Binary operators require two operands to operate

upon. e.g. +, *, /, -, etc.
(iii) Ternary Operator: Ternary operator require three operands to operate

upon. Conditional operator (? :) is a ternary operator in C++.
COMMENTS IN A C++ PROGRAM.:
Comments are the pieces of code that compiler ignores to compile. There are two
types of comments in C++.
1. Single line comment: The comments that begin with // are single line
comments. The Compiler simply ignores everything following // in the same
line.
2. Multiline Comment: The multiline comment begin with /* and end with */ .
This means everything that falls between /* and */ is consider a comment
even though it is spread across many lines.
11
INPUT OUTPUT (I/O) OPERATIONS IN C++:

Input & Output operations are supported by the istream (input stream) and ostream
(output stream) classes. The predefined stream objects for input, output are:
(i) The cout Object: The identifier cout is a predefined object of ostream class
that represents the standered
output stream in C++ and tied to slandered output. cout stands for console output .
cout sends all output to the standard output device i.e. monitor. The syntax of cout
is as follows:
cout<< data;
Where data may be a variable or constant or string etc. e.g.
cout<< a ; ( here a can be any variable)
Output Operator (<<): The output operator (<<) is also known as ‗stream insertion‘
or ‗put to‘ operator. It directs the contents of the variable (or value) on its right to
the object on its left (i.e. cout).
(ii) The cin Object: The cin object is an istream class object tied to slandered
input. cin stands for console input. cin object used to get input from the keyboard.
When a program reaches the line with cin, the user at the keyboard can enter
values directly into variables.
The syntax of cin is as follows:
cin>> variablename; e.g
cin>> ch; ( here “ch” can be any variable)
Input Operator (>>): The input operator (>>) is also known as extraction or
‗get from‘ operator. It extracts (or takes) the value from the keyboard and assign it
to the variable on its right.
CASCADING OF OPERATOR:
When input or output ( >>or <<) are used more than one time in a single statement
then it is called as cascading of operators.
e.g cout<< roll<< age<< endl;
12
DATA TYPES, VARIABLES & CONSTANTS:

DATA TYPES IN C++:
Data types are means to identify the types of data and associated operations of
handling it. Data types in C++ are of two types:
1. Fundamental or Built-in data types.

2. Derived data types.
1. Fundamental or Built-in data types: These data types are already known to
compiler. These are the data types those are not composed of other data types.
There are following fundamental data types in C++:
(i) int data type (for integer) :- int data type is used for integer value. An identifiers
declare as int cannot have fractional part.
(ii) char data type (for characters):- An identifiers declare as char can store a
character.
(iv) float data type (for floating point numbers):- An identifier declare as float can
hold
a floating point number.
(v) double data type (for double precision floating point numbers):- The double
data
type is also used for handling floating point numbers but it occupies twice as
much
memory as float and store numbers with much larger range and precision.
Data Type Modifiers:-There are following four data type modifiers in C++ ,
which may be used to modify the fundamental datatypes to fit various situations
more precisely:
(i) signed
(ii) unsigned
(iii) long
(iv) short
signed, unsigned, long, short data type modifiers may be apply to char & int data
types. However you may also apply long to double
13
2.Derived Data Types:- These are the data types that are composed of
fundamental data types. e.g., array, class, structure, etc.
Variables:- A named memory location, whose contains can be changed with in

program execution is known as variable.
OR
A variable is an identifier that denotes a storage location, which contains can be
varied
during program execution.
Declaration of Variables:- All variables must be declared before they are used in
executable statements. Variable declaration reserves memory required for data
storage and associates it with a name. Syntax for variable declaration is:
datatypes variable_name1, variable_name2, variable_name3,……………. ;
e.g.,
int num;
int num, sum, avg;
We can also initialize a variable at the time of declaration by using following

syntax:
datatypes variable_name = value;
e.g.,
int num = 0;
Constant:- A named memory location, whose contains cannot be changed with in

program execution is known as constant.
OR
A constant is an identifier that denotes a storage location, which contains cannot be
varied during program execution. Syntax for constant declaration is:
14
const datatypes constant_name = value ;

e.g.,
const float pi = 3,14f ;
FORMATTED OUTPUT (MANIPULATORS):

Manipulators are the operators used with the insertion operator << to format the
data
display. The most commonly used manipulators are endl and setw.
1. The endl manipulator: The endl manipulator, when used in a output statement ,
causes a line feed to be inserted. It has same effect as using new line character ―\n‖.
e.g.,
cout<< ― Director School Education Kashmir‖<<endl;
cout<< ― Computer Science Book‖;
The output of the above code will be
Director School Education Kashmir

Computer Science Book
2. The setw( ) Manipulator: The setw( ) manipulator sets the width of the field
assign for the output. It takes the size of the field (in number of character) as a
parameter. The
output will be right justified e.g., the code:
cout<<setw(6)<<”R” ;
Generates the following output on the screen (each underscore represent a blank
space)
_ _ _ _ _ R
In order to use these manipulator , it is must to include header file iomanip.h
OPERATORS AND EXPRESSIONS:-
OPERATORS:-
Arithmetic operators:- Those operators are operates only on numeric data types
operands are known as arithmetic operators.
15
Increment and Decrement Operators (++ , - -) :

The increment operator (++) adds 1 to its operand and decrement operator (--)
subtract one from its operand. In other word
a = a + 1; is same as ++a; or a++;

& a = a – 1 ; is same as --a; or a--;
Both the increment & decrement operators come in two versions:
(i) Prefix increment/decrement:- When an increment or decrement operator

precedes its operand, it is called prefix increment or decrement (or pre-increment /
decrement). In prefix increment/decrement , C++ perform the increment or
decrement operation before using the value of the operand. e.g.,
If sum = 10 and count =10 then

Sum = sum +(++count);
First count incremented and then evaluate sum = 21.
(ii) Postfix increment/decrement:- When an increment or decrement operator

follows its operand, it is called postfix increment or decrement (or post-increment /
decrement). In postfix increment/decrement , C++ first uses the value of the
16
operand in evaluating the expression before incrementing or decrementing the

operand‘s value. e.g.,
If sum = 10 and count =10 then
Sum = sum +(count++);
First evaluate sum = 20, and then increment count to 11.
Relational Operator: These operators are used to compare two values. If

comparison is true, the relational expression results into the value 1 and if the
comparison is false its result will be 0.
The six relational operators are:
Logical Operators: In addition to the relational operator, C++ contains three

logical
operators. Relational operators often are used with logical operators to construct
more complex decision making expressions.
Assignment Operator: C++ offers an assignment operator (=) to assign a value to

an
identifier. The assignment statement that make use of this operator are written in
the form :
var = expression ;
where var generally represents a variable and expression may be a constant or a

variable or an expression.
C++ offers special shorthand operators that simplify the coding of a certain type of
assignment statement . e.g.,
17
a = a + 10 ; can be written as a+=10 ;
This shorthand works for all binary arithmetic operators. The general form of this
shorthand is
Var = var operator expression ; is same as

var operator = expression ;
Following are some examples of C++ shorthands:
x -=10 ; equivalent to x = x -10 ;

x*=3 ; equivalent to x = x * 3 ;
x/=2 ; equivalent to x = x/2 ;
x%=z equivalent to x = x % z ;
Conditional operator ( ? : ):
The conditional operator (? :) is a ternary operator i.e., it require three operands.
The general form of conditional operator is:
expression1? expression2: expression3;
Where expression1 is a logical expression, which is either true or false. If
expression1 evaluates to true i.e., 1, then the value of whole expression is the value
of expression2, otherwise, the value of the whole expression is the value of
expression3. For example
min = a<b? a : b;
Here if expression (a<b ) is true then the value of a will be assigned to min
otherwise value of b will be assigned to min.
Comma operator ( , ):
The comma operator (,) is used to separate two or more expressions that are
included where only one expression is expected. When the set of expressions has to
be evaluated for a value, only the rightmost expression is considered.
For example, the following code:
a = (b =3 , b +2 );
Would first assign the value 3 to b, and then assign b+2 to variable a. So, at the
end, variable a would contain the value 5 while variable b would contain value 3.
18
sizeof():
This operator returns the size of its operand in bytes. The operand may be an
expression or identifier or it may be a data type.
a= sizeof (char);
This will assign the value 1 to a because char is a one-byte long type.
EXPRESSIONS:-
An expression in C++ is any valid combination of operators, constants, and
variables. Pure Expressions:-If an expression have all operand of same data types
then it is called a pure expression.
Mixed Expressions:- If an expression have operands of two or more different data
types then it is called a mixed expression.
Arithmetic Expressions:- Arithmetic expression can either be integer expressions
or real expressions. Sometimes a mixed expression can also be formed which is a
mixture of real and integer expressions.
Integer Expressions:- Integer expressions are formed by connecting all integer
operands using integer arithmetic operators.
Real Expressions:- Real expressions are formed by connecting real operands by
using real arithmetic operators.
Logical Expressions:- The expressions which results evaluates either 0 (false) or 1
(true) are called logical expressions. The logical expressions use relational or
Logical operators.
TYPE CONVERSION:- The process of converting one predefined data type into
another is called type conversion. C++ facilitates the type conversion in two forms:
(i) Implicit type conversion:- An implicit type conversion is a conversion

performed
by the compiler without programmer‘s intervention. An implicit conversion is
applied
generally whenever different data types are intermixed in an expression. The C++
compiler converts all operands upto the data type of the largest data type‘s
operand,
which is called type promotion.
(ii) Explicit type conversion :- An explicit type conversion is user-defined that
forces
an expression to be of specific data type.
19
TYPE CASTING:-
The explicit conversion of an operand to a specific type is called type casting.
Type Casting Operator - (type) :-Type casting operators allow you to convert a
data item of a given type to another data type. To do so , the expression or
identifier must be preceded by the name of the desired data type , enclosed in
parentheses . i. e.,
(data type) expression
Where data type is a valid C++ data type to which the conversion is to be done. For
example , to make sure that the expression (x+y/2) evaluates to type float , write it
as:
(float) (x+y/2)
Precedence of Operators:- Operator precedence determines which operator will

be performed first in a group of operators with different precedence. For instance
5 + 3 * 2 is calculated as 5 + (3 * 2), giving 11
Statements:
STATEMENTS:-
Statements are the instructions given to the Computer to perform any kind of
action.
Null Statement:- A null statement is useful in those case where syntax of the
language
requires the presence of a statement but logic of program does not give permission
to do anything then we can use null statement. A null statement is nothing only a ;.
A null (or empty statement have the following form:
; // only a semicolon (;)
Compound Statement :- A compound statement is a group of statements enclosed

in the braces { }. A Compound statement is useful in those case where syntax of
the language requires the presence of only one statement but logic of program have
to do more thing i.e., we want to give more than one statement in place of one
statement then we can use compound statement.
{
20
St-1;
St-2;
:
:
}
Statement Flow Control:- In a program , statements may be executed
sequentially,
selectively, or iteratively.
Every programming language provides three constructs:

1. Sequence Constructs
2. Selection Constructs
3. Iteration Constructs
Sequence Construct:-The sequence construct means the statements are being
executed sequentially. It represents the default flow of statements.
Selection Construct:- The selection construct means the execution of statement(s)

depending on a condition. If a condition is true, a group of statements will be
execute
otherwise another group of statements will be execute.
21
Looping or Iteration Statements:- Looping the iteration construct means

repetition of set of statements depending upon a condition test. The iteration
statements allow a set of instructions to be performed repeatedly until a certain
condition is true.
There are two types of loops:-

1. Entry-controlled loop:- In entry-controlled loop first of all loop condition is
checked and then body of loop is executed is condition is true. If loop
condition is false in the starting the body of loop is not executed even once.
2. Exit-controlled loop :- In exit-controlled loop first body of loop is executed

once and then loop condition is checked. If condition is true then the body of
loop will be executed again. It means in this type of loop, loop body will be
executed once without checking loop condition.
22
SELECTION STATEMENTS :-
There are two types of selection statements in C++:
1. if statement
2. switch statement
1. if Statement: If statement have three forms
(a) if … else Statement :- It is useable, when we have to performs an action if a

condition is True and we have to perform a different action if the condition is false.
The syntax of if…else statement is:
if ( < conditional expression > )

{
< statement-1 or block-1>;
// statements to be executed when conditional expression is true.
}
else
{
// statements to be executed when conditional expression is false.
}
If the <conditional expression> is evaluated to true then the < statement-1 or block-
1>
(statement under if ( ) block ) will be executed otherwise the <statement-2 or
block-2>
(statements under else block) would be executed. if there exists only one program
statement under if( ) block then we may omit curly braces { }.
23
Sample output for this program

Enter two different numbers:
7.5 5.7
The smaller number is: 5.7
(b) Simple if statement:- The else part in if … else statement is optional, if we

omit the else part then it becomes simple if statement. This statement is usable,
when we have to either perform an action if a condition is True or skips the action
if the condition is false. The syntax of simple if statement is:
if ( < conditional expression > )

{
// statements to be executed when conditional expression is true.
}
Here <statement-1 or block-1> will be executed only if <conditional expression >

evaluates true. if there exists only one program statement under if( ) block then we
may omit curly braces { } .
24
(c) The if-else-if ladder :- This statement allows you to test a number of mutually
exclusive cases and only execute one set of statements for which condition
evaluates true first. The syntax is:
if ( <condition -1> )
statement-1; // do something if condition-1 is satisfied (True)
else if ( <condition – 2 >)
statement-3 ; // do something if condition -2 is satisfied (True)
else if (<condition – 3 >)
statement-3 ; // do something if condition- 3 is satisfied (True)
:
: // many more n-1 else - if ladder may come
:
25
else if( < condition – n >)

statement-n ; // do something if condition – n is satisfied (True)
else
statement-m ; // at last do here something when none of the
// above conditions gets satisfied (True)
}
In the above syntax there are ladder of multiple conditions presented by each if( ) ,
all of these conditions are mutually exclusive. If one of them would evaluates true
then the statement followed that condition will be executed and all the conditions
below it would not be evaluated (checked).
Say suppose if condition-3 gets satisfy (i.e. evaluates true value for the condition),
then
statement-3 gets executed and all other conditions below it would be discarded.
If none of the n if ( ) conditions gets satisfied then the last else part always gets
executed. It is not compulsory to add an else at the last of the ladder.
We can also write a group of statement enclosed in curly braces { } (as a

compound statement) in place of any statement ( statement-1. Statement-2,…….,
statement-n) if required in above syntax.
Nested if Statement:- If an if statement is written in the if or else clause of another

if statement then it is known as nested if. Some possible syntax of nested if
statements given below:
Syntax 1:-
if ( <outer- condition > )

{
if ( <inner-condition> )
{
//some statements to be executed
// on satisfaction of inner if ( ) condition.
} // end of scope of inner if( )
26
// on satisfaction of outer if ( ) condition.

} // end of the scope of outer if( )
Syntax 2:-
if ( <outer- condition > )
{
if ( <inner-condition> )
{
// on satisfaction of inner if ( ) condition.
}
else
{
// statements on failure of inner if( )
}
<> in syntax is known as a place holder, it is not a part of syntax, do not type it
while writing program. It only signifies that anything being kept there varies from
program to program.
[ ] is also not a part of syntax , it is used to mark optional part of syntax i.e. all part
of syntax between [ ] is optional.

// on satisfaction of outer if ( ) condition.
}
else
{
// statements on failure of outer if( )
}
Example:
if( n > 0 )
{
if( n%2 == 1 )
{
cout << " Positive odd number ";
}
}
else
cout << "Positive even number";
2. Switch Statement :- This is multi-branching statement. Syntax of this statement

is as follows:
switch (expression/variable)
27
{
case value_1: statement -1;
break;
case value_2: statement -2;
break;
:
:
case value_n: statement -n;
break;
[ default: statement -m ]
}
Note: expression/variable should be integer or character type only.
When the switch statement is executed, the expression/variable is evaluated and
control is transferred directly to the statement whose case label value matches the
value of expression/ variable. If none of the case label value matches the value of
expression/variable then only the statement following the default will be executed.
If no default statement is there and no match is found then no action take place. In
this case control is transferred to the statement that follows the switch statement.
Example:
// Evaluates given input.
int command = menu(); // The function menu() reads
// a command.
switch( command ) // Evaluate command.
{
case 'a':
case 'A':
action1(); // Carry out 1st action.
break;
case 'b':
case 'B':
action2(); // Carry out 2nd action.
break;
default:
cout << '\a' << flush; // Beep on
} // invalid input
ITRATIVE STATEMENTS:
Loops in C++:- There are three loops or iteration statements are available in C++
28
1. for loop
2. while loop
3. do…. while loop
1. The for Loop: For loop is a entry control loop the syntax of for loop is :
for(initialization_expression(s); loop_Condition; update_expression)

{
Body of loop
}
Working of the for Loop:-
1. The initialization_expression is executed once, before anything else in the for

loop.
2. The loop condition is executed before the body of the loop.
3. If loop condition is true then body of loop will be executed.
4. The update expression is executed after the body of the loop
5. After the update expression is executed, we go back and test the loop condition
again, if loop_condition is true then body of loop will be executed again, and it will
be continue until loop_condition becomes false.
Example:
for (int i = 0; i < 7; i++)
cout<< i * i << endl;
Interpretation:
An int i is declared for the duration of the loop and its value initialized to 0. i2 is
output in the body of the loop and then i is incremented. This continues until i is 7.
Sample Programe:
// Euro1.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>
int main()
{
double rate = 1.15; // Exchange rate:
// one Euro to one
Dollar
cout << fixed << setprecision(2);
cout << "\tEuro \tDollar\n";
for( int euro = 1; euro <= 5; ++euro)
29
cout << "\t " << euro << "\t " << euro*rate << endl;
return 0;
}
Screen output
Euro Dollar
1 0.95
2 1.90
3 2.85
4 3.80
5 4.75
2. While Loop:- while loop is also an entry controlled loop. The syntax of while
loop is:
while (loop_condition)
{
Loop_body
}
Where the Loop_body may contain a single statement, a compound statement or an

empty statement.
The loop iterates (Repeatedly execute) while the loop_condition evaluates to true.
When the loop_condition becomes false, the program control passes to the
statement after the loop_body.
In while loop , a loop control variable should be initialized before the loops begins.
The loop variable should be updated inside the loop body.
// average.cpp
Sample Programe for While loop:
// Computing the average of numbers
#include <iostream>
int main()
{
int x, count = 0;
float sum = 0.0;
cout << "Please enter some integers:\n"
"(Break with any letter)"
<< endl;
30
while( cin >> x )

{
sum += x;
++count;
}
cout << "The average of the numbers: "
<< sum / count << endl;
return 0;
}
Sample output from the above program
Please enter some integers:
(Break with any letter)
9 10 12q
The average of the numbers: 10.3333
3. do-while loop:- do-while loop is an exit-controlled loop i.e. it evaluates its

loop_condition at the bottom of the loop after executing its loop_body statements.
It
means that a do-while loop always executes at least once. The syntax of do-while
loop is:
do
{
Loop_body
}while (loop_condition);
In do-while loop first of all loop_body will be executed and then loop_condition
will be evaluates if loop_condition is true then loop_body will be executed again,
When the
loop_condition becomes false, the program control passes to the statement after the
loop_body.
Sample Programe:
// tone.cpp
#include <iostream>
const long delay = 10000000L;
31
int main()
{
int tic;
cout << "\nHow often should the tone be output? ";
cin >> tic;
do
{
for( long i = 0; i < delay; ++i );
cout << "Now the tone!\a" << endl;
}
while( --tic > 0 );
cout << "End of the acoustic interlude!\n";
return 0;
}
Nested Loops:- Any looping construct can also be nested within any other looping
construct . Let us look at the following example showing the nesting of a for( )
loop within the scope of another for( ) loop :
for(int i = 1 ; i<=2 ; i++) Outer for( ) loop

{
for( int j = 1 ; j<=3 ; j++) Inner for( ) loop
{
cout<< i * j <<endl ;
}
}
For each iteration of the outer for loop the inner for loop will iterate fully up to the
last value of inner loop iterator. The situation can be understood more clearly as :
1st Outer Iteration
i= 1
1st Inner Iteration
j = 1 , output : 1 * 1 = 1
2nd Inner Iteration
j = 2 , output : 1 * 2 = 2
3rd Inner Iteration

32
j = 3 , output : 1 * 3 = 3
2nd Outer Iteration
i= 2
1st Inner Iteration
j = 1 , output : 2 * 1 = 1
2nd Inner Iteration
j = 2 , output : 2 * 2 = 4
3rd Inner Iteration
j = 3 , output : 2 * 3 = 6
You can observe that j is iterated from 1 to 2 every time i is iterated once.
JUMP STATEMENTS:-
These statements unconditionally transfer control within function . In C++ four

statements perform an unconditional branch :
1. return
2. goto
3. break
4. continue
1. Return Statement:- The return statement is used to return from a function. It is

useful in two ways:
(i) An immediate exit from the function and the control passes back to the
operating system which is main‘s caller.
(ii) It is used to return a value to the calling code.
2. Goto statement :- A goto Statement can transfer the program control anywhere
in the program. The target destination of a goto statement is marked by a label. The
33
target label and goto must appear in the same function. The syntax of goto
statement is:
goto label;
:
label :
Example :
a= 0;
start :
cout<<―\n‖ <<++a;
if(a<50) goto start;
3. Break Statement :- The break statement enables a program to skip over part of
the code. A break statement terminates the smallest enclosing while, do-while, for
or switch statement. Execution resumes at the statement immediately following the
body of the terminated statement.
4. Continue Statement:- The continue is another jump statement like the break
statement as both the statements skip over a part of the code. But the continue
statement is somewhat different from break. Instead of forcing termination, it
forces the next iteration of the loop to take place, skipping any code in between.
Functions in C++
FUNCTION:
Function is a named group of programming statements which perform a specific
task and return a value. There are two types of functions:-
1. Built-in (Library) functions

2. User defined functions
Built-in Functions (Library Functions) :- The functions, which are already

defined in C++ Library ( in any header files) and a user can directly use these
function without giving their definition is known as built-in or library functions.
e.g., sqrt( ), toupper( ), isdigit( ) etc.
Following are some important Header files and useful functions within them:
34
Header Files Built-in functions

stdio.h (standard I/O function) gets( ) , puts( )
ctype.h (character type function) isalnum( ) , isalpha( ), isdigit ( ), islower
(), isupper ( ), tolower ( ), toupper( )
string.h ( string related function ) strcpy ( ), strcat ( ), strlen( ), strcmp( ) ,
strcmpi( ) , strrev( ),strupr( ) , strlwr( )
math.h (mathematical function) fabs ( ), pow ( ), sqrt ( ), sin ( ), cos ( ),
abs ( )
stdlib.h randomize ( ), random ( )
The above list is just few of the header files and functions available under them ,
but actually there are many more. The calling of library function is just like User
defined function , with just few differences as follows:
i) We don't have to declare and define library function.

ii) We must include the appropriate header files , which the function belongs to, in
global area so as these functions could be linked with the program and called.
Library functions also may or may not return values. If it is returning some values
then the value should be assigned to appropriate variable with valid datatype.
gets( ) and puts( ) : these functions are used to input and output strings on the
console during program run-time.
gets( ) accept a string input from user to be stored in a character array.
puts() displays a string output to user stored in a character array.
isalnum( ) , isalpha( ), isdigit( ): checks whether the character which is passed as

parameter to them are alphanumeric or alphabetic or a digit ('0' to '9') . If checking
is true functions returns 1.
islower ( ),isupper ( ), tolower ( ), toupper( ): islower( ) checks whether a

character is lower case , isupper( ) check whether a character is upper case .
tolower( ) converts any character passed to it in its lower case and the toupper( )
convert into upper case.
fabs ( ), pow ( ), sqrt ( ), sin ( ), cos ( ), abs ( ) :
randomize ( ), random ( ): The above functions belongs to header file stdlib.h .

Let us observe the use of these functions:
35
randomize( ) : This function provides the seed value and an algorithm to help
random() function in generating random numbers. The seed value may be taken
from current system‘stime.
random(<int> ): This function accepts an integer parameter say x and then

generates a random value between 0 to x-1
For example : random(7) will generate numbers between 0 to 6.
To generate random numbers between a lower and upper limit we can use
following
Formula
random(U – L +1 ) + L
where U and L are the Upper limit and Lower limit values between which we want
to find out random values.
For example : If we want to find random numbers between 10 to 100 then we

have to write code as :
random(100 -10 +1) + 10 ; // generates random number between 10 to 100
User-defined function:- The functions which are defined by user for a specific
purpose is known as user-defined function. For using a user-defined function it is
required, first define it and then using.
Function Prototype:- Each user define function needs to be declared before its
usage in the program. This declaration is called as function prototype or function
declaration. Function prototype is a declaration statement in the program and is of
the following form :
Return_type function_name(List of formal parameters) ;
Declaration of user-defined Function: In C++ , a function must be defined, the

general form of a function definition is :
Return_type function_name(List of formal parameters)

{
Body of the function
}
36
Where Return_type is the data type of value return by the function. If the function
does not return any value then void keyword is used as return_type.
List of formal parameters is a list of arguments to be passed to the function.

Arguments have data type followed by identifier. Commas are used to separate
different arguments in this list. A function may be without any parameters, in
which case , the parameter list is empty. statements is the function's body. It is a
block of statements surrounded by braces { }.
Function_name is the identifier by which it will be possible to call the function.

e.g.,
int addition (int a, int b)

{
int r ;
r=a+b ;
return (r) ;
}
Calling a Function:- When a function is called then a list of actual parameters is

supplied that should match with formal parameter list in number, type and order of
arguments. Syntax for calling a function is:
function_name ( list of actual parameters );

e.g.,
#include <iostream>
{
int r;
r=a+b;
return (r);
}
void main ( )
{
int z ;
z = addition (5,3);
cout<< "The result is " << z;
}
37
The result is 8
Call by Value (Passing by value) :- The call by value method of passing

arguments to a function copies the value of actual parameters into the formal
parameters , that is, the function creates its own copy of argument values and then
use them, hence any chance made in the parameters in function will not reflect on
actual parameters . The above given program is an example of call by value.
Call by Reference ( Passing by Reference) :- The call by reference method uses a
different mechanism. In place of passing value to the function being called , a
reference to the original variable is passed . This means that in call by reference
method, the called function does not create its own copy of original values , rather,
its refers to the original values only by different names i.e., reference . thus the
called function works the original data and any changes are reflected to the original
values.
// passing parameters by reference

#include <iostream.h>
void duplicate (int& a, int& b, int& c)
{
a*=2;
b*=2;
c*=2;
}
void main ()
{
int x=1, y=3, z=7;
duplicate (x, y, z);
cout <<"x="<< x <<", y="<< y <<", z="<< z;
}
output :x=2, y=6, z=14
The ampersand (&) (address of) is specifies that their corresponding arguments are
to be passed by reference instead of by value.
Constant Arguments:- In C++ the value of constant argument cannot be changed

by the function. To make an argument constant to a function , we can use the
keyword const as shown below:
int myFunction( const int x , const int b );
38
The qualifier const tell the compiler that the function should not modify the
argument. The compiler will generate an error when this condition is violated.
Default Arguments:- C++ allows us to assign default value(s) to a function‘s

parameter(s) which is useful in case a matching argument is not passed in the
function call statement. The default values are specified at the time of function
definition. e.g.,
float interest ( float principal, int time, float rate = 0.70f)
Here if we call this function as:
si_int= interest(5600,4);
then rate =0.7 will be used in function.
Formal Parameters:- The parameters that appear in function definition are formal
parameters.
Actual Parameters:- The parameters that appears in a function call statement are
actual parameters.
Functions with no return type (The use of void):- If you remember the syntax of
a function declaration:
Return_type function_name(List of formal parameters)
you will see that the declaration begins with a type, that is the type of the function
itself (i.e., the data type of value that will be returned by the function with the
return statement). But what if we want to return no value?
Imagine that we want to make a function just to show a message on the screen. We
do not need it to return any value. In this case we should use the void type specifier
for the function. This is a special specifier that indicates absence of type.
The return Statement :- The execution of return statement, it immediately exit

from the function and control passes back to the calling function ( or, in case of the
main( ), transfer control back to the operating system). The return statement also
returns a value to the calling function. The syntax of return statement is:
return ( value);
39
Scope of Identifier:- The part of program in which an identifier can be accessed is

known as scope of that identifier. There are four kinds of scopes in C++
(i) Local Scope :- An identifier declare in a block ( { } ) is local to that

block and can be used only in it.
(ii) Function Scope :- The identifier declare in the outermost block of a

function have function scope.
(iii) File Scope ( Global Scope):- An identifier has file scope or global
scope if it is declared outside all blocks i.e., it can be used in all blocks
and functions.
(iv) Class Scope :- A name of the class member has class scope and is
local to its class.
Lifetime :- The time interval for which a particular identifier or data value lives in
the memory is called Lifetime of the identifier or data value.
Examples 1:
// function example
#include <iostream>
{
int r;
r=a+b;
return (r);
}
int main ()
{
int z;
z = addition (5,3);
cout << "The result is " << z;
return 0;
} The result is 8
Examples 2:
// function example
#include <iostream>
40
int subtraction (int a, int b)

{
int r;
r=a-b;
return (r);
}
int main ()
{
int x=5, y=3, z;
z = subtraction (7,2);
cout << "The first result is " << z << '\n';
cout << "The second result is " << subtraction (7,2) << '\n';
cout << "The third result is " << subtraction (x,y) << '\n';
z= 4 + subtraction (x,y);
cout << "The fourth result is " << z << '\n';
return 0;
}
Output on Screen:
The first result is 5
The second result is 5
The third result is 2
The fourth result is 6
Examples 3: function without arguments

// void function example
#include <iostream>
void printmessage ()
{
cout << "I'm a function!";
}
int main ()
{
printmessage ();
return 0;
}
Output on Screen:
I'm a function!
Examples 4: function with call by reference

41
// passing parameters by reference

#include <iostream>
void duplicate (int& a, int& b, int& c)
{
a*=2;
b*=2;
c*=2;
}
int main ()
{
int x=1, y=3, z=7;
duplicate (x, y, z);
cout << "x=" << x << ", y=" << y << ", z=" << z;
return 0;
}
Output on Screen:
x=2, y=6, z=14
Examples 4: function with call by value

// default values in functions
#include <iostream>
int divide (int a, int b=2)
{
int r;
r=a/b;
return (r);
}
int main ()
{
cout << divide (12);
cout << endl;
cout << divide (20,4);
return 0;
}
Output on Screen:
6
5
42
Structured Data type: Arrays

ARRAYS:-
Array is a group of same data type variables which are referred by a common
name.
An array is a series of elements of the same type placed in contiguous memory

locations that can be individually referenced by adding an index to a unique
identifier.
Need for Arrays:- Suppose we have to store roll number & marks of 50 students
in a program , then in all we need 100 variable each having a different name. Now
remembering and managing these 100 variables is not easy task and it will make
the program a complex and not understandable program.
But if we declare two array each having fifty elements one for roll numbers and
another for marks. Now, we have only two names to remember. Elements of these
array will be referred to as Arrayname[n], where n is the element number in in the
array. Therefore arrays are very much useful in a case where quit many elements of
the same data types need to be stored and processed.
The element number s in parenthesis are called subscripts or index. The subscript
or index of an element designates its position in the array‘s ordering.
TYPES OF ARRAY :-
Arrays are of two types:
1. One-dimensional Arrays
2. Multi-dimensional Arrays
One –dimensional Arrays:- The simplest form of an array is one - dimensional.

The array itself is given a name and its elements are referred to by their subscripts.
In C++, an array must be defined before it can be used to store information. The
general form of an array declaration is:
Data_type Array_name[size];
43
For example the following statement declares an array marks of int data type ,
which have 50 elements marks[0] to marks[49].
int marks[50] ;
Referencing Array Elements:- We can reference array elements by using the

array‘s name & subscript (or index). The first element has a subscript of 0. The last
element in an array of length n has a subscript of n-1. If we declare an array:
int scores[9];
then its 10 element will be referred as:
scores[0], scores[1], ……………………………….., scores[8]
Memory Representation of Single Dimensional Arrays:- Elements of single

dimensional array are stored in contiguous memory location in their index order.
For example , an array p of type char with 6 elements declared as:
char p[6];
will be represented in memory as shown below:
44
If we declare an int array age with 5 elements as:
int age[5];
Accepting Data in Array from User (Inputting Array elements) and Printing
Array elements:- Since we can refer to individual array elements using numbered
indexes, it is very common for programmers to use for (or any) loops when
processing arrays.
45
1. Initializing arrays.
When we declare an array, we have the possibility to assign initial values to each
one of its elements by enclosing the values in braces { }. Syntax for initialization
of one-dimensional array is:
Data_type Array_name[sise] = { value list } ;
For example:
int num [5] = { 16, 2, 77, 40, 12071 };
This declaration would have created an array like this:
num
The amount of values between braces { } must not be larger than the number of
elements that we declare for the array between square brackets [ ].
C++ allows us to skip the size of the array in an array initialization statement ( by
leaving the square brackets empty [ ] ). In this case, the compiler will assume a size
for the array equal to the number of values given between braces { }:
int num [ ] = { 16, 2, 77, 40, 12071 };
After this declaration, the size of array num will be 5, since we have provided 5
initialization values.
Example: Programe for one-dimentional array:
// arrays example
#include <iostream>
int billy [] = {16, 2, 77, 40, 12071};
int n, result=0;
int main ()
{
for ( n=0 ; n<5 ; n++ )
{
46
result += billy[n];
}
cout << result;
return 0;
}
Screen output:
12206
String as an array:- C++ does not have a string data type rather it implements
string as single dimensional character array. A string is defined as a character array
terminated by a null character ‗\0‘. Hence to declare an array strg that holds a 10
character string, you would write :
char strg[11];
Example program:
#include <iostream>
int main ()
{
char question[] = "Please, enter your first
name: ";
char greeting[] = "Hello, ";
char yourname [80];
cout << question;
cin >> yourname;
cout << greeting << yourname << "!";
return 0;
}
Screen output:
Please, enter your first name: John
Hello, John!
Two dimensional array : A two dimensional array is a continuous memory
location holding similar type of data arranged in row and column format (like a
matrix structure).
Declaration of 2-D array:- The general syntax used for 2-Darray declaration is:
Data_type Array_name [R][C] ;
47
Where R represent number of rows and C represent number of columns in array.
For example,
int marks [3][5];
and, for example, the way to reference the second element vertically and fourth
horizontally in an expression would be:
marks[1][3]
Initialization of 2-D Array:- Two dimensional arrays are also initialize in the
same way as single dimensional array . e. g.,
int cube[5][2] = {1,1, 2,8,3,27,4,64,4,125 };
will initialize cube[0][0]=1, cube[0][1]=1, cube[1][0]=2, cube[1][1]=8 ,

cube[2][0]=3 and so on. 2-D array can also be initialized in unsized manner.
However the first index can be skiped , the second index must be given. e.g.,
int cube[ ][2] = {1,1, 2,8,3,27,4,64,4,125 };
is also valid.
Accepting Data in 2-D Array from User (Inputting 2-D Array elements) and
Printing 2-D Array elements:- Since We must reference both, a row number and a
column number to input or output values in a two-dimensional array. So, we use a
nested loop (generally nested for loop) , when processing 2-D arrays.
48
Array of Strings:- An array of string is a two-dimensional character array. The

size of first index determines the number of strings and size of second index
determines maximum length of each string. The following statement declares an
array of 10 strings , each of which can hold maximum 50 valid characters.
char string[10][51] ;
Notice that the second index has been given 51, because 1 extra size is given for
store null character ‗\0‘.
Example Program:
#define WIDTH 5
#define HEIGHT 3
int jimmy [HEIGHT][WIDTH];
int n,m;
int main ()
{
for (n=0;n<HEIGHT;n++)
for (m=0;m<WIDTH;m++)
{
jimmy[n][m]=(n+1)*(m+1);
}
return 0;
}
USER DEFINED DATA TYPES:-

The C++ language allows you to create and use data types other than the
fundamental data types. These types are called user-defined data types.
STRUCTURES:-
In C++, a structure is a collection of variables that are referenced by a single name.

The variable can be of different data types. They provide a convenient means of
keeping related information together.
Defining Structure :-
49
A Structure is defined by using the Keyword struct. The General Syntax for
defining a Structure is :
Syntax:
struct< Name of Structure >
{
<datatype>< data-member 1>;
…
…
<datatype>< data-member n>;
};
Example:
A Proper example following the previous syntax could be:
float rate ;
};
Declaring Structure Variable :-
This is similar to variable declaration. We can declare the variable of structure type
using two different ways either with structure definition or after structure
definition.
The following syntax shows the declaration of structure type variables with
structure
definition:
struct< Name of Structure >

{
…
…
<datatype>< data-member n>;
} var1, var2,….., varn ;
50
We can declare the structure type variables separately (after defining of structure)
using following syntax:
Structure_name var1, var2, …… ….., var_n;
Accessing Structure Elements :- To access structure element , dot operator is

used. It is denoted by (.). The general form of accessing structure element is:
Structure_Variable_Name.element_name
Initializing of Structure elements:- You can initialize members of a structure in

two ways. You can initialize members when you declare a structure or you can
initialize a structure with in the body of program. For Example:
First Method:-
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
// Declaring structure at here
struct Employee
{
int empcode;
float empsalary;
};
Employee emp1 = {100, 8980.00} ; // emp1 is the structure variable ,
// which is also initialize with declaration
clrscr();
int i; // declares a temporary variable for print a line
// Printing the structure variable emp1 information to the
screen
cout<< "Here is the employee information : \n";
for (i = 1; i <= 32; i++)
cout<< "=";
cout<< "\nEmployee code : " << emp1.empcode;
cout<< "\nEmployee salary : " << emp1.empsalary;
}
51
Second Method:-
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
// Declaring structure here
struct Employee
{
int empcode;
float empsalary;
} emp1; // emp1 is the structure variable
clrscr();
int i; // declares a temporary variable for print a line
// Initialize members here
emp1.empcode = 100;
emp1.empsalary = 8980.00;
// Printing the structure variable emp1 information to the
screen
cout<< "Here is the employee information : \n";
for (i = 1; i <= 32; i++)
cout<< "=";
cout<< "\nEmployee code : " << emp1.empcode;
cout<< "\nEmployee salary : " << emp1.empsalary;
}
Structure variable assignments :-
We know that every variable in C++ can be assigned any other variable of same
data type i,e :
if int a = 7 ; b = 3;
we can write :
a=b; // assigning the value of b to variable a
Similar is the case with Structure variables also , i,e :
if WORKER w1 = {“Ramu” , „M‟ , 17 , 100.00};

WORKER w2;
we can write :
52
w2 = w1 ; // assigning the corresponding individual

// data member values of w1 to Worker w2;
Or
WORKER w2 = w1;
Note: Both structure variables must be of same type (i,e WORKER in this
case).
There is a member wise copying of member-wise copying from one structure

variable into other variable when we are using assignment operator between them.
So, it is concluded that:
Writing: strcpy (w1. name,w2.name) ;

w1.gender = w2.gender ;
w1.age = w2.age ;
w1.rate = w2.rate ;
is same as :
w1 = w2 ;
Array of Structure :- We can define an array of structure by using following

syntax:
<structure_name><array_name>[ size ];
where : structure_name is the name of the structure which you have created.
array_name is any valid identifier size is a positive integer constant.
Example : to create array of 20 Workers we can have:
Worker W[20];
The above structure could be visualized as:
53
Each of the elements of the array is itself a structure hence each of them have all
the four components.
Function with Structure variable:-

We can also pass a structure variable as function parameter / arguments. The
benefit is that the structure carries a bundled information to the structure. The
prototype of such a function would be
<return_type> function_name(<structure_name><var> , … , … );
Let us understand the concept with following function, which increases the wage
of a female worker by passed percent
void increaseWage( Worker & w , float incr )

{
if( w.gender == 'F' || w.gender == 'f' )
{
w.wage + = w.wage* (incr /100) ;
}
}
Look at the highlighted parameter, we have passed formal structure variable as
reference, so that the increment is reflected back in actual parameter.
Similarly, if we don't want to pass our structure variable as reference we can do so,
but then we have to return the modified structure variable back. This can be
achieved in above function, if we take return type as structure name. Let us modify
the function so that it returns a structure :
Worker increaseWage( Worker w , float incr)

{
if( w.gender == 'F' || w.gender == 'f' )
{
w.wage + = w.wage* (incr /100) ;
}
return w ;
}
Nested structure :- A Structure within another structure is known as nested

structure. Astructure containing an another structure as valid element is known as
nested structure. e.g.
54
struct address
{
int houseno;
char city[20];
char area[20];
long int pincode;
};
struct employee
{
int empno;
char name[30];
char design[20];
char department[20];
address ad; // nested structure
}
Declaration:
employee e;
Input /Output :
cin>>e.ad.houseno; // members are accessed using dot(.) operator.

cout<<e.ad.houseno;
typedef :- The typedef keyword allows to create a new names for data types. The
syntax is:
typedef existing_data_type new_name ; e.g.,
typedef int num;
#define Preprocessor Directive:-The # define directive create symbolic constant,

constants that are represent as symbols and macros (operation define as symbols).
The syntax is:
#define identifier replacement_text ;
When this line appears in a file, all subsequent occurances of identifier in that file
will be replaced by replacement_text automatically before the program is
compiled. e.g.,
55
Program: Program to calculate area of a circle by using #define preprocessor

directive.
#define PI 3.14159
#define CIRCLE_AREA(x) (PI * (x) * (x))
void main()
{
float area;
int r;
cout<< "Enter the radius : ";
cin>> r;
area = CIRCLE_AREA(r);
cout<< "Area is : " << area;
}
**************************
56
Unit 2 (For Class 12th)

Objected-Oriented Programing in C++
Objectives:
o Classes & Objects
o Constuctor And Destructor
o Inheritance -Extending Classes
o Data File Handling In C++
o Pointers
CLASSES AND OBJECTS:
Class:-
A class is a user defined data that contained data as well as function together.
or
A class is a way to bind the data and function together in a single unit.
or
A class is a group of objects that share common properties and relationships
Note:-
1. The variables and functions enclosed in a class are called data member and
member functions.
2. The variable of class are called objects or instance of a class .
3. Classes are basic user defined data type of object oriented programming
language
4. The difference between a class and structure is that ,by default ,all the
members of a class are private while by default ,all the members of structure
are public
Class Declaration:-
Class <classname>
{
private:
data members;
member functions;
protected:
data members;
57
member functions;
public:
data members ;
member functions:
};
Note:- The data members and member functions of class are grouped under three
sections.
1. private
2. protected
3. public
Explanation of private ,protected & public access modifier:-
Private :-
o By private we mean that members can be accessed only from within
the class i.e member data can be accessed by the member function .
o The private data members are not accessible to the outside worls (i.e
outside the class)
o By default members of a class are private.
o Private members are not inheritable.
Protected:-
o The members which are declared as protected ,can only be accessed by
member functions and friends function function of that class.
o Protected members are similar to private members, the only difference
is that protected members are inheritable.
Public:-
The members which are declared as public can be accessed from outside classes
also.
Note:- By default ,the members of a class are private .if both the labels, are
missing, then by default, all the members are private .Such a class is completely
hidden from outside world.
Example:-
class Student
{
int rollno;
float marks;
public:
58
void getdata(int x,flot y);

void display(void);
};
Array of Objects:- An array of variables that are of the type Class .such variables
are called array of objects.
Example:
class employee
{
char name[50];
int age;
public:
void getdata(void);
void showdata(void);
};
The employee is a user defined data type and can be used to create objects that
relate to different categories of employees.
employee manager[4];
employee engineer[15];
employee workers[200];
Creating Objects:-
 An object is an instance of class.

 In general a class is a user defined data type .while an object is an instance of
class
 Once a class has been declared, we can create variables of that type by using
class name.
 An object occupies memory space.
Let Student be the name of class
Student S1, S2;

or
Class Student
{
--------------
59
----------------
} S1,S2;
Accessing Class Members:- After creating the objects there is a need to access the
class members .This can be done using ( . ) operator.
Syntax:
Object name . Data member

Object name. member function
As:
S1.getdata(129,100)
s1.display()
s1.rollno=129 // illegal statement
Note:- A variable declared public can be accessed by the objects directly.
//Example for public data members

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
class date
{
public:
int day;
int month;
int year;
};
date d1;
d1.day=26;
d1.month=6;
d1.year=2012
cout<<“ Date is=“<<d1.day<<“/” <<d1.months<<“/” <<d1.year<<endl;
getch();
}
Example :- Write a program to make use of simple arithmetic operations such as

addition, subtraction, multiplication division using the concept class.
60
#include<conio.h>
class calculator
{
private :
int x;
int y;
public :
void getdata();
{
cout<<― Enter the two numbers:‖ << endl;
cin>> x >> y;
}
void display()
{
cout<<―x=―<<x<<endl;
cout<<―y=―<<y<<endl;
}
void sum()
{
cout<<― addition of x & y =―<<x+y<<endl;
}
void diff()
{
cout << ― diff of x & y =― <<x-y<<endl;
}
void mul()
{
cout<<― mul of x & y =―<<x*y<<endl;
}
void div()
{
cout<< ― div of x & y=―<< x/y<<endl;
}
};
61
Void main()
{
clrscr();
calculator C1;
c1.getdata();
c1.display();
c1.sum();
c1.diff();
c1.mul();
c1.div();
getch();
}
Class method definition:- The data members of a class must be declared within
the body of the class ,whereas member functions of the class can be defined in
following ways:
1.Out side the class definition

2. Inside the class definitation
Member function outside the class definition:-

o declare function prototype within the body of a class and then define it
outside the body of class.
o By using scope resolution operator ( : : ) we bind the function to the class.
Syntax:-
Return type classname :: functionname(argument declaration)

{
function body
}
Example:
#include<conio.h>
class product
{
int qty;
float cost;
Public:
void getdata(int a, float b);
62
void putdata(void);
};
void product :: getdata(int a,float b)

{
qty= a;
cost=b;
}
void product :: putdata(void)

{
cout<<― qty=―<< qty<<endl;
cout<<―cost=― << cost<<endl;
}
void main()
{
clrscr();
product p;
cout<<― The object ps is ―<< endl;
p.getdata(75,255.60);
p.putdata();
product Q;
cout<<― The object Q is =― << endl;
Q.getdata(100,125.25);
Q.putdata();
getch();
}
Member function inside the class definition:
Note:- When a function is defined inside a class ,it is treated as inline function.
Normally small functions are defined inside the class definition.
Example:-
#include< conio.h>
class date
{
private:
63
int day;
int month;
int year;
public:
void getdata(int x,int y,int z)
{
day=x;
month=y;
year=z;
}
void display()
{
cout<< day<<month<<year <<endl;
}
}
Void main()
{
clrscr();
date d1,d2,d3;
d1.getdata(30,12,2012);
d2.getdata(23,11,2011)
d3.getdata(24,05,2010);
cout<< ― you have entered following date‖;
d1.display();
d2.display();
d3.display();
getch();
}
Array of Objects:-
An array of variables that are of the type Class .Such variables are called array of
objects.
Example:
class employee
{
char name[50];
64
int age;
public:
void getdata(void);
};
The employee is a user defined data type and can be used to create objects that
relate to different categories of employees.
employee manager[4];
employee engineer[15];
employee workers[200];
Example:-
#include<conio.h>
class employee
{
char name[50];
int age;
public:
void getdata(void);
};
void employee:: getdata(void)

{
cout<<―enter name=―;
cin>>name;
cout<<―enter age=―;
cin>>age;
}
void employee::showdata(void)
{
cout<<name<<endl<<age;
}
void main()
{
clrscr();
65
int size=4;
employee manager[size];
for(int i=0; i<size;i++)
{
cout<<―Enter Details of managers‖;
manager[i].getdata();
}
cout<<endl;
for(i=0;i<size;i++)
{
cout<<―Details of Managers is=―;
manager[i].putdata();
}
getch();
}
Friend Function:-
A friend function is not a member function ,has full access rights to the private
members of the class.
Syntax :-
class ABC
{
------------
------------
public:
--------------
--------------
friend void xyz(void);
}
Characteristics of friend function:
o It is not in the scope of the class to which it has been declared as friend.
o Since it is not in the scope of the class ,it cannot be called using the object of
that
class.
o It can be invoked like a normal function without the help of any object.
66
o Unlike member functions, it cannot access the member names directly and
has to use an object name and dot membership operator with each member
name.
o It can be declared either in the public or the private part of a class without
affecting its meaning.
Usually ,it has the objects as arguments.
Example:-
#include<conio.h>
Class sample
{
int a;
int b;
public:
void setvalue()
{
a=25;
b=40;
}
friend float mean(sample s);

};
float mean (sample s)

{
return float (s.a+s.b)/2;
}
void main()
{
sample x;
x.setvalue();
cout<<mean(x);
}
// A function friendly to two classes
class XYZ
67
{
int x;
public:
void setvalue(int i)
{
x=I;
}
friend void max(XYZ,ABC);
};
class ABC
{
int a;
public:
void setvalue(int i)
{
a=i;
}
friend void max(XYZ,ABC);
};
void max(XYZ m, ABC n)

{
if (m.x>=n.a)
cout<<m.x;
else
cout<<n.x;
}
void main()
{
ABC abc;
abc.setvalue(10);
XYZ xyz;
xyz.setvalue(20);
max(xyz,abc);
}
Object as function Arguments:-

An object can be passed as an argument to functions in two ways.
68
o pass by value
o pass by reference.
// Example of call by value
#include<conio.h>
class class_2;
class class_1
{
int value1;
public:
void indata(int a)
{
value1=a;
}
void display(void)
{
cout<<value1<<―\n‖;
friend void exchange(class _1 obj1, class_2 obj2);
}
class class2
{
int value2;
public:
void indata(int a)
{
value2=a;
}
void display(void )
{
cout<<value2<<―\n‖;
}
friend void exchange (class _1 t1, class_2 t2);
};
void exchange(class_1 T1,class_2 T2)

{
int temp;
temp=T1.value1;
69
T1.value1=T2.value2;
T2.value2=temp;
}
void main()
{
class_1 C1;
class_2 C2;
C1.indata(100);
C2.indata(200);
cout<<― values before exchange ―<<―\n‖;
C1.display();
C2.display();
exchange(C1,C2);
cout<<― values after exchange‖<<―\n‖;
C1.display();
C2.display();
}
CONSTUCTOR AND DESTRUCTOR:
Constructor:-
A constructor is a special member function which is used to initialize the object of

a class.
Note:-
o A constructor is distinct from other member functions because its name is
same as the name of the class .It is executed automatically when an object is
declared. The only restriction that applies to constructor is that it must not
have a return type not even void.
o Constructor of a class is the first member function to be executed
automatically when an object of the class is created.
The general syntax:
class classname
{
-------------
-------------
70
-------------
classname( parameter list);
-----------------
};
class name::classname(parameter list)

{
--------
}
Example:
class Bank
{
private:
int x,y;
---------
----------
public:
Bank( );
};
Bank :: Bank( )
{
x=0;
y=0;
}
void main()
{
Bank B;
}
When an object B is created, constructor will be called automatically and it will

initialize the data members x and y=0
Example:-
#include<conio.h>
class fibonacci
71
{
private:
int fo,f1,fib;
public:
fibonacci();
void increment();
void display();
};
fibonacci::fibonacci()
{
fo=0;
f1=1;
fib=fo+f1;
}
void fibonacci::increment()
{
fo=f1;
f1=fib;
fib=fo+f1;
}
void fibonacci:: display()
{
cout<< fib<<―\t‖;
}
void main()
{
clrscr();
fibonacci F;
for(int i=0;i<=15;++i)
{
F.display();
F.increment();
getch();
}
}
Default Constructor:
A constructor that accepts no parameters is called default constructor.
72
Syntax:
class First
{
private:
-----------
----------
public:
first();
----------
----------
};
First :: First()
{
}
#include<conio.h>
class student
{
private:
char name[50];
int roll_no;
char sex;
int age;
float marks;
public:
student();
void putdata();
};
student:: student()
{
gets(name,‖Donald‖);
roll_no=12;
sex=‗M‘;
age=34;
marks=90;
}
73
void student:: putdata()

{
cout<<name<<endl;
cout<<roll_no<<endl;
cout<<sex<<endl;
cout<<age<<endl
cout<<marks<<endl;
}
void main()
{
clrscr();
student S;
S.putdata();
getch();
}
Parameterized constructor:-
The constructor that can take arguments are called Parameterized constructor.
Example:
class Bank
{
private:
int x,y;
public:
Bank(int a, int b)
-----------------------
-------------------
};
Bank:: Bank(int a, int b)

{
x=a;
y=b;
}
In the parameterized constructor we pass the initial values as arguments to the

constructor in two ways:
 Implicit call
74
 Explicit call
Implicit call:
Bank b1(5,11);
Explicit Call:
Bank B1=Bank(5,11);
Example:-
#include<conio.h>
class Bank
{
int x,y;
public:
Bank(int ,int);
void putdata()
{
cout<<x<<―\n‖<<y;
}
};
Bank :: Bank(int a,int b);

{
x=a;
y=b;
}
void main()
{
clrscr();
Bank B1(5,11);
Bank B2=Bank(6,34);
cout<<― object 1‖;
B1.putdata();
cout<<―object 2‖;
B2.putdata();
getch();
}
75
Copy Constructor:-
A copy constructor takes a reference to its own class as parameter i.e a constructor
having a reference to an instance of its own class as an argument is known as copy
constructor. Copy constructor are used in following situations:
1. The initialization of an object by another object of the same class.
Example:
Sample S1; //default constructor
Sample S2(S1);
or
Sample S2=S1;
The general syntax
classname ::classname(classname &)

class sample
{
int x;
public:
sample()
{
x=0;
}
sample(int a)
{
x=a;
}
sample (sample & S)
{
x=s.x
}
void display(void)
{
cout<<x;
}
};
void main()
{
76
clrscr();
Sample P(45);
Sample Q(P);
Sample R=P;
Sample T;
T=P;
cout<<― \n value of p:‖;
P.display();
cout<<―\n value of Q:‖;
Q.display();
cout<<― \n value of R‖;
R.display();
cout<<―\nValue of T:‖;
T.display();
getch();
}
Constructor with default Arguments:-
Example:
item (int x,int y=0); // declaration

item:: item(int x,int y)
{
a=x;
b=y;
}
when we make object of item
item P(11);
11 will be assign to x and 0 to y;
item Q(11,17);
11 to x and 17 to y;
Example:
class student
{
private :
char name[50];
int age;
char sex;
float marks;
77
public:
student(); // Constructor
~ student(); // Destructor
void getdata();
void putdata();
};
DESTRUCTOR:
A destructor is a member function having same name as its class but preceded by ~
sign and it deinitialises an object before it goes out of scope.
Note:- Object Are Destroyed In The Reverse Order Of Creation. So destructor is

Invoked in the reverse order of constructor
Program:-
#include<conio.h>
class sample
{
public:
sample( )
{
cout<<― object is born\n‖;
}
~sample ()
{
cout <<― object is dead‖
}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
sample S;
cout<<― Main terminated ―<<endl;
getch();
}
78
INHERITANCE -EXTENDING CLASSES

Inheritance:-
Inheritance is the process of creating new classes called derived classes from
existing ones. i.e base classes.
Different form of Inheritance:
1. Single Inheritance
2. Multiple Inheritance
3. Hierarchical Inheritance
4. Multilevel Inheritance
5. Hybrid Inheritance.
Derived and Base Class:- A derived class extends its features by inheriting the
properties of another class, called base class and adding features of its own.
The general syntax of derived class is :-
Class derived _class_name : visibility mode base class name
Visibility of Class Members
79
1. Single Level Inheritance:-

Single inheritance is the process of creating new class (derived class ) from an
base class .i.e it creates a copy of base class and can add refinements of its own .
Public Derivation:-
Example:-
#incude <iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
class item
{
int x;
public:
int y;
void getdata();
int getvalue(void);
void display(void);
};
class newitem : public item

{
int z;
public:
void mul(void);
void show(void);
};
void item :: getdata(void)

{
x=9;
y=17;
}
int item:: getvalue(void)

{
return x;
}
void item:: display()

{
80
cout<<―x=―<<x<<endl;
}
void new item :: mul()

{
z=y*getvalue();
}
void newitem:: show()

{
cout<<―x=―<<getvalue()<<endl;
cout<<―y=―<<y<<endl;
cout<<―z=― <<z<<endl;
}
void main()
{
clrscr();
newitem n;
n.getdata();
n.mul();
n.display();
n.show();
n.y=45;
n.mul();
n.show();
getch();
}
81
2. Multilevel Inheritance:-
Derivation of class from another derived class is called inheritance i.e when one
derived class inherits from a class that itself inherits from another class is called
multilevel inheritance.
Syntax:
Class X {……….}; // Base Class

Class Y: Public X; // Y derived from X
Class Z:Public Y; // Z derived fron Y
#include<conio.h>
const int size=50;
class person
{
char name[size];
int age;
char sex;
public:
void getdata()
{
cout<<― name=―;
cin>>name;
cout<<―Age‖;
cin>>age;
cout<<―sex=―;
cin>>sex;
}
void display()
{
cout<<―name =― << name <<endl;
cout<<―Age=―<<Age<<endl;
cout<<―sex=―<<sex<<endl;
}
};
class student:Public Person

{
private:
82
int rollno;
char branch[50];
public:
getdata()
{
Person::getdata();
cout<<―Rollno=―;
cin>>rollno;
cout<<―Branch‖;
cin>>branch;
};
void display()
{
person:: display();
cout<<―Rollno =―<<rollno<<endl;
cout<<―Branch=―<<branch<<endl;
}
};
class Exam : public Student

{
protected:
int marks1;
int marks2;
public:
void getdata()
{
Student:: getdata();
cout<<―Marks 1=―;
cin>>marks1;
cout<<―Marks2=―;
cin>>marks2;
}
void display()
{
Student:: display()
cout<<―Marks1=―<<marks1<<endl;
cout<<―Marks2=―<<marks2<<endl;
cout<<―Total Marks=―<<Totalmarks();
}
83
int Totalmarks()
{
return marks1+marks2;
}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
Exam e;
e.getdata();
e.display();
}
3. Multiple Inheritance:
A class can be derived from more than one base class i.e a class can inherit the
properties of two or more than two classes .This is called multiple inheritance.
Syntax:-
class derived class : Visibility BaseClass1, Visibility Base Class2, …………E.g.
class X
{
84
------
------
};
class y
{
-------
--------
};
class Z
{
--------------
--------------
};
class A : Public X, Public Y, Public Z
Program: To demonstrate multiple inheritance
#include<conio.h>
class X
{
protected:
int a;
public:
void getdata(int);
};
class Y
{
protected :
int b;
public:
void getdata1(int);
};
class Z: public X, public Y
85
{
public:
void display(void );
};
void X :: getdata(int m)
{
a=m;
}
void Y:: getdata1(int n)

{
b=n;
}
void Z::display(void)
{
cout<<―a=―<<a<<endl;
cout<<―b=―<<b<<endl;
cout<<―a+b=―<<a+b<<endl;
cout<<―a/b=―<<a/b<<endl;
}
void main()
{
clrscr();
Z d;
d.getdata(30);
d.getdata1(15);
d.display();
getch();
}
4. Hierarchical Inheritance:
When many derived classes are inherited from single base class it is called
hierarchical Inheritance .
86
Syntax:-
class A: public X
class B : public X
class C: public X
Example:
# include<iostream.h>
#include< conio.h>
class personal
{
private:
int rollno;
char name[15];
char sex;
public:
void getdata();
void putdata();
};
class physical : public personal

{
private:
float height ;
float weight ;
public:
void getdata();
void putdata();
};
class academic : public personal

{
private:
char trade[20];
int semes;
public:
void getdata();
void putdata();
};
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void personal :: getdata()

{
cout<<― Students‘s name :‖; cin>>name;
cout<<―Rollno:‖; cin>> rollno;
cout<<―Sex:‖; cin>>sex;
}
void personal:: putdata()
{
cout<<―Student‘s name :‖<<name <<endl;
cout<<―Rollno:‖<<rollno<<endl;
cout<<―Sex:‖<<sex<<endl;
}
void physical :: getdata()
{
personal :: getdata();
cout <<―Height :‖; cin>>height;
cout<<―Weight:‖; cin>> weight;
}
void physical :: putdata()
{
personal :: putdata();
cout<<―Height :‖<<height << endl;
cout<<―Weiight:‖<<weight<<endl; }
void academic :: getdata()
{
personal :: getdata();
cout<<― Trade :‖;
cin>> trade;
cout<<―Semester:‖;
cin>>semes; }
void academic :: putdata()
{
personal :: putdata();
cout<<― Trade :‖<< trade <<endl;
cout<<―Semester :‖ << semes <<endl;
}
void main()
{
class physical obj1;
class academic obj2;
clrscr();
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cout<<― ****enter the physical informatioon *****‖<<endl;

obj1.getdata();
cout<<― ***Enter the academic information *****‖<<endl;
obj2.getdata();
cout<<endl<< ―***** The entered data is ******‖<<endl;
cout<<endl<<―physical fitness ―<<endl;
obj1.putdata();
cout<<endl<<―Academic Fitness ―<<endl;
obj2.putdata();
getch();
}
DATA FILE HANDLING IN C++

Key Facts:
o Text file: A text file stores information in readable and printable form. Each
line of text is terminated with an EOL (End of Line) character.
o Binary file: A binary file contains information in the non-readable form i.e.
in the same format in which it is held in memory.
o Stream: A stream is a general term used to name flow of data. Different

streams are used to represent different kinds of data flow.
There are three file I/O classes used for file read / write operations.
o ifstream - can be used for read operations.
o fstream - can be used for write operations.
o fstream - can be used for both read & write operations.
o fstream.h:
This header includes the definitions for the stream classes ifstream,
ofstream and fstream. In C++ file input output facilities implemented
through fstream.h header file. It contain predefines set of operation for
handling file related input and output fstream.h class ties a file to the
program for input and output operation.
o A file can be opened using:
o By the constructor of the stream. This method is preferred when single
file is used with the stream. (only for input / only for output)
o By the open() function of the stream.
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File modes:
o ios::out - It creates file in output mode and allows writing into the file.
o ios::in - It creates file in input mode and permit reading from the file.
o ios::app - To retain the previous contents of the file and to append to the end
of existing file.
o ios::ate - To place the file pointer at the end of the file, but you can write
data any where in the file.
o ios::trunc - It truncates the existing file (empties the file).
o ios::nocreate - If file does not exist this file mode ensures that no file is
created and open() fails.
o ios::noreplace - If file does not exist, a new file gets created but if the file
already exists, the open() fails.
o ios::binary – Opens a file in binary.
o eof(): This function determines the end-of-file by returning true for end of
file otherwise returning false.
o open():If you want to manage multiple file with same stream use open().
Stream_object.open(―Filename‖,(Filemode));
e.g., fstream fio;
fio.open(“book.dat”, ios::out | ios::in | ios::binary);
o close(): This function terminates the connection between the file and stream
associated with it.
Stream_object.close();
o read(): The read() function reads a fixed number of bytes from the specified
stream and puts them in the buffer.
Stream_object.read((char *)& Object, sizeof(Object));
o write(): The write() function writes fixed number of bytes from a specific
memory location to the specified stream.
Stream_object.write((char *)& Object, sizeof(Object));

get pointer: A get pointer indicates the position in the file at which the next input
is to occur.
put pointer: It indicates the position in the file at which the next output is to be
placed.
seekg(): It places the get pointer to the specified position in a stream.
seekp(): It places the put pointer to the specified position in a stream.
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tellg(): This function returns the current position of the get pointer in a stream.
tellp(): This function returns the current position of the put pointer in a stream.
Steps To Process A File
o Determine the type of link required.

o Declare a stream for the desired types of link.
o Attach the desired file to the declared stream.
o Process the file.
o Close the file link with stream.
General program structure used for operating a Text File
1.Write a function in a C++ to count the number of lowercase alphabets

present in a text file “BOOK.txt”.
int countalpha()
{
ifstream Fin(―BOOK.txt‖);
char ch;
int count=0;
while(!Fin.eof())
{
Fin.get(ch);
if (islower(ch))
count++;
}
Fin.close();
return count;
}
2.Write a function in C++ to count and display the number of lines starting
with
alphabet „A‟ present in a text file “LINES.TXT”.
void counter( )
{
char Aline[80];
int Count=0;
ifstream Fin (―LINES.TXT‖);
while(!fin.eof())
91
{
Fin.getline(Aline,80, ‗\n‘))
if (Aline[0]== ‗A‘)
Count++;
}
cout<<Count<<endl;
Fin.close( );
}
3. Write a function COUNT_DO( ) in C++ to count the presence of a word

„do‟ in a text file “MEMO.TXT”.
void COUNT_DO ()
{
fstream f;
Clrscr();
f.open (―MEMO.TXT‖, ios :: in);
char are [80];
char ch;
int i = 0, sum = 0,n = 0 ;
While (f)
{
f. get (ch);
are [i] = ch;
i++;
if (strcpy (ch, ―do‖))
{
i– –;
sum = sum + i;
n++;
}
}
cout<<―The total no. of the do is:‖<<n;
}
4.Write a function in C++ to count the number of vowels present in a text file
“STORY.TXT”.
Ans: void vowelcount( )
{
ifstream file(―STORY.TXT‖);
int n=0;
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while(file.get(ch))
{
if(ch==‘a‘|| ch==‘A‘|| ch==‘e‘|| ch==‘E‘|| ch==‘i‘|| ch==‘I‘|| ch==‘o‘||
ch==‘O‘||ch==‘u‘||ch==‘U‘)
n++;
}
cout<<‖\n Total no. of vowels are‖<<n;
file.close();
}
5. Write a function in C++ to count the number of lines present in a text file
“STORY.TXT”.
Ans : void CountLine()
{
ifstream FIL(―STORY.TXT‖);
int LINES=0;
char STR[80];
while (FIL.getline(STR,80))
LINES++;
cout<<‖No. of Lines:‖<<LINES<<endl;
FIL.close();
}
6. Write a function in C++ to count the word “this” /”THIS” present in Text
file
“ Diary.TXT”
Ans : void wordcount( )
Fstream file;
file.open(―Diary.TXT‖,ios::in);
char word[20];
int count=0;
while (!file.eof( ))
{
file>>word;
if(!strcmp(word,‖this‖)||strcmp(word,‖THIS‖)||!strcmp(word,‖THIS‖))
count++;
}
cout<<‖ Number of this/This/THIS=‖<<count<<endl;
file. Close( );
}
7. Write a function in C++ to read the content of a text file "PLACES.TXT"
anddisplay all those lines on screen, which are either starting with 'P' or
starting with 'S'.
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Ans: void DispPorS ( )

{
ifstream File ("PLACES.TXT");
char STR[80];
while(File.getline(STR,80))
{
if(STR[0]=='P' || STR[0]=='S')
cout<<STR<<endl;
}
File.close(); //Ignore
General program structure used for operating a Binary File:
Q1. Write a function in C++ to add more new objects at the bottom of a
binary file STUDENT.DAT”, assuming the binary file is containing the
objects of the following class.
class STUD
{
int Rno;
char Name[20];
public:
void Enter(){cin>>Rno;gets(Name);}
void Display(){cout<<Rno<<Name<<endl;}
};
Ans: void Addnew()

{
ofstream FIL;
FIL.open(―STUDENT.DAT‖, ios::out | ios::binary | ios::app);
STUD S;
char CH = ‗y‘;
while(CH ==‘Y‘ || CH ==‘y‘)
{
S.Enter();
FIL.write((char*)&S,sizeof(S));
cout<<‖More(Y/N)?‖;cin>>CH;
}
FIL.close();
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}
Q2. Write a function in C++ to read & display the details of all the members
whose membership type is „L‟ or „M‟ from a binary file “CLUB.DAT”.
Assume the binary file contains object of class CLUB.
class CLUB
{
int mno;
char mname[20];
char type;
public:
void register ( );
void dis();
char whattype( )
{
return type;
}
};
Ans : void show( )

{
ifstream file;
CLUB c1;
char s;
file.open(―CLUB.DAT‖, ios::in | ios::binary);
while( file.read((char*)&c1, sizeof (c1)))
{
s = c1.whattype( );
if((s==‘L‘) || (s==‘M‘))
c1.dis( );
}
File.close();
}
Q3. Given a binary file PHONE.DAT containing records of the following
structure
type.class Phonlist
{
char add;
char Name[20];
char area[5];
public:
95
void register();
void show();
int check(char ac[ ])
{
return strcmp(area,ac)
}
};
Write a function TRANSFER( ) in C++, that would copy all records which are
having
area as ‖DEL‖ from PHONE.DAT to PHONBACK.DAT.
Ans:
void transfer( )
{
ifstream Fin;
ofstream Fout;
Phonlist ph;
Fin.open(―PHONE.DAT‖, ios::in | ios::binary);
Fout.open(―PHONBACK.DAT‖, ios::out | ios:: binary);
while(Fin.read((char*)&ph, sizeof(ph)))
{
if(ph.check(―DEL‖) == 0)
Fout.write((char*)&ph, sizeof(ph));
}
Fin.close();
Fout.close();
}
4. Given a binary file STUDENT.DAT, containing records of the following

class
Student type
class Student
{
char S_Admno[lO]; //Admission number of student
char S_Name[30]; //Name of student
int Percentage; //Marks Percentage of student
public:
96
void EnterData()
{
gets(S_Admno);gets(S_Name);cin>>Percentage;
}
void DisplayData()
{
cout<<setw(12)<<S_Admno;
cout<<setw(32)<<S_Name;
cout<<setw(3)<<Percentage<<endl;
}
int ReturnPercentage()
{
return Percentage;
}
};
Write a function in C++, that would read contents of file STUDENT.DAT and
display the details of those Students whose Percentage is above
Ans :- void Distinction()

{
Student S;
fstream Fin;
Fin.open(―STUDENT.DAT‖, ios::binary|ios::in);
while(Fin.read((char*)&S, sizeof(Student))
if (S.ReturnPercentage()>75)
S.DisplayData( );
Fin.close();
}
Questions based on file pointer
1. Observe the program segment given below carefully and fill the blanks
marked as Line 1 and Line 2 using fstream functions for performing the
required task. 1
#include <fstream.h>
class Library
{
long Ano; //Ano – Accession Number of the Book
char Title[20]; //Title – Title of the Book
97
int Qty; //Qty – Number of Books in Library

public:
void Enter(int); //Function to enter the content
void Display(); //Function of display the content
void Buy(int Tqty)
{
Qty+=Tqty;
} //Function to increment in Qty
long GetAno() {return Ano;}
};
void BuyBook (long BANo, int BQty)
//BANo ® Ano of the book purchased
//BQty ® Number of books purchased
{
fstream File;
File. open (―STOCK.DAT‖, ios: : binary|ios: : in|ios: : out);
int Position=–1;
Liberary L;
while (Position = = –1 && File. read ((char*) &L, sizeof (L)))
if (L. GetAno() = =BANo)
{
L. Buy (BQty); //To update the number of Books
Positions=File. tellg()–sizeof (L);
//Line 1: To place the file pointer to the required position.
—————————;
//Line 2: To write the object L on to the binary file
—————————;
}
if (Position==–1)
cout<<―No updation done as required Ano not found...‖;
File. Close();
}
Ans:
File. seekp (position, ios :: beg); // Line–1
File. write ((char *) & L, sizeof (L)); // Line–2
2. Observe the program segment given below carefully and fill the blanks
marked as Statement 1 and Statement 2 using seekg() and tellg() functions for
performing the required task.
98
#include <fstream.h>
class Employee
{
int Eno;char Ename[20];
public:
//Function to count the total number of records
int Countrec();
};
int Item::Countrec()
{
fstream File;
File.open(―EMP.DAT‖,ios::binary|ios::in);
______________________ //Statement 1
int Bytes = ______________________ //Statement 2
int Count = Bytes / sizeof(Item);
File.close();
return Count;
}
Ans:
File.seekg(0,ios::end); //Statement 1
File.tellg(); //Statement 2
POINTERS:
 Pointer is a variable that holds a memory address of another variable of same
type.
 It supports dynamic allocation routines.
 It can improve the efficiency of certain routines.
C++Memory Map :
 Program Code : It holds the compiled code of the program.
 Global Variables : They remain in the memory as long as program
continues.
 Stack : It is used for holding return addresses at function calls, arguments
passed tothe functions, local variables for functions. It also stores the current
state of the CPU.
 Heap : It is a region of free memory from which chunks of memory are
allocated via DMA functions.
99
Static Memory Allocation : The amount of memory to be allocated is known in

advance and it allocated during compilation, it is referred to as Static Memory
Allocation.
e.g. int a; // This will allocate 2 bytes for a during compilation.
Dynamic Memory Allocation : The amount of memory to be allocated is not

known
beforehand rather it is required to allocated as and when required during runtime, it
is referred to as dynamic memory allocation.
C++ offers two operator for DMA – new and delete.
e.g., int x =new int; float y= new float; // dynamic allocation
delete x; delete y; //dynamic deallocation
Free Store : It is a pool of unallocated heap memory given to a program that is

used by the program for dynamic memory allocation during execution.
Declaration and Initialization of Pointers :
Syntax :
Datatype *variable_name;
e.g., int *p; float *p1; char *c;
Two special unary operator * and & are used with pointers. The & is a unary
operator that returns the memory address of its operand.
e.g., int a = 10; int *p; p = &a;
Pointer arithmetic:
Two arithmetic operations, addition and subtraction, may be performed on
pointers. When you add 1 to a pointer, you are actually adding the size of whatever
the pointer is pointing at. That is, each time a pointer is incremented by 1, it points
to the memory location of the next element of its base type.
e.g. int *p; p++;
100
If current address of p is 1000, then p++ statement will increase p to 1002, not
1001.
Adding 1 to a pointer actually adds the size of pointer‘s base type.
Base address : A pointer holds the address of the very first byte of the memory
location where it is pointing to. The address of the first byte is known as BASE
ADDRESS.
Dynamic Allocation Operators :

C++ dynamic allocation allocate memory from the free store/heap/pool, the pool of
unallocated heap memory provided to the program. C++ defines two unary
operators new and delete that perform the task of allocating and freeing memory
during runtime.
Creating Dynamic Array :
Syntax : pointer-variable = new data-type [size];

e.g. int * array = new int[10];array[0] will refer to the first element of
array, array[1] will refer to the second element. No initializes can be specified for
arrays.
All array sizes must be supplied when new is used for array creation.
Two dimensional array :

int *arr, r, c;
r = 5; c = 5;
arr = new int [r * c];
Now to read the element of array, you can use the following loops :
For (int i = 0; i < r; i++)
{
cout << ―\n Enter element in row ― << i + 1 << ― : ―;
For (int j=0; j < c; j++)
cin >> arr [ i * c + j];
}
Memory released with delete as below:

Syntax for simple variable : delete pointer-variable;
eg. delete p;
For array :
delete [size] pointer variable;
e.g. delete [ ] arr;
101
Pointers and Arrays :

C++ treats the name of an array as constant pointer which contains base address i.e
address of first location of array. Therefore Pointer variables are efficiently used
with arrays for declaration as well as accessing elements of arrays, because array is
continuous block of same memory locations and therefore pointer arithmetic help
to traverse in the array easily.
void main()
{
int *m;
int marks[10] ={ 50,60,70,80,90,80,80,85,75,95};
m = marks; // address of first location of array or we can write it as m=&marks[0]
for(int i=0;i<10;i++)
cout<< *m++;
// or
m = marks; // address of first location of array or we can write it as m=&marks[0]
for(int i=0;i<10;i++)
cout<< *(m+i);
}
Array of Pointers :
To declare an array holding 10 int pointers –
int * ip[10];
That would be allocated for 10 pointers that can point to integers. Now each of the
pointers, the elements of pointer array, may be initialized. To assign the address
of an integer variable phy to the forth element of the pointer array, we have to
write ip[3] = & phy; Now with *ip[3], we can find the value of phy. int *ip[5];
Index 0 1 2 3 4
address 1000 1002 1004 1006 1008
int a = 12, b = 23, c = 34, d = 45, e = 56;
Variable a b c d e
Value 12 23 34 45 56
address 1050 1065 2001 2450 2725
102
ip[0] = &a; ip[1] = &b; ip[2] = &c; ip[3] = &d; ip[4] = &e;
Index ip[0] ip[1] ip[2] ip[3] ip[4]
Array ip value 1050 1065 2001 2450 2725
address 1000 1002 1004 1006 1008
ip is now a pointer pointing to its first element of ip. Thus ip is equal to address of
ip[0], i.e. 1000
*ip (the value of ip[0]) = 1050

* (* ip) = the value of *ip = 12
* * (ip+3) = * * (1006) = * (2450) = 45
Pointers and Strings :

Pointer is very useful to handle the character array also. E.g :
void main()
{
char str[] = ―computer‖;
char *cp;
cp=str;
cout<<str ; //display string
cout<<cp; // display string
for (cp =str; *cp != ‗\0‘; cp++) // display character by character by character
cout << ‖--―<<*cp;
// arithmetic
str++; // not allowed because str is an array and array name is constant pointer
cp++; // allowed because pointer is a variable
cout<<cp;
}
Output :
Computer
Computer
--c--o--m--p--u--t--e—r
Computer
An array of char pointers is very useful for storing strings in memory.
103
Char *subject[] = { ―Chemistry‖, ―Phycics‖, ―Maths‖, ―CS‖, ―English‖ };
In the above given declaration subject[] is an array of char pointers whose element
pointers contain base addresses of respective names. That is, the element pointer
subject[0] stores the base address of string ―Chemistry‖, the element pointer
subject[1] stores the above address of string ―Physics‖ and so forth.
An array of pointers makes more efficient use of available memory by consuming
lesser number of bytes to store the string.
An array of pointers makes the manipulation of the strings much easier. One can
easily exchange the positions of strings in the array using pointers without actually
touching their memory locations.
Pointers and CONST:

A constant pointer means that the pointer in consideration will always point to the
same address. Its address cannot be modified.
A pointer to a constant refers to a pointer which is pointing to a symbolic constant.
Look the following example:
int m = 20; // integer m declaration

int *p = &m; // pointer p to an integer m
++ (*p); // ok : increments int pointer p
int * const c = &n; // a const pointer c to an intger n
++ (* c); // ok : increments int pointer c i.e. its contents
++ c; // wrong : pointer c is const – address can‘t be modified
const int cn = 10; // a const integer cn
const int *pc = &cn; // a pointer to a const int
++ (* pc); // wrong : int * pc is const – contents can‘t be modified
++ pc; // ok : increments pointer pc
const int * const cc = *k; // a const pointer to a const integer
++ (* cc); // wrong : int *cc is const
++ cc; // wrong : pointer cc is const
Pointers and Functions:

A function may be invoked in one of two ways:
o Call by value
o Call by reference
The second method call by reference can be used in two ways:
104
o By passing the references

o By passing the pointers
Reference is an alias name for a variable.

For ex : int m =23;
int &n = m;
int *p;
p = &m;
Then the value of m i.e. 23 is printed in the following ways :

cout <<m; // using variable name
cout << n; // using reference name
cout << *p; // using the pointer
Invoking Function by Passing the References:

When parameters are passed to the functions by reference, then the formal
parameters become references (or aliases) to the actual parameters to the calling
function. That means the called function does not create its own copy of original
values, rather, it refers to the original values by different names i.e. their
references.
For example the program of swapping two variables with reference method:
void main()
{
void swap(int &, int &);
int a = 5, b = 6;
cout << ―\n Value of a :‖ << a << ― and b :‖ << b;
swap(a, b);
cout << ―\n After swapping value of a :‖ << a << ―and b :‖ << b;
}
void swap(int &m, int &n)

{
int temp; temp = m;
m = n;
n = temp;
}
105
Output :
Value of a : 5 and b : 6
After swapping value of a : 6 and b : 5
Invoking Function by Passing the Pointers:

When the pointers are passed to the function, the addresses of actual arguments in
the calling function are copied in to formal arguments of the called function.
That means using the formal arguments (the addresses of original values) in the
called function, we can make changing the actual arguments of the calling
function.
For example the program of swapping two variables with Pointers:
void main()
{
void swap(int *m, int *n);
int a = 5, b = 6;
cout << ―\n Value of a :‖ << a << ― and b :‖ << b;
swap(&a, &b);
cout << ―\n After swapping value of a :‖ << a << ―and b :‖ << b;
}
void swap(int *m, int *n)

{
int temp;
temp = *m;
*m = *n;
*n = temp;
}
Input:
Value of a : 5 and b : 6
After swapping value of a : 6 and b : 5
Function returning Pointers:

The way a function can returns an int, an float, it also returns a pointer. The general
form of prototype of a function returning a pointer would be Type * function-name
(argument list);
106
#include <iostream.h> int

*min(int &, int &);
void main()
{
int a, b, *c;
cout << ―\nEnter a :‖; cin >> a;
cout << ―\nEnter b :‖; cint >> b;
c = min(a, b);
cout << ―\n The minimum no is :‖ << *c;
}
int *min(int &x, int &y)

{
if (x < y )
return (&x);
else
return (&y)
}
Dynamic structures :
The new operator can be used to create dynamic structures also i.e. the structures
for which the memory is dynamically allocated.
struct-pointer = new struct-type;

student *stu;
stu = new Student;
A dynamic structure can be released using the deallocation operator delete as

shown below:
delete stu;
Objects as Function arguments:

Objects are passed to functions in the same way as any other type of variable is
passed. When it is said that objects are passed through the call-by-value, it means
that the called function creates a copy of the passed object.
A called function receiving an object as a parameter creates the copy of the object
without invoking the constructor. However, when the function terminates, it
destroys this copy of the object by invoking its destructor function.
107
If you want the called function to work with the original object so that there is no
need to create and destroy the copy of it, you may pass the reference of the object.
Then the called function refers to the original object using its reference or alias.
Also the object pointers are declared by placing in front of an object pointer‘s
name.
Classname * object-pointer;
e.g. Student *stu;
The member of a class is accessed by the arrow operator (->) in object pointer
method. e.g :
class Point
{
int x, y;
public :
Point()
{
x = y = 0;
}
void getPoint(int x1, int y1)
{
x = x1; y = y1;
}
void putPoint()
{
cout << ―\n
Point : (― << x<< ―, ―<< y<< ―)‖;
}
};
void main()
{
Point p1, *p2;
cout << ―\n Set point at 3, 5 with object‖;
p1.getPoint(3,5);
cout << ―\n The point is :‖;
p1.putPoint();
p2 = &p1;
cout << ―\n Print point using object pointer :‖;
p2->putPoint();
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cout << ―\n Set point at 6,7 with object pointer‖;

p2->getPoint(6,7);
cout<< ―\n The point is :‖;
p2->putPoint();
cout << ―\n Print point using object :‖;
p1.getPoint();
}
If you make an object pointer point to the first object in an array of objects,
incrementing the pointer would make it point to the next object in sequence.
student stud[5], *sp;
sp = stud; // sp points to the first element (stud[0])of stud

sp++; // sp points to the second element (stud[1]) of stud
sp + = 2; // sp points to the fourth element (stud[3]) of stud
sp--; // sp points to the third element (stud[2]) of stud
You can even make a pointer point to a data member of an object. Two points
should be considered:
o A Pointer can point to only public members of a class.

o The data type of the pointer must be the same as that of the data member it
points to.
this Pointer:
In class, the member functions are created and placed in the memory space only
once. That is only one copy of functions is used by all objects of the class.
Therefore if only one instance of a member function exists, how does it come to
know which object‘s data member is to be manipulated?
For the above figure, if Member Function2 is capable of changing the value of
Data Member3 and we want to change the value of Data Member3 of Object3.
How would the Member Function2 come to know which Object‘s Data Member3
is to be changed?
To overcome this problem this pointer is used.
109
When a member function is called, it is automatically passed an implicit argument

that is a pointer to the object that invoked the function. This pointer is called This.
That is if ojbect3 is invoking member function2, then an implicit argument is
passed to member function2 that points to object3 i.e. this pointer now points to
object3. The friend functions are not members of a class and, therefore, are not
passed a this pointer. The static member functions do not have a this pointer.
*************************
110
Unit 3
Data Structure
Objectives:
o Arrays
o Searching techniques
o Sorting Algorithms
o Stacks, Queues And Linked List
o Exercise
Data Structure:
In Computer Science, a data structure is a particular way of storing and organizing
data in a computer so that it can be used efficiently. Different kinds of data
structures are suited to different kinds of applications, and some are highly
specialized to specific tasks. For example, Stacks are used in function call during
execution of a program, while B-trees are particularly well-suited for
implementation of databases. The data structure can be classified into following
two types:
Simple Data Structure: These data structures are normally built from primitive
data types like integers, floats, characters. For example arrays and structure.
Compound Data Structure: simple data structures can be combined in various

ways to form more complex structure called compound structures. Linked Lists,
Stack, Queues and Trees are examples of compound data structure.
Array:
Array is a collection of elements of similar data type stored in continuous memory
location under a single name.
Declaration of array:
Syntax:-
Datatype array name[total no of elements];
Eg. int arr[10];
111
The statement written above will create an array namely arr having 10 integer
elements. To differentiate array elements index value is used. Index value is an
integer value that starts from 0 and moves upto N-1, where N is total number of
elements in the array. For example if we have an array of 10 elements then the
index value will be from 0 to 9
Initialization of the array

Datatype array name[no of elements]={value1,value2,………valueN};
Eg int arr[5]={10,20,30,40,50};
We can skip the total no elements and can initialize the array
Eg int arr[]={10,20,30};
Or
int arr[]={10,20,30,40,50,60};
Program to enter and display elements in an array
void main()
{
int arr[10],i;
cout<<‖enter the elements in array‖<<endl;
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
cin>>arr[i];
}
cout<<‖The Array elements are‖<<endl;
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
cout<<arr[i]<<endl;
}
}
Searching methods in array

Linear Search: In this method each element of the array is compared with the
number to be searched in linear order (from first to last). And where the number is
matched the position is displayed.
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
112
int lsearch(int[],int,int);
int a[50],item,n,index;
clrscr();
cout<<"\n Enter size of array";
cin>>n;
cout<<"\n Enter array elements";
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
{
cin>>a[i];
}
cout<<"Enter the item to be searched";
cin>>item;
index=lsearch(a,n,item);
if(index= = -1)
cout<<"\n Element not found";
else
cout<<"\n Element found at position "<<index+1;
getch();
}
int lsearch(int a[],int size,int item)

{
int found=0;
for(int i=0;i<size;i++)
{
if(a[i]==item)
{
return i;
found=1;
break;
}
}
if(found==0)
return -1;
}
Binary Search Method:

Binary search algorithm is applicable for already sorted array only. In this
algorithm, to search for the given item from the sorted array (in ascending order),
the item is compared with the middle element of the array. If the middle element is
equal to the item then index of the middle element is returned, otherwise, if item is
113
less than the middle item then the item is present in first half segment of the array
(i.e. between 0 to middle-1), so the next iteration will continue for first half only, if
the item is larger than the middle element then the item is present in second half of
the array (i.e. between middle+1 to size-1), so the next iteration will continue for
second half segment of the array only. The same process continues until either the
item is found (search successful) or the segment is reduced to the single element
and still the item is not found (search unsuccessful).
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int bsearch(int[],int,int);
int a[50], item, n, index;
clrscr();
cout<<"\n Enter total elements";
cin>>n;
cout<<"\n Enter array elements in sorted form:";
{
cin>>a[i];
}
cout<<"Enter the item to be searched";
cin>>item;
index=bsearch(a, n, item);
if(index= = -1)
cout<<"\n Element not found";
else
cout<<"\n Element found at position "<<index+1;
getch();
}
int bsearch(int a[], int size, int item)

{
int beg, med, last;
beg=0,found=0;
last=size-1;
int mid=(last+beg)/2;
while(beg<=last)
{
114
mid=(beg+last)/2;
if(item= =a[mid])
{
return mid;
found=1;
break‘
}
else if(item>a[mid])
beg=mid+1;
else
last=mid-1;
}
If(found==0)
return -1;
}
Sorting operation in the array:

Sorting means to arrange the array elements in Ascending order or in Descending
order. There are various methods to do this but for the ease sake Bubble sort
method is displayed here.
#include<conio.h>
void bubblesort (int[],int);
void main()
{
int a[50],n;
clrscr();
cout<<"\nHow many elements do you want to create array with? ";
cin>>n;
cout<<"\nEnter array elements\n";
cin>>a[i];
bubblesort(a,n);
cout<<"\n\nThe sorted array is as shown below\n";
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
cout<<a[i]<<"\n";
getch();
}
void bubblesort(int a[],int n) //Function to perform bubble sort
115
{
int temp;
for(int i=0;i<n-1;i++)
{
for(int j=0;j<n-i-1;j++)
if(a[j]>a[j+1])
{
temp=a[j];
a[j]=a[j+1];
a[j+1]=temp;
}
}
}
Exercise for One dimentional array:
Q1. Write a function in C++ which accepts an integer array and its size as
arguments/parameters and reverses the array example : if the array is
1,2,3,4,5 then rearrange the array as 5,4,3,2,1
Ans :
void reverse(int arr[ ], int n)
{
int temp;
for(int i=0,j=n-1; i<=j; i++,j--)
{
temp= arr[i];
arr[i] = arr[j];
arr[j] = temp;
}
}
Q2. Write a function in C++ which accepts an integer array and its size as
arguments/parameters and exchange the array in the given manner
example : if the array is 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 then rearrange the array
as2,1,4,3,6,5,8,7,10,9
Ans :
void change(int arr[ ], int n)
{
int temp;
116
for(int i=0; i<n; i=i+2)

{
temp= arr[i];
arr[i] = arr[i+1];
arr[i+1] = temp;
}
}
Q3 Write a function in C++ to merge the contents of two sorted arrays A & B
into third array C. Assuming array A is sorted in ascending order, B is sorted
in descending order, the resultant array is required to be in ascending order.
Ans:
void MERGE(int A[ ], int B[ ], int C[ ], int M, int N, int &K)
{
int I,J, K;
for(I=0, J=N – 1, K=0; I<M && J>=0;)
{
if (A[I]<=B[J])
C[K++]=A[I++];
else
C[K++]=B[J--];
}
for (int T=I;T<M;T++)
C[K++]=A[T];
for (T=J;T>=0;T--)
C[K++]=B[T];
}
Two Dimensional Arrays:

In a two dimensional array the data is represented in form of rows and columns.
Declaration of two dimensional arrays

Datatype name_of_array[no of rows][no of columns]; eg
int arr[5][3];
In the example given above a two dimensional array is declared with the name arr
where there are 5 rows and three columns i.e total 15 (5 x 3) elements
117
Program for entering and displaying data(in matrix form) in two dimensional
array
void main()
{
int arr[5][3],I,j;
cout<<‖Enter array elements ―<<endl;
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
cin>>arr[i][j];
}
}
cout<<‖the array elements are‖<<endl;
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
cout<<arr[i][j]<<‖\t‖;
}
cout<<endl;
}
getch();
}
Exercise based on Two dimensional Array
Q1. Write a function in C++ that will accept a two D array and its row and
column size as argument and find sum of rows and columns
Ans :
void rowcolsum(int A[ ][ ],int N, int M)
{
for (int i=0;i<N;i++)
{
int SumR=0;
for (int j=0;j<M;j++)
SumR+=A[i][j];
cout<<SumR<<endl;
}
for (int i=0;i<N;i++)
{
118
int SumC=0;
for (int j=0;j<M;j++)
SumC+=A[j][i];
cout<<SumC<<endl;
}
}
Q2. Write a function in C++ to find the sum of both left and right diagonal
elements from a two dimensional array (matrix).
Ans :
void DiagSum(int A[ ][ ], int N)
{
int SumD1=0,SumD2=0;
for (int I=0;I<N;I++)
{
SumD1+=A[I][I];
SumD2+=A[N-I-1][I];
}
cout<<‖Sum of Diagonal 1:‖<<SumD1<<endl;
cout<<‖Sum of Diagonal 2:‖<<SumD2<<endl;
}
Address Calculation in Two Dimensional Array

Two dimensional array can be arranged in two manner
1. Row Major Order

2. Column Major Order
In Row Major Order the elements are shown Row Wise where as in Column Major
Order the array elements are shown Column wise e,g
If we have following two dimensional array

1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
The array elements in Row major Order will be
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
The array elements in Column Major Order will be
119
1,4,7,2,5,8,3,6,9
To find the address of a particular row and column the formula in Row Major
Order is
Address of A[row][column]=B +w*(n(row)+column)
Where
B= Base address of the array
w= Word size
n= total no of columns in the array
To find the address of a particular row and column the formula in Column Major
Order is
Address of A[row][column]=B +w*(n(Column)+row)
Where
B= Base address of the array
w= Word size
n= total no of rows in the array
Q1. An array x[30][10] is stored in the memory with each element requiring 4
bytes of storage. If the base address of x is 4500, find out memory locations of
x[12][8] if the content is stored along the row.
Ans:
Here the array is stored in Row Major Order so
B=4500
W= 4
N= 10
As per the formula
Address of A[row][column]=B +w*(n(row)+column)
=4500+4*(10(12)+8)
=4500+4*(128)
=4500+512
=5012
Q2. An array x[30][10] is stored in the memory with each element requiring 4
bytes of storage. If the base address of x is 4500, find out memory locations of
x[12][8] if the content is stored along the row.
Ans:
120
Here the array is stored in Column Major Order so

B=4500
W= 4
N= 30
As per the formula
Address of A[row][column]=B +w*(n(Column)+row)
99
=4500+4*(30(8)+12)
=4500+4*(252)
=4500+1008
=5508
Q 3. An array P[20][30] is stored in the memory along the column with each of
the element occupying 4 bytes, find out the Base Address of the array, if an
element P[2][20] is stored at the memory location 5000.
Ans :
Given, W=4, N=20, M=30, Loc(P[2][20])=5000
Column Major Formula:
Loc(P[I][J]) =Base(P)+W*(N*J+I)
Loc(P[2][20]) =Base(P)+4*(20*20+2)
Base(P) =5000 – 4*(400+2)
=5000 – 1608
=3392
STACKS, QUEUES AND LINKED LIST

Stack
In computer science, a stack is a Last in, First out (LIFO) data structure. It simply
means that an element that is inserted at the end will be deleted first. To Manage a
stack all the insertion and deletion takes place from one position called ―top‖.
One of the common uses of stack is in function call.
Operations on the Stack

There are two fundamental operations
1. Push
2. Pop
Push means to insert an element

Pop means to delete an element
121
Stack using array

const int size=5
class stack
{
int a[size]; //array a can store maximum 5 item of type int of the stack
int top; //top will point to the last item pushed onto the stack
public:
stack() //constructor to create an empty stack, top=-1 indicate that no item is present in the
{ // array
top=-1;
}
void push(int item)
{
if(top= =size-1)
cout<<‖stack is full, given item cannot be added‖;
else
a[++top]=item; //increment top by 1 then item at new position of the top in the array a
}
int pop()
{
if (top= =-1)
{
cout<<‖Stack is empty ―;
return -1; //-1 indicates empty stack
}
else
return a[top--]; //return the item present at the top of the stack then decrement top by 1
}
};
void main()
{
stack s1;
s1.push(3);
s1.push(5);
cout<<s1.pop()<<endl;
cout<<s1.pop()<<endl;
cout<<s1.pop();
}
122
Queue
In computer science, a Queue is a First in, First out (FIFO) data structure. It simply
means that an element that is inserted at the beginning will be deleted first. To
Manage a queue all the insertion and deletion takes place from two different
positions called ―front‖ and ―rear‖. Every element is inserted from the rear position
and deleted from the front position in the queue.
Queue using array

const int size=5
class queue
{
int a[size]; //array a can store maximum 5 item of type int of the queue
int front,rear;
public:
queue() //constructor to create an empty queue
{
front=rear=-1;
}
void insert(int item)
{
If((front==0)&&(rear= =size-1))
cout<<‖queue is full, given item cannot be added‖;
else if((front==-1)||(rear==-1))
front=rear=0;
else
rear++;
a[rear]=item;
}
int deletion()
{
if (front= =-1)
{
cout<<‖queue is empty ―;
return -1;
}
else
return a[front++];
}
};
123
void main()
{
queue q1;
q1.insert(3);
q1.insert(5);
cout<<q1.deletion()<<endl;
cout<<q1.deletion()<<endl;
}
Linked List
A linked list is a data structure consisting of a group of nodes which together
represent a sequence. Under the simplest form, each node is composed of a data
and a reference (in other words, a link) to the next node in the sequence; more
complex variants add additional links. This structure allows for efficient insertion
or removal of elements from any position in the sequence.
Here in the figure is an example of a linked list whose nodes contain two fields: an
integer value and a link to the next node. The last node is linked to a terminator
used to signify the end of the list. Linked lists are among the simplest and most
common data structures. They can be used to implement several other common
abstract data types, stacks, queues etc though it is not uncommon to implement the
other data structures directly without using a list as the basis of implementation.
The principal benefit of a linked list over an array is that the list elements can
easily be inserted or removed without reallocation or reorganization of the entire
structure because the data items need not be stored contiguously in memory or on
disk. Linked lists allow insertion and removal of nodes at any point in the list, and
can do so with a constant number of operations if the link previous to the link
being added or removed is maintained during list traversal. Linked list are dynamic
structure where memory allocation takes place at run time.
Operation on a linked list

There are three basic operations on a linked list
1. Insertion
2. Deletion
3. Traversal
Inserting a node or element into Linked list:

Inserting an element into linked list contains 3 types .
124
1. Insertion at beginning of the Linked list

2. Insertion at the middle of the linked list
3. Insertion at the end of the linked list
1. Insertion at beginning of the Linked list :

An element can be inserted at the beginning of the Linked list by creating a new
node at the beginning of the linked list and inserting an element into the node and
assigning the address of the address of the next node or assigning the reference of
the next node .
2. Insertion at the middle of the linked list:

An element can be inserted at the middle of the linked list. We need to know the
data or element of the neighboring element to insert an element at middle.
3. Insertion at the End of the linked list :

An element can be inserted at the end by simply traversing the node to the end and
creating a new node at the end . Also the address pointer of the new node must be
assigned to NULL
Deleting a node from the Linked list.

Deleting an element is similar to pop operation in Stack and Queue. A node can be
deleted in 3 ways similar to Insertion.
1. Deleting a Node from the beginning of the Linked List

2. Deleting a node from the middle of the Linked list.
3. Deleting a node from the end of the Linked List.
Program of linked list

class node
{
public :
int d;
node *p;
};
class linked
{
public :
node *start;
public :
linked()
125
{
start=NULL;
}
void insert_at_beg();
void insert_at_mid();
void insert_at_end();
int remove();
void display();
};
void linked :: insert_at_end()
{
node *temp;
if(start==NULL)
{
start=new node [1];
start->p=NULL;
cout<<"\n Enter Data to insert \n";
cin>>start->d;
}
else
{
temp=start;
while(temp->p!=NULL)
temp=temp->p;
temp->p= new node [1];
temp=temp->p;
cout<<"\n Enter Data to insert \n";
cin>>temp->d;
temp->p=NULL;
}
}
void linked :: insert_at_mid()

{
node *temp,*next;
int x;
temp=start;
cout<<"\n Enter the Neighbour element \n";
cin>>x;
while(temp->d!=x)
temp=temp->p;
126
next=temp->p;
temp->p=new node [1];
temp=temp->p;
temp->p=next;
cout<<"\n Enter data to insert \n";
cin>>temp->d;
}
void linked :: insert_at_beg()

{
node *temp;
temp=new node [1];
temp->p=start;
start=temp;
cout<<"\n Enter element to insert \n";
cin>>temp->d;
}
int linked :: remove()

{
node *temp,*prev;
int x;
if(start==NULL)
{
cout<<"\n Underflow -- No element to Delete \n";
return 0;
}
cout<<"\n Enter element to delete \n";
cin>>x;
if(start->d==x && start->p==NULL)
{
delete start;
start=NULL;
cout<<"\n Deletion successfull \n";
return 0;
}
if(start->d==x)
{
temp=start->p;
delete start;
start=temp;
127
cout<<"\n Deletion Successfull \n";

return 0;
}
temp=start;
while(temp->d!=x)
{
prev=temp;
temp=temp->p;
}
prev->p=temp->p;
cout<<"\n Deletion Successfull \n";
return x;
}
void linked :: display()
{
node *temp;
temp=start;
cout<<"\n Linked List elements are \n";
while(temp->p!=NULL)
{
cout<<""<<temp->d<<" ";
temp=temp->p;
}
cout<<temp->d<<endl;
}
int main()
{
int n=0,a;
linked l;
do
{
cout<<"\n ************** M E N U **************\n";
cout<<"\n1.Insert at beginning\n2.Insert at middle\n3.Insert at
end\n4.Delete\n5.Display elements";
cout<<"\n6.Exit\n";
cout<<"Enter option \n";
cin>>a;
switch(a)
{
case 1:
l.insert_at_beg();
128
break;
case 2:
l.insert_at_mid();
break;
case 3:
l.insert_at_end();
break;
case 4:
l.remove();
break;
case 5:
l.display();
break;
case 6:
n=1;
break;
default :
cout<<"\n Invalid Entry \n";
break;
}
}while(n!=1);
return 0;
}
Implementation of stacks using a linked list
The stack which is implemented using linked list is called linked stack or dynamic
stack
#include<conio.h>
struct node
{
int data;
node * next;
};
class stack
{
node *top;
public:
stack()
{
129
top=NULL;
}
void stackpush();
void stackpop();
void displaystack();
};
void stack::stackpush()
{
node *ptr;
ptr=new node;
cout<<"Enter the element to be pushed"<<endl;
cin>>ptr->data;
if(top==NULL)
ptr->next=NULL;
else
ptr->next=top;
top=ptr;
}
void stack ::stackpop()

{
node *ptr;
ptr=new node;
ptr=top;
cout<<"The popped element is "<<ptr->data;
top=top->next;
delete ptr;
}
void stack :: displaystack()

{
node *ptr;
ptr=new node;
ptr=top;
cout<<"The stack is "<<endl;
while(ptr!=NULL)
{
cout<<ptr->data<<endl;
ptr=ptr->next;
}
130
void main()
{
clrscr();
char ans;
stack s1;
do
{
s1.stackpush();
cout<<"wish to continue "<<endl;
cin>>ans;
}while(ans=='y');
s1.displaystack();
cout<<"Press any key to pop an element"<<endl;
getch();
s1.stackpop();
getch();
}
Implementation of queues using a linked list

The queue which is implemented using linked list is called linked queue or
dynamic queue
#include<conio.h>
struct node
{
int data;
node * next;
};
class queue
{
node *front,*rear;
public:
queue()
{
rear=front=NULL;
}
void insqueue();
131
void delqueue();
void dispqueue();
};
void queue::insqueue()
{
node *ptr;
ptr=new node;
cout<<"Enter the element to be insert"<<endl;
cin>>ptr->data;
ptr->next=NULL;
if(rear==NULL)
front=rear=ptr;
else
{
rear->next=ptr;
rear=ptr;
}
}
void queue ::delqueue()

{
node *ptr;
ptr=new node;
ptr=front;
cout<<"The deleted element is "<<ptr->data;
if(front==rear)
front=rear=NULL;
else
front=front->next;
delete ptr;
}
void queue :: dispqueue()
{
node *ptr;
ptr=new node;
ptr=front;
cout<<"The queue is "<<endl;
while(ptr!=NULL)
{
cout<<ptr->data<<endl;
132
ptr=ptr->next;
}
}
void main()
{
clrscr();
char ans;
queue q1;
do
{
q1.insqueue();
cout<<"wish to continue "<<endl;
cin>>ans;
}while(ans=='y');
q1.dispqueue();
cout<<"Press any key to delete an element ...."<<endl;
getch();
q1.delqueue();
getch();
}
Exercise
Q1. Write a function in C++ to delete a node containing customer‟s
information, from a dynamically allocated Queue of Customers implemented
with the help of the following structure:
struct Customer
{
int CNo;
char CName[20];
Customer *Link;
};
Ans:
struct Customer
{
int CNo;
char CName[20];
Customer *Link;
} *Front, *Rear, *ptr;
133
void DELETE()
{
if(Front = = NULL)
cout<<‖\n Queue Underflow\n‖;
else
{
ptr = Front;
Front = Front®Link;
delete ptr;
}
}
Q2. Write a function in C++ to delete a node containing Book‟s information,

from a dynamically allocated Stack of Books implemented with the help of the
following structure.
struct Book
{
int BNo;
char BName[20];
Book *Next;
};
Ans:
struct Book
{
int BNo;
char BName[20];
Book *Next;
}*Front, *Rear, *ptr;
void POP()
{
if(Front = = NULL)
cout<<‖\n Stack Underflow\n‖;
else
{
ptr = Front;
Front = Front®Link;
delete ptr;
}
}
134
Unit 4
DATABASES MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND SQL
Objectives:
o Basic database concepts
o Key Constraints
o Syntax of some SQL commands
Introduction:
Database is a collection of related information that is organized in such a way that
supports for easy access, modify and maintain data. The contents of a database are
obtained by combining data from all the different sources in an organization.
Generally, the database is managed by some special software packages known
as Database Management Systems (DBMSs). DBMSs are specially designed
applications to create connection between user and program, and to store data in an
organized manner. The purpose of DBMSs software is to allow the user to create,
modify and administration of database. Examples of database management systems
are:
Ms-Access, MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQLite, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, SAP,
dBASE, FoxPro, etc.
Relational data model:

The relational data model is a database model based on first-order predicate
logic(First Order Predicate Logic is one where the quantification is over simple
variables), formulated and proposed by Edgar F. Codd. in 1969. The first-order
predicate logic is a symbolised reasoning, in which statement is broken down into a
subject and a predicate. The predicate modifies the properties of the subject, while
in the first order logic, a predicate can only refer to a single subject. In the
relational data model, database is represented as collection of related tables. Each
table is termed as relation and has its unique name in the relational data model.
Tables are formed by using rows and columns. A row (horizontal subset) of a table
represents a tuple or record, while column (vertical subset) of a table represents an
attribute.
Relation:
In database, a relation means a 'table', in which data are organized in the form of
rows and columns. Therefore in database, relations are equivalent to tables.
For example
Relation: Student
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Domain:
A domain is the original sets of atomic values used to model data. In data base
management and database, a domain refers to all the possible unique values of a
particular column.
For example:
1. The domain of gender column has a set of two possible values i.e, Male or
Female.
2. The domain of marital status has a set of four possible values i.e, Married,
Unmarried, Widows and Divorced.
Therefore, a domain is a set of acceptable values of a particular column, which is

based on various properties and data types. We will discuss data types later in this
chapter.
Basic Database concepts

Data :- Raw facts and figures which are useful to an organization. We cannot take
decisions on the basis of data.
Information:- Well processed data is called information. We can take decisions on

the basis of information
Field: Set of characters that represents specific data element.
Record: Collection of fields is called a record. A record can have fields of

different data types.
File: Collection of similar types of records is called a file.
Table: Collection of rows and columns that contains useful data/information is

called a table. A table generally refers to the passive entity which is kept in
secondary storage device.
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Relation: Relation (collection of rows and columns) generally refers to an active

entity on which we can perform various operations.
Database: Collection of logically related data along with its description is termed
as database.
Tuple: A row in a relation is called a tuple.
Attribute: A column in a relation is called an attribute. It is also termed as field or

data item.
Degree: Number of attributes in a relation is called degree of a relation.
Cardinality: Number of tuples in a relation is called cardinality of a relation.
Example:
Relation: Student
Fields (Attributes/Columns):- AdNo, Name, Class, Section and Average.

Tuples (Rows/Records):
Domain: Possible values of section are ('A','B','C','D')

Degree: 5 (Number of columns).
Cardinality: 6 (Number of rows).
KEYS:
Keys are an important part of a relational database and a vital part of the structure
of a table. They help enforce integrity and help identify the relationship between
tables. There are three main types of keys - candidate keys, primary keys, foreign
keys and alternate keys.
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Primary Key: Primary key is a key that can uniquely identifies the records/tuples
in a relation. This key can never be duplicated and NULL.
Foreign Key: Foreign Key is a key that is defined as a primary key in some other
relation. This key is used to enforce referential integrity in RDBMS.
Candidate Key: Set of all attributes which can serve as a primary key in a relation.
Alternate Key: All the candidate keys other than the primary keys of a relation are
alternate keys for a relation.
DBA: Data Base Administrator is a person (manager) that is responsible for

defining the data base schema, setting security features in database, ensuring
proper functioning of the data bases etc.
Select Operation: The select operation selects tuples from a relation which satisfy
a given condition. It is denoted by lowercase Greek Letter σ (sigma).
Project Operation: The project operation selects columns from a relation which
satisfy a given condition. It is denoted by lowercase Greek Letter π (pi). It can be
thought of as picking a sub set of all available columns.
Union Operation: The union (denoted as ∪) of a collection of relations is the set

of all distinct tuples in the collection. It is a binary operation that needs two
relations.
Set Difference Operation: This is denoted by – (minus) and is a binary operation.

It results in a set of tuples that are in one relation but not in another Structured
Query Language SQL is a nonprocedural language that is used to create,
manipulate and process the databases(relations).
Characteristics of SQL
1. It is very easy to learn and use.

2. Large volume of databases can be handled quite easily.
3. It is nonprocedural language. It means that we do not need to specify the
procedures to accomplish a task but just to give a command to perform the
activity.
4. SQL can be linked to most of other high level languages that makes it first
choice for the database programmers.
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Processing Capabilities of SQL

The following are the processing capabilities of SQL
1. Data Definition Language (DDL)

DDL contains commands that are used to create the tables, databases, indexes,
views, sequences and synonyms etc.
e.g: Create table, create view, create index, alter table etc.
2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)

DML contains command that can be used to manipulate the data base objects and
to query the databases for information retrieval.
e.g Select, Insert, Delete, Update etc.
3. View Definition:
DDL contains set of command to create a view of a relation.
e.g : create view
4. Data Control Language:

This language is used for controlling the access to the data. Various commands like
GRANT, REVOKE etc are available in DCL.
5. Transaction Control Language (TCL)

TCL include commands to control the transactions in a data base system. The
commonly used commands in TCL are COMMIT, ROLLBACK etc.
Operators in SQL:
The following are the commonly used operators in SQL
1. Arithmetic Operators +, -, *, /
2. Relational Operators =, <, >, <=, >=, <>
3. Logical Operators OR, AND, NOT
Data types of SQL

Just like any other programming language, the facility of defining data of various
types is available in SQL also. Following are the most common data types of SQL.
1. NUMBER e.g. Number(n,d) Number (5,2)

2. CHAR CAHR(SIZE)
3. VARCHAR / VARCHAR2 VARCHAR2(SIZE)
4. DATE DD-MON-YYYY
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5. LONG
6. RAW/LONG RAW
Constraints:
Constraints are the conditions that can be enforced on the attributes of a relation.
The constraints come in play whenever we try to insert, delete or update a record in
a relation. Not null ensures that we cannot leave a column as null. That is a value
has to be supplied for that column.
e.g name varchar(25) not null;
Unique constraint means that the values under that column are always unique.
e.g Roll_no number(3) unique;
Primary key constraint means that a column can not have duplicate values and not
even a null value.
e.g. Roll_no number(3) primary key;
The main difference between unique and primary key constraint is that a column
specified as unique may have null value but primary key constraint does not allow
null values in the column.
Foreign key is used to enforce referential integrity and is declared as a primary key
in some other table.
e.g cust_id varchar(5) references master(cust_id);
it declares cust_id column as a foreign key that refers to cust_id field of table
master. That means we cannot insert that value in cust_id filed whose
corresponding value is not present in cust_id field of master table.
Check constraint limits the values that can be inserted into a column of a table.
e.g marks number(3) check(marks>=0);
The above statement declares marks to be of type number and while inserting or
updating the value in marks it is ensured that its value is always greater than or
equal to zero.
140
Default constraint is used to specify a default value to a column of a table

automatically. This default value will be used when user does not enter any value
for that column. e.g balance number(5) default = 0;
SYNTAX of some SQL COMMANDS :
1. SELECT column list FROM <table name> WHERE <condition> GROUP

BY <column name(s)> HAVING <search condition> ORDER BY column
name;
2. INSERT INTO <table name> [<column list>] VALUES ( <value>, <value>,

...);
3. DELETE FROM <table name> [WHERE <predicate>];
4. UPDATE <table name> SET <column name> = <new value> [WHERE

<predicate>];
5. CREATE TABLE <table name> (<column name><data type> [(size)]

<column constraint>, <column name><data type> [(size)] <column
constraint>, ... <table constraint> (<column name> [<column name> ...]) ...);
6. CREATE VIEW <view name> [(<column name>, <column name>,...)] AS

<SELECT command>;
7. ALTER TABLE <table name> ADD / MODIFY <column name><data

type><size>;
8. DROP TABLE <table name>;
9. DROP VIEW <view name>;
Consider the following Table:-
Roll_no Name Class Marks City

101 Ajaz X 400 Srinagar
102 Farooq XI 450 Budgam
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103 Sajad XI 430 Sopore
104 Javeed XII 490 Bandipora
105 Humira IX 330 Baramulla
106 Tahir XI 404 Ganderbal
Eliminating Duplicate/Redundant data

DISTINCT keyword is used to restrict the duplicate rows from the results of a
SELECT statement.
e.g. SELECT DISTINCT name FROM student;
The above command returns
Name
Ajaz
Farooq
Sajad
Conditions based on a range:

SQL provides a BETWEEN operator that defines a range of values that the column
value must fall for the condition to become true.
e.g. SELECT Roll_no, name FROM student WHERE Roll_no BETWENN 100
AND 103;
The above command displays Roll_no and name of those students whose Roll_no
lies in the range 100 to 103 (both 100 and 103 are included in the range).

Roll_no Name
101 Ajaz
102 Farooq
103 Sajad
Conditions based on a list:

To specify a list of values, IN operator is used. This operator select values that
match any value in the given list.
142
e.g. SELECT*FROM student WHERE city IN (‗Srinagar‘,‘Sopore‘,‘Baramullah‘);
The above command displays all those records whose city is either
‗Srinagar‘,‘Sopore‘,‘Baramullah‘
Roll_no Name Class Marks City

101 Ajaz X 400 Srinagar
103 Sajad XI 430 Sopore
105 Humira IX 330 Baramulla
Conditions based on Pattern
SQL provides two wild card characters that are used while comparing the strings
with LIKE operator.
o percent(%) Matches any string

o Underscore( _ ) Matches any one character
e.g SELECT Roll_no, name, city FROM student WHERE Roll_no LIKE ―%3‖;
displays those records where last digit of Roll_no is 3 and may have any number of
characters in front.
e.g SELECT Roll_no, name, city FROM student WHERE Roll_no LIKE ―1_3‖;
displays those records whose Roll_no starts with 1 and second letter may be any
letter but ends with digit 3.
ORDER BY Clause
ORDER BY clause is used to display the result of a query in a specific order(sorted
order). The sorting can be done in ascending or in descending order. It should be
kept in mind that the actual data in the database is not sorted but only the results of
the query are displayed in sorted order.
e.g. SELECT name, city FROM student ORDER BY name;
143
The above query returns name and city columns of table student sorted by name in
increasing/ascending order.
e.g. SELECT * FROM student ORDER BY city DESC;
It displays all the records of table student ordered by city in descending order.
Note:- If order is not specifies that by default the sorting will be performed in
ascending order.
GROUP BY Clause
The GROUP BY clause can be used in a SELECT statement to collect data across
multiple records and group the results by one or more columns.
The syntax for the GROUP BY clause is:
SELECT column1, column2, ... column_n, aggregate_function (expression)

FROM tables
WHERE conditions
GROUP BY column1, column2, ... column_n;
Aggregate Function:
aggregate_function can be a function such as SUM, COUNT, MAX, MIN, AVG
etc.
e.g SELECT name, COUNT(*) as "Number of employees"

FROM student
WHERE marks>350
GROUP BY city;
SELECT MIN(Sal), MAX(Sal), AVG(Sal),

FROM Emp
WHERE DeptNo = ‗D1‘
Example: (SUM, AVG, MAX, MIN)

SELECT SUM (fees)
FROM student;
SELECT AVG (fees)

FROM student;
144
SELECT MAX (fees)

FROM student;
SELECT MIN (fees)

FROM student;
The INSERT Command:
The tuples are added to relation using INSERT command of SQL.
Syntax:
INSERT INTO <table-name>[<column list>]

VALUES (<value>,<value>,<value>,…..);
Example :
Enter a new record in student table
INSERT INTO student (sid,sname,fname,age,class,address);

VALUES(107,‟Jameel‟,‟Farooq‟,18,‟XII‟,‟Pulwama‟);
sid sname fname age class address
107 Jameel Farooq 18 XII Pulwama
The DELETE Command:

The delete command removes the tuples from the tables. This command remove
the entire row from the table and not the individual field. So no filed argument is
needed.
Syntax:
DELETE FROM <table-name>
WHERE <condition>;
Example:
Delete all the records of employee whose salary is less than 3000
DELETE FROM emp

WHERE sal<3000;
To delete all the record from the table:
DELET FROM<table-name>;
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The UPDATE command is used to changes some values in existing rows. The
UPDATE command specifies the rows to be changed using the WHERE clause,
and new data using the SET keyword.
Example:
Update the salary of employee to 5000 whose employee code is 1011.
UPDATE emp
SET sal=5000
WHERE empno=1011;
The ALTER TABLE Command:

The ALTER command is used to change the definition of existing table.
1. It can be used to add columns to a table.

Syntax (to add a column to a table):
ALTER TABLE <table-name> ADD <column-name>
<data type> <size>;
2. To modify existing columns of a table:
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE <table-name>
MODIFY (Columnname newdatatype (newsize));
Example:
To modify column job of table emp to have new width of 30 character
ALTER TABLE emp

MODIFY (job char(30));
The DROP Command:

The DROP command is used to drop the table from the database. For dropping a
table all the tuples should be deleted first i.e the table should be empty.
Syntax:
DROP TABLE <table-name>
Practice work:
Consider the following partial relation EMP. Let us create some sub-queries for
them.
146
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL DEPTNO

7566 Nirmal MANAGER 2975 10
7788 Kailash ANALYST 3000 10
7839 Karuna PRESIDENT 5000 20
7902 Ashwin ANALYST 3000 20
7905 Ashwini MANAGER 4000 20
Example 1: Get the details of the person having the minimum salary.
SELECT ENAME, JOB,SAL

FROM EMP
WHERE SAL = (SELECT MIN (SAL)
FROM EMP);
OUTPUT:
ENAME JOB SAL
Nirmal MANAGER 2975
Example 2: Display the employees whose job title is the same as that of employee
7566 and salary is more than the salary of employee 7788
SELECT ENAME, JOB

FROM EMP
WHERE JOB = (SELECT JOB
FROM EMP
WHERE EMPNO = 7566)
OUTPUT:
ENAME JOB
Ashwini MANAGER
Example 3: To find the minimum SAL in those departments whose minimum

salary is greater than minimum salary of department number 10.
SELECT DEPTNO, MIN (SAL)

FROM EMP
GROUP BY DEPTNO
HAVING MIN (SAL)> (SELECT MIN (SAL)
FROM EMP
147
WHERE DEPTNO = 10);

OUTPUT:
DEPTNO SAL
10 2975
Example 20 3000 4: Find the name, department no and
salary of employees drawing minimum salary in that department.
SELECT ENAME, SAL, DEPTNO

FROM EMP
WHERE SAL IN = (SELECT MIN (SAL)
FROM EMP
GROUP BY DEPTNO);
OUTPUT:
ENAME SAL DEPTNO
Nirmal 2975 10
Ashwin 3000 20
Example 5: Find the AVERAGE salary in each department.
SELECT DEPTNO, AVG (SAL)

FROM EMP
GROUP BY DEPTNO;
OUTPUT:
DEPTNO SAL
10 2987.5
20 4000
Example:
Table: Student
148
Relational Operator (< less than , > greater than < = less than or equal to,> = greater
than or equal to, = equal to, ! = not equal to)
Example 6: Display students' name, who are paying below 3000 fees.
SELECT name
FROM student
WHERE fees<3000;
Output:
Example 7: Display students' name, who are paying above or equal to 3000 fees.
SELECT name
FROM student
WHERE fees>=3000;
Output:
Example 8: Display students' information, who are not in class 10

SELECT *
FROM student
WHERE class! = 10;
Output:
149
Logical Operator (AND, OR, NOT)

Example 9: Display information of students in class 11B.
SELECT *
FROM student
WHERE class = 11 AND section = 'B';
Output:
Example 10: Display 11th and 12th class students' information.

SELECT *
FROM student
WHERE class =11 OR class=12;
Output:
Example 11: Display students' information, who are not in 10th class.
SELECT *
FROM student
WHERE NOT class = 10;
Output:
150
Unit 5
Boolean Algebra
Objectives:
o Boolean Algebra & Theorems
o Basic Logic Gates
o Canonical and Standard Forms (SOP & POS)
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA:
Boolean Algebra was introduced by George Boole in 1854. He was an English
mathematician, who primarily worked on differential equations and the calculus of
variations. But the work for which he is best known is - application of algebraic
systems to non-mathematical reasoning. He proposed that logical propositions
should be expressed as algebraic equations, so now logic was reduced to algebra.
In his logical deductions he replaced the operation of multiplication by AND, and
addition by OR. However, it is Claude Shannon, whose work on using Boolean
Algebra to design Switching Circuits in late 1930s, became the foundation of
computer Logic and Design. As Boolean logic allows things to be mapped into bits
and bytes, it has application in telephone switching circuits, electronics, computers
(both hardware and software), etc.
Boolean Algebra, which is algebra of two values may be (True, False) or (Yes, No)
or (0, 1), is an important tool in analyzing, designing and implementing digital
circuits.
Boolean Algebra is made up of:

 Elements - which are variables or constants with value 1 or 0.
 Operators - which are And, Or and Not.
 Axioms and Theorems.
A Boolean variable is a symbol used to represent a logical quantity. It will take
value from the domain {0, 1}, and Boolean constant is single digit binary value
(bit) viz. 0 or 1.
There are three fundamental operators- AND, OR and NOT. AND is a binary
operator, to perform logical multiplication, it is represented by '.' OR is also a
151
binary operator, to perform logical addition. It is represented by '+'. NOT is a unary

operator, to complement the operand. Not is represented as ' or ¯. Complement is
the inverse of a variable/ constant. In case of Boolean algebra, since the
variable/constant can have value 0 or 1 so complement will be 1 or 0.
Note: A binary operator is applied on two operands and unary to one.

Just like algebra, Boolean algebra also have axioms and theorems, which describe
how logical quantities behave. We know that axiom is a statement which is
considered to be true, and theorems are to be proved.
First axiom is Closure Property, it states that Boolean operations (+ or .) on
Boolean variables or constants will always result into a Boolean value.
Following are other axioms and theorems of Boolean algebra:

Identity: states that, sum of anything and zero, or product of anything and one, is
same as the original anything. So identity with respect to + is 0, and with respect to
. is 1
A + 0 = A and A.1 = A
Commutative: property tells us, we can reverse the order of variables, that are
either ORed together or ANDed together without changing the truth of the
expression.
A + B = B + A and A . B = B . A
Distributive: law states that, ORing variables and then ANDing the result with
single variable is equivalent to ANDing the result with a single variable with each
of the several variables and then ORing the products. Vice versa with respect to
operators and terms is also true.
A . ( B + C ) = A . B + A . C and A + ( B . C ) = ( A + B ) . ( A + C )
Complement: states that sum of a Boolean quantity with its complement or

product of a Boolean quantity with its complement results into identity
A + A' = 1 and A . A' = 0
Indempotency: states that when we sum or product a boolaen quantity to itself, the
resultant is original quantity.
A + A = A and A . A = A
152
Null Element: No matter what the value of Boolean variable, the sum of variable
and 1 will always be 1. Also the product of Boolean variable and 0 will always be
0.
A + 1 = 1 and A . 0 = 0
Involution: states that complementing a variable twice, or any even number of

times, results in the original Boolean value.
(A')' = A
Associative: this property tells us that we can associate, group of sum or product
variables together with parenthesis without altering the truth of the expression
A + ( B + C ) = ( A + B ) + C and A . ( B . C ) = ( A . B) . C
Absorption: is also known as covering, have three forms

1. A + AB = A and A . (A + B) = A
2. A + (A' . B) = A + B and A . (A' + B) = A . B
3. (A + B) . (A' + C) . (B + C) = (A + B) . (A' + C) AND (A . B) + (A' . C) + (B . C) = A . B + A' . C
De Morgan's Theorem: states that the complement of a sum / product, equals the
product / sum of the complements.
( A + B ) ' = A' . B' and ( A . B )' = A' + B'
Apart from these axioms and theorems, there is a principle. Duality Principle
which states that starting with Boolean relation, you can device another Boolean
relation by
1. Changing each OR operation to AND
2. Changing each AND operation to OR
3. Complementing the identity (0 or 1) elements.
For example dual of relation
A + 1 = 1 is A . 0 = 0.
You must have noticed that second part of axioms and theorems is actually the
result of this principle only. Practical consequence of this theorem is, it is sufficient
to prove half the theorem, the other half comes gratis from the principle.
If we compare Boolean Algebra with Arithmetic algebra, we will find that
1. In Boolean algebra + can distribute over .

153
2. Logical subtraction and logical division are not available in Boolean algebra,
as there is no additive or multiplicative inverse available.
3. Complement is available in Boolean algebra
4. Two valued Boolean algebra contains 0 & 1 only.
Boolean Function - is an expression formed with boolean variable(s), boolean

constant(s), boolean operator(s), parenthesis and equal sign. It will always result
into a boolean value, as specified by closure property. There are three ways to
represent a boolean expression/function viz.
1. Algebraic
2. Truth Table
3. Circuit Diagram
Algebraic Representation: Axioms and Theorems written above are examples of

algebraic representation, but let's have some more examples:
F1 = a.b
formed using two boolean variables a & b with AND operator. This function will
be equal to 1, for a = 1 and b = 1, otherwise it will be 0.
F2 = xyz' 2
formed using three boolean variables x, y and z with AND operator. Function will
be 1 if x = 1, y = 1, and z' =1 i.e. z = 0, in all other situations F will be 0. 2
They can also be represented as

F1 (a, b) = a.b 1
F2 (x,y,z) = x.y.z' 2
These are examples of some simple Boolean functions. Complex boolean functions
can be formed using simple expressions. Following are the examples of such
functions:
F3 (a, b, c)= (a+b).c 3
F4 (x,y) = (x+y). (x'+y') 4
F5 (x, y, z)= x. (y+z). (x+y') 5
F6 (w, x, y, z)= y'z + wxy' + wx'z 6
When an expression/function contains two or more operators, the order of
operations is decided by parenthesis and precedence of operators. Moving from
high to low precedence, following table gives the precedence of Boolean operators.
154
Truth Table representation:

A truth table is a chart of 1's and 0's, arranged to indicate the results of all possible
input options. Number of columns in the table is decided by the number of Boolean
variables in the function. Each variable will be represented in a column. For n
variable expression, there will be 2n rows in the table. For filling these rows in the
table, they will be the binary representation of the integers from 0 to (2 n-1), in the
same order.
Let's fill the table for one variable – a
Since the table is for one variable there will be only two rows 2 1 = 2 rows. For two
variables - a & b, the table will have 4 rows (22 = 4 ), listed below
a b
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
Three Variables - a, b & c, 8 rows
a b c
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1
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and so on. The trick for filling the table is, starting from right most column of the
table - 1st column will be combination of 0,1,0,1,…… (20 zeros and then same
number of 1s. In 2nd column it will be 0,0,1,1,0,0,….. 2 1 zeros and then same
number of ones. In 3rd column 0,0,0,0,1,1,1,1,0,0, …… (22 number of zeros and
ones), and so on.
Now let's use one variable table, to represent a simple boolean function f (a) = a'
a F(a)
0 1
1 0
Second column of table gives the value of Boolean function i.e. a'. This table tells
that if a is true, a' will be false and vice versa, as is evident from 2nd column of
table.
Truth table for the boolean function applied on two variables with all basic
Boolean operators i.e. AND, OR will be
a b F=a.b F=a+b
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1
Now let's represent some more functions written earlier in algebraic form using
truth table:
F2 (x,y,z) = xyz'
156
From our earlier explanation we know that F will be one for x = 1, y = 1 and
z = 0.2
f3 (a, b, c) = (a+b).c
f4 (x,y) = (x+y). (x'+y')
For now let's move on to proving the various theorems of Boolean algebra:
Theorems can be proved in two ways:
a. Algebraic Method: In this method, we use axioms & theorems. This

method is similar to what you do in mathematics.
b. Truth Table: Here we use truth table to show that expression given on
LHS results into same values for expression on RHS. This actually is
verification of theorem, not proving.
Associative:
Theorem states that A + (B+C) = (A+B) + C and A.(B.C) = (A.B).C
Let's algebraically prove it:
Let X = [A + (B + C)] [(A + B) + C]
157
then
X = [(A + B) + C] A + [(A + B) + C] (B + C)
= [(A + B) A + C . A] + [(A + B) + C] (B + C)
= A + [ (A + B) + C] (B + C)
= A + [(A + B) + C] B + [(A + B) + C] C
= A + (B + C)
But also
X = (A + B) [A + (B + C)] + C [A + (B + C)]
= (A + B) [A + (B + C)] + C
= A [A + (B + C)] + B [A + (B + C)] + C
= (A + B) + C
Thus A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
We know, second form of the theorem will also be true. (Duality Principle)
Truth table method:
As LHS= RHS, hence verified
Null Element states that A + 1 = 1 and A . 0 = 0

Algebraic method:
Taking LHS
A+1 = (A+1).1 by Identity
= (A+1). (A+A') by Complement
= A + (1.A') by Distribution
= A+ (A'.1) by Indempotancy & Commutative
= A+A' by Identity
= 1 by Complement
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By applying the principle of Duality, we get A.0 = 0
Truth Table method:
Involution states that ((A')') = A

Taking LHS
(A')' = (A')' + 0 by Identity
= (A')' + (A'.A) by Complement
= ((A')' + A'). ((A')' + A) by Distribution
= 1. ((A')'+A) by Complement
= (A')'+A by Identity (1)
Taking LHS again
(A')' = (A')'. 1 by Identity
= (A')'. (A+A') by Complement
= (A')' .A) + ((A')'.A') by Distribution
= (A')' .A) + 0 by Complement
= (A')'. A (2)
Substituting the value of (A')' = (A')'. A in (1), we get
(A')' + A = (A')'.A + A
= A + (A')'.A by Commuting
= A + A. (A')' by Commuting
=A by Absorption
Truth Table method:
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Indempotency states that A+A= A and A . A = A

Algebraic method:
Taking L.H.S
A+A = (A+A).1 by identity
= (A+A). (A+A') by complement
= (AA+AA') + (AA + AA') by distribution
= AA+0
=A
Truth Table method:
As LHS = RHS, hence verified
Absorption Law:
i) A + AB = A and A . (A + B) = A
Algebraic method:
Taking LHS
A + AB = (A.1) + (A.B) by Identity
= A. (1+B) by Distribution
= A.1 by Null Element
=A
Using Duality, we know that A.(A+B) = A is also true
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ii) (A + A'B) = A+ B and A . (A' + B) = A . B

Algebraic method:
Taking LHS
A + A'B = (A+ A') . (A+B) by Distribution
= 1. (A+B) by Complement
= A+B by Identity
Because of duality, A.(A'+B) = A.B is also true.
iii) ((A+B).(A'+C). (B+C)) = (A+B). (A'+C) AND ((A.B) + (A'.C) + (B.C)) = A.B + A'.C
Taking LHS
= (A+B).(A'+C). (B+C)
= (A+B).(A'+C). (B+C). (B+C) by Idempotency
= (A+B).(B+C).(A'+C). (B+C) by Commuting
= (B+A).(B+C).( C+A'). (C+B) by Commuting
= (B+A.C) . ( C+ A'B ) by Distributive
= (B+AC).C + (B+AC). A'B by Distribution
= B.C + A.C.C + B. A.'.B + A.C.A'B by Distribution
= B.C + A.(C.C) + (B.B). A'+ C. (A. A').B by Associativity and Idempotency
= B.C + A.C + B.A'+ 0 by Complement and Idempotency
= (B+A).C + B.A'+ A. A' by Complement and Distributive
= (B+A).C + (B+A).A' by Distributive
= (B+A).(C + A') by Distributive
= (A+B). (A'+C) by Commuting
Using Duality Principle we can say that A.B + A'+C + B. C = A. B. A'.C is also
true
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Truth Table method:
De Morgan's Theorem:
States that (A+B)' = A'.B' and (A.B)' = A' + B'
Algebraic method:
Assuming that DeMorgan's theorem is true, then through this we can find
complement of a function/expression.
We also know that
X+X' = 1 and X.X'=0
So by showing that
i) (A+B) + A'.B' = 1
ii) (A+B). (A'.B') = 0
We shall establish the DeMorgan's theorem.

i) (A+B) + A'.B' =1
Taking LHS
= (A+B) + (A'. B')= ((A+B)+ A'). ((A+B)+ B') By Distribution
= (A+(B+ A')). (A+(B+ B')) By Associativity
= (A+( A'+B)). (A+(B+ B')) By Commutativity
= (A+ (A'+B)). (A+1) By Complement
= ((A+ A')+B).(A+1) By Commutativity
= (1+B). (A+1) By Complement
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= 1.1 By Null element

=1
ii) (A+B). (A'.B')= 0
Taking LHS
= (A.(A'.B') + (B. (A'.B'))
= ((A.A').B') + ((B.A'). B') By Associativity
= 0 + ((B'.A'). B') By Null Element
= 0 + ((A'.B).B') By Commutativity
= 0 + (A'+(B.B')) By Associativity
=0+0 By Null Element
=0
Truth Table method:
Hence De Morgan's theorem is established. Using Duality we can say that

(A . B)' = A' + B'
BASIC LOGIC GATES
Logic Gates:
A gate is simply an electronic circuit, which operates on one or more signals to
produce an output signal. Gates are digital circuits because the input and output
signals are either low (0) or high (1). Gates also called logic circuits.
This logic circuit diagram can be composed of basic gates AND, OR and NOT or
advance gates, NAND and NOR, etc.
Logic circuits that perform logical operations such as AND, OR and NOT are
called gates. A gate is block of hardware that produces a logic 0 or a logic 1 output,
in response to the binary signal(s) applied to it as input.
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Let's look at the symbols used to represent digital logic gates
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Canonical and Standard Forms:

In a boolean function, a binary variable can appear in any form, normal (a) or
complemented (a'). Now consider a boolean expression formed on two variables
a & b using AND operator. Since each variable may appear in any form, there are
four possible ways of combining these two variables viz. a'b', ab', a'b, ab.
Similarly if we combine them using OR operator, again there are four possible
ways viz. a+b, a'+b, a+b', a'+b'
For now we will concentrate on the terms formed using AND operator only. Each
of them is called a minterm or Standard Product Term. A minterm, is obtained
from AND term, with each variable being complemented, if the corresponding bit
of binary number (in the truth table) is 0 and normal (i.e. non complemented) if the
bit is 1. These terms are designated using m.
Following table provide minterm for 3 variables:
For four variables, there will be 16 minterms designated by m0 to m15.
Similarly, OR terms are called maxterms or Standard Sum Term. A maxterm is

obtained from OR operator, variable being complemented if the corresponding bit
of binary number (in the truth table) is 1 and normal if the bit is 0. These terms are
designated by M
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We already have maxterms for 2 variables, maxterms for 3 variables will be:
Maxterm for four variables can be obtained in similar manner and they are
designated as M0 to M15 . If we put both maxterms and minterms together, we will
have following table
By now you might have noted that each maxterm is complement of its
corresponding minterm. For n variables, there will be 2n, minterms (i.e. Standard
Product Term) denoted as mi, 0 < i < 2n - 1, and 2n i maxterms (i.e. Standard Sum
Term), their complement, denoted as M, 0 < i < 2n - 1.
Now let's use this information for algebraic representation of boolean function
from the truth table. This is done by forwarding a minterm for each combination of
variables which produces a 1 in the function, and then by ORing these minterms.
For e,g.
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Since a'b'c, ab'c', abc' and abc minterms are resulting into 1, in function (F1 )
column, so algebraic representation of the function F1 will be
F1 (a,b,c)= a'b'c + ab'c' + abc' + abc
This is a boolean expression, expressed as sum of minterms and , will give value 1.
This form of expression is known as Sum of Products or SOP expression. F1 in
SOP form can also be represented as
i) m1 + m4 + m6 +m7
Instead of using Product terms, we can just mention the minterm designation.
ii) ∑ (1, 4, 6, 7)
This one is mathematical representation of the above expression.
Let's take some more examples:
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Algebraic representation in SOP form, of the three functions, represented in the

truth table is
F2 (x,y,z) = x'yz + xy'z' + xyz'
OR
m3 + m4 + m6
F3 (x,y,z) = x'y'z + x'yz + xy'z' + xy'z + xyz'

OR
m1 + m3 + m4 + m5 + m6
F4 (x,y,z) = x'yz' + x'yz + xyz' + xyz

OR
m2 + m3 + m6 + m7
All of them will result into value 1.
What if we have to represent the function in complement form i.e. for its value 0.
Simple, we will OR the
minterms, from the truth table, for which function value is 0. So we have,
F1' = x'y'z' + x'yz' + x'yz + xy'z (the remaining minterms)
On evaluating it for complement, we get
F1 = (x+y+z). (x+y'+z) . (x+y'+z') . (x'+y+z')
What we get is the Products of Sum form (POS) of the function F1.
POS form of the expression gives value 0, and we work on the complements. POS
is formed by ANDing maxterms.
POS also can be represented in many ways. One way we have seen, others are
i) F1 = M0 .M2 .M3 .M5
Instead of using maxterms, we can use designation of it.

ii) F1 = ∏(0, 2, 3, 5)
This one is mathematical representation of the above expression.

Let's look both, SOP and POS expression for same function
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SOP expression for F will be

x'y'z + x'yz' or ∑ (1,2)
POS equivalent of it will be found using complement of minterms with value zero,
we know this
(F')' = ( x'y'z' + x'yz + xy'z' + xy'z + xyz' + xyz)'
= (x + y + z) . (x + y' + z') . (x' + y + z). (x' + y + z'). (x' + y' + z).(x' + y' + z')
OR
= ∏(0,3,4,5,6,7)
Conversion from one form to another is easy. Short cut for it is:
i) Interchange the symbol (OR to AND / ∑ to ∏)

ii) List those terms, which are missing in original.
Expressions which were written till now, are in Canonical form. In this form, every
term of the function should have all the literals. When, minterms or maxterms from
truth table, are used for representation, the function is in canonical form only, as
terms contains all variables (may be in any form). Since we can use either
minterms or maxterms to form expression, we can have Canonical SOP expression
or Canonical POS expressions.
Till now, we were given truth table and we were representing Boolean Function in
algebraic form. Vice versa of it, i.e. for a given Boolean function in algebraic
representation, we can represent it in Truth table.
What we have worked on was Canonical Boolean functions. There is another form
of representation, also - both for SOP & POS. It is known as reduced / simplified
form.
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Simplified expressions are usually more efficient and effective when implemented
in practice. Also simpler expressions are easier to understand, and less prone to
errors. So the Canonical expressions are simplified/minimized to obtain a reduced
expression (Standard form).
Minimization of Gates:
Boolean function may be reduced in many ways, but we will be taking up the
following two ways of reduction in this course.
1. Algebraic Manipulations
2. Karnaugh Map.
Algebraic reduction of Boolean function/expression: in this reduction, we apply

certain algebraic axioms and theorems to reduce the number of terms or number of
literals in the expression. In this way of reduction, there are no fixed rules that can
be used to minimize the given expression. It is left to individual's ability to apply
axioms or theorems for minimizing the expression.
Example 1:
F (a, b) = (a+b)' + ab'
= a'b'+ab' by De Morgan's theorem
= (a'+a)b' by Distribution
= 1.b' by Complement
= b' by Identity
Example 2:
F (a, b) = ab+ ab'+ a'b
= a(b+b') + a'b by Distribution
= a.1 + a'b by complement
= a + a'b by Identity
= a+b by absorption
Using Karnaugh Map :

A Karnaugh map is graphical display of the fundamental products in a truth table.
The map reduces boolean expression more quickly and easily, as compared to
algebraic reduction.
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Using K-map for reduction is 4 step process

1. Drawing K-map
2. Filling it, i.e. representing the boolean expression in map
3. Grouping the terms for reducing purpose
4. Reading the reduced expression from map
1. Drawing K-map:
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The cells of the map are marked by the minterms as explained in first map. For e,g.
If you look at the square assigned m (minterm), it corresponds to binary no. 0100
of the truth table.
Now to understand, why the squares have been marked, as they are?
If you look at any two adjacent cell in the map, they differ only by one variable,
which is normal in one cell and complemented in other or vice-versa. For eg. From
m to m only a changes its state from complemented to normal. And we know,
using Boolean axiom (a'+a=1) that we can eliminate the variable from the resultant
reduced term.
2. Filling the K-map:

Once a K-map is drawn, next is to fill the map i.e. mark the function in the map.
For representation, the function should be in canonical SOP form. If we have the
function represented in truth table, then it will be in canonical form only.
Otherwise, we know how to convert it. We will mark 1 in all those cells of K-map,
for which there is a minterm in the Boolean function/expression.
3. Grouping the minterms:

Next is grouping the 1s in the map. We group 1s of adjacent cells.
Following are the rules for grouping. Remember our goal should be to maximize
the size of group (i.e. no. of 1s included in the group) and to minimize the number
of groups.
1. A group must contain 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, …. cells, i.e. in the power of 2.
2. Cells which are grouped, should be adjacent cells, i.e. horizontal or vertical,
not diagonal.
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3. Groups should not include any cell containing zero
4. Each group should be as large as possible
5. Groups may overlap
6. Groups may wrap around the table. The left most cell(s) in a row may be
grouped with right most cell(s), and the top cell(s) in a column may be
grouped with the bottom cells(s). Cells in corners of the map are also
adjacent, for that purpose.
7. There should be as few groups as possible, as long as this does not contradict
any of the previous rule. Once the grouping is done, last step is.
4. Reading the reduced expression from K-map:

 Each group corresponds to one product term, from K-map.
 The term is determined by finding the common literals in that group, i.e. the
variables which change their state (from normal to complement or vice-
versa) are to be omitted in resultant product term.
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What we have to do is, find the variable(s) listed on top and / or side, which are the
same for entire group and ignore variable(s) which are not same in the group.
Using the above strategy, write the result. Let‘s look at some examples
Simplify the Boolean Function F(x,y,z) = x'yz + xy'z' + xyz + xyz'
Step 1: Drawing the K-map
Step 2: Marking of function in map
Step 3: Grouping
Step 4: Reading reduced expression from map

For Group 1, variable x is changing its state and for Group 2, variable y is
changing its state. So x in 1st group and y in 2nd group will be omitted. The
resultant expression will contain yz, because of 1st group and xz' for 2nd. As this is
SOP expression so both the terms will be joined through OR operator.
Resultant reduced function will be
F = yz + xz'
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Exercise
Q1: Reduce the following Boolean Expression using K-Map:
F( A, B, C, D ) = p ( 0, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 15 )
Ans:
There are 1 quad and 3 pairs after eliminating the redundant groups.
Quad (M3, M7, M11, M15) reduces to C' + D'
Pair ( M5, M7) reduces to A + B ' + D'
Pair ( M6, M7) reduces to A + B ' + C'
Pair ( M0, M8) reduces to B + C + D
Hence, F( A, B, C, D ) = (C' + D') . (A + B ' + D') . (A + B ' + C') . (B + C + D)
Q2. Write the equivalent Boolean Expression for the following Logic Circuit
Ans: F(P,Q)=(P'+Q).(P+Q')
Q3. Write the equivalent Boolean Expression F for the following circuit diagram:
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Ans: A‘B+AB+AB‘
Q4. Convert the following Boolean expression into its equivalent Canonical Sum
of Product Form((SOP)
(X‘+Y+Z‘).(X‘+Y+Z).(X‘+Y‘+Z).(X‘+Y‘+Z‘)
Ans: F(X, Y, Z) =π(4 , 5 , 6 , 7)
=Σ(0, 1 , 2 , 3)
= X‘. Y‘. Z‘ + X‘. Y‘. Z + X‘. Y. Z‘ + X‘. Y. Z
Q5. Draw a Logical Circuit Diagram for the following Boolean expression:
A.(B+C‘)
Ans:
Q6. Draw a Logical Circuit Diagram for all logical Gates:

Ans:
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Unit 6
COMMUNICATION & OPEN SOURCES CONCEPTS
Objectives:
o Switching Techniques
o Data Communication Terminologies
o Transmission Media
o Network Security Concepts
o Web Servers
o Open Source Terminologies
Communication:
Communication means to convey. In today's fast changing world, data needs to be
transferred efficiently, frequently and speedily. To move data at a fast speed and
that too with minimum data loss, networking plays an important role. Computer
networks have made a major impact on the society as a whole. As we are moving
ahead in the 21st century, the world seems to be converging. The merging of
computers and communication technology has changed the very perspective of
communication today. It has had a profound influence on the way the computer
systems are organized and used today. The old model of a single computer serving
all of the organization's computational needs has been replaced by one in which
large number of separate but interconnected computers do the same job. These
systems together form a computer network.
Network:
We often need peripheral devices and data to be shared among various computers.
In fact, in your school's computer lab, you must have seen one printer which is
connected to only one computer, serving to the needs of all the computers in the
lab. How does this happen? This happens because all your lab's computers and
peripherals are forming a network. They are interconnected with each other
enabling you to send and receive data from one computer to another. Hence it can
be said that two computers are interconnected if they are able to exchange
information.
A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with one

another over a shared network medium. In simple terms, a computer network is a
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collection of two or more computers linked together for the purpose of sharing
information and resources. When these computers are joined in a network, people
can share files and peripherals such as modems, printers, backup drives, or CD-
ROM drives. Each computer on the network is called a node and hence, a network
is a series of points or nodes interconnected by communication paths (transmission
media). A network can be as small and simple as two computers that share a printer
or as complex as the world's largest network, the Internet. When networks at
multiple locations are connected using services available from phone companies,
people can send e-mail, share links to the global Internet, or conduct video
conferences in real time with other remote users. As companies rely on
applications like electronic mail and database management for core business
operations, computer networking becomes increasingly more important.
Needs:
1. Resource Sharing
2. Reliability
3. Cost Factor
4. Communication Medium
Resource Sharing means to make all programs, data and peripherals available to
anyone on the network irrespective of the physical location of the resources and the
user.
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Reliability means to keep the copy of a file on two or more different machines, so
if one of them is unavailable (due to some hardware crash or any other) them its
other copy can be used.
Cost factor means it greatly reduces the cost since the resources can be shared.
Communication Medium means one can send messages and whatever the
changes at one end are done can be immediately noticed at another.
Evolution Of Networking:
Networking started way back in 1969 with the development of the first network
called the ARPANET. The U.S. department of defense sponsored a project named
ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) whose goal was to
connect computers at different universities and U.S. defense. Soon engineers,
scientists, students and researchers who were part of this system began exchanging
data and messages on it. Gradually they could play long distance games and also
socialize with people. Hence ARPANET expanded rapidly. In mid 80s, the
National Science Foundation created a new high capacity network called NSFnet
which allowed only academic research on its network. So many private companies
built their own networks, which were later interconnected along with ARPANET
and NSFnet to form Internet - a network formed by linking two or more networks.
Diagrammatic presentation
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Internet:
The Internet is a system of linked networks that are worldwide in scope and
facilitate data communication services such as remote login, file transfer, electronic
mail, the World Wide Web and newsgroups. The internet is made up of many
networks each run by a different companies and are interconnected at peering
points. It is really a network of networks spread across the globe, all of which are
connected to each other. This super network is a glorified WAN in many respects.
It connects many smaller networks together and allows all the computers to
exchange information with each other through a common set of rules for
communication. These rules are called protocols and the internet uses
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Programs such as web
browsers, File Transfer Protocol (FTP) clients, and email clients are some of the
most common ways through which the users work on the Internet. With the
meteoric rise in demand for connectivity, the Internet has become a
communications highway for millions of users. The Internet was initially restricted
to military and academic institutions, but now it is a full-fledged conduit for any
and all forms of information and commerce. Internet websites now provide
personal, educational, political and economic resources to every corner of the
planet.
Inter Space:
It is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to communicate
online with real time audio, video and text chat in dynamic 3D environments. It
provides the most advanced form of communication technology available today. It
is a vision of what internet will become tomorrow. The users will be able to
communicate in multiple ways and from multiple sources instantly.
SWITCHING TECHNIQUES:
Switching techniques are used for transmitting data across networks.
Different types are :
1. Circuit Switching
2. Message Switching
3. Packet Switching
Circuit Switching
o Circuit switching is the transmission technology that has been used
since the first communication networks in the nineteenth century.
o First the complete physical connection between two computers is
established and then the data are transmitted from the source computer
to the destination.
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o When a call is placed the switching equipment within the system seeks
out a physical copper path all the way from the sender to the receiver.
o It is must to setup an end-to-end connection between computers before
any data can be sent.
o The circuit is terminated when the connection is closed.
o In circuit switching, resources remain allocated during the full length
of a communication, after a circuit is established and until the circuit is
terminated and the allocated resources are freed.
Message Switching
o In this the source computer sends data or the message to the switching
circuit which stores the data in its buffer.
o Then using any free link to the switching circuit the data is send to the
switching circuit.
o Entire message is sent to the destination. It reaches through different
intermediate nodes following the ―store and forward‖ approach.
o No dedicated connection is required.
Packet Switching
o Conceived in the 1960's, packet switching is a more recent technology
than circuit switching.
o Packet switching introduces the idea of cutting data i.e. at the source
entire message is broken in smaller pieces called packets which are
transmitted over a network without any resource being allocated.
o Then each packet is transmitted and each packet may follow any rout
available and at destination packets may reach in random order.
o If no data is available at the sender at some point during a
communication, then no packet is transmitted over the network and no
resources are wasted.
o At the destination when all packets are received they are merged to
form the original message.
o In packet switching all the packets of fixed size are stored in main
memory.
DATA COMMUNICATION TERMINOLOGIES:
Before we proceed with our study of networks, let us learn about some data
communication terminologies being used.
Channel: A communication channel is a medium that is used in the transmission

of a message from one point to another. In simple terms we can say that it is a
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pathway over which data is transferred between remote devices. It may refer to the
entire physical medium, such as a telephone line, optical fibre, coaxial cable or
twisted pair wire, or, it may refer to one of the several carrier frequencies
transmitted simultaneously within the line.
Depending on their speed, we have three broad categories of communication

channels - narrow band which is slow and used for telegraph lines and low speed
terminals; voice band used for ordinary telephone communication and broad band
which is fastest and is used for transmitting large volumes of data at high speeds.
Bandwidth: In electronic communication , bandwidth refers to the range of

frequencies available for transmission of data. It is expressed as the difference in
Hertz(Hz) between the highest frequency and the lowest frequency. For example ,
a typical voice signal has a bandwidth of approximately 3KHz. Wider the
bandwidth of a communication system, greater is the capacity and hence greater is
the amount of data that can be transmitted over a period of time.
In computer networking, bandwidth is often used as a synonym for data transfer

rate about which you will read in the next subtopic.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA:
A transmission medium (plural media) is one which carries a signal from one
computer to another. It is also known as communication channel. Transmission
medium can be wired or wireless. We also name them as Guided and Unguided
Media respectively. Wired transmission media includes twisted pair cable, Ethernet
cable, coaxial cable and optical fibre whereas wireless transmission media includes
microwave, radio wave, satellite, infrared, Bluetooth, WIFI etc.
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Wired transmission media:

The wired or guided transmission media physically connects the two computers.
The data signal physically gets transferred from the transmitting computer to the
receiving computer through the wired transmission medium. Some of the wired
transmission media are discussed below:
1. Twisted Pair Cable

o These cables consist of two insulated copper wires twisted around each
other in a double helix.
o Twisting of wires reduces crosstalk which is bleeding of a signal from
one wire to another.
Types:
o Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
o Shielded Twisted Pair (STP
STP offers greater protection from interference and crosstalk due to shielding.
But it is heavier and costlier than UTP.
USE:
o In local telephone communication
o For digital data transmission over short distances upto 1 km
Advantages:
o Easy to install and maintain
o Simple
o Inexpensive
o Low weight
o Suitable for small (Local) Networks
Disadvantages:
o Not suitable for long distance due to high attenuation.
o Low bandwidth support.
o Low Speed
2. Coaxial cable:
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o Coaxial cable consists of a solid copper wire core surrounded by

plastic cladding shielded in a wire mesh.
o Shield prevents the noise by redirecting it to ground.
Types:
Coaxial cable comes in two sizes which are called thinnet and thicknet.
o Thicknet : segment length upto 500 m
o Thinnet : segment length upto 185 m
USE: In TV channel communication
Advantages:
o Better than twisted wire cable.
o Popular for TV networks.
o Offers higher bandwidth & Speed
Disadvantages:
o Expensive than twisted wires.
o Not compatible with twisted wire cable.
3. Optical Fibres:
o Thin strands of glass or glass like material designed to carry light from
one source to another.
o Source converts (Modulates) the data signal into light using LED
(Light Emitting Diodes) or LASER diodes and send it over the Optical
fiber.
It consists of three parts:

1. The core: glass or plastic through which the light travels.
2. The cladding : covers the core and reflects light back to the core
3. Protective coating : protects the fiber
Advantages
o Not affected by any kind of noise.
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o High transmission capacity

o Speed of Light
o Suitable for broadband communication
Disadvantages
o Installation requires care.
o Connecting two Optical fibers is difficult.
o Optical fibers are more difficult to solder
o Most expensive
Wireless Transmission Media:

Wireless or unbounded or unguided media transport electromagnetic waves
without using a physical conductor. The signals are broadcasted through air or
water and thus are available to anyone that has a device capable of receiving them.
Some of the wireless media are:
Microwaves:
Microwaves are transmitted from the transmitters placed at very high towers to the
receivers at a long distance.
Microwaves are transmitted in line of sight fashion, and also propagated through
the surfaces.
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Advantages:
o Maintenance easy than cables.
o Suitable when cable cannot be used.
Disadvantages:
o Repeaters are required for long distance communication.
o Less Bandwidth available.
Satellite:
Geostationary satellites are placed around 36000 KM away from the earth‘s
surface. In satellite communication transmitting station transmits the signals to the
satellite. (It is called up-linking). After receiving the signals (microwaves) it
amplifies them and transmit back to earth in whole visibility area. Receiving
stations at different places can receive these signals. (It is called down-linking).
Advantage
o Area coverage is too large
Disadvantage
o High investment
Network devices:
For efficient working of any network, many devices are required. Some of the
common network devices are discussed below:
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Modem
o A modem is a computer peripheral that allows you to connect and
communicate with other computers via telephone lines.
o Modem means Modulation/ Demodulation.
o Modulation: A modem changes the digital data from your computer into
analog data, a format that can be carried by telephone lines.
o Demodulation: The modem receiving the call then changes the analog signal
back into digital data that the computer can digest.
o The shift of digital data into analog data and back again, allows two
computers to speak with one another.
External Modem Internal Modem
RJ- 45 Connector:
RJ-45 is short for Registered Jack-45. It is an eight wire connector which is
commonly used to connect computers on the local area networks i.e., LAN.
Network Interface Cards (Ethernet Card):

A network card, network adapter or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of
computer hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer
network. It provides physical access to a networking medium and often provides a
low-level addressing system through the use of MAC addresses. It allows users to
connect to each other either by using cables or wirelessly.
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Repeaters:
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a
higher level or higher power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the
signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair
Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable runs longer than 100
meters.
Hubs:
A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to all
the ports of the hub. When the packets are copied, the destination address in the
frame does not change to a broadcast address. It does this in a rudimentary way, it
simply copies the data to all of the Nodes connected to the hub.
Bridges:
A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer
2) of the OSI model. Bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs
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do, but learn which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the
bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that address only to
that port. Bridges do send broadcasts to all ports except the one on which the
broadcast was received.
o Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source
address of frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through
a port, its source address is stored and the bridge assumes that MAC address
is associated with that port. The first time that a previously unknown
destination address is seen, the bridge will forward the frame to all ports
other than the one on which the frame arrived.
o Bridges come in three basic types:
o Local bridges: Directly connect local area networks (LANs)
o Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to
LANs.
Switches:
Switch is a device that performs switching. Specifically, it forwards and filters OSI
layer 2 datagrams (chunk of data communication) between ports (connected
cables) based on the Mac- Addresses in the packets. This is distinct from a hub in
that it only forwards the datagrams to the ports involved in the communications
rather than all ports connected. Strictly speaking, a switch is not capable of routing
traffic based on IP address (layer 3) which is necessary for communicating
between network segments or within a large or complex LAN. Some switches are
capable of routing based on IP addresses but are still called switches as a marketing
term. A switch normally has numerous ports with the intention that most or all of
the network be connected directly to a switch, or another switch that is in turn
connected to a switch.
Routers:
o Routers are networking devices that forward data packets between networks
using headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path to forward the
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packets. Routers work at the network layer of the TCP/IP model or layer 3 of
the OSI model. Routers also provide interconnectivity between like and
unlike media (RFC 1812).
o A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or
WANs or a LAN and its ISP's network.
Gateway:
A Gateway is a network device that connects dissimilar networks. It established an
intelligent connection between a local area network and external networks with
completely different structures.
The computers that control traffic within your company's network or at your local
Internet Service Provider (ISP) are gateway nodes. A network gateway can be
implemented completely in software, completely in hardware, or as a combination
of both. In the network for an enterprise, a computer server acting as a gateway
node is often also acting as a proxy server and a firewall server. Here a proxy
server is a node that is not actually a server but just appears to be so and a firewall
is a system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network.
A gateway is often associated with both a router, which knows where to direct a
given packet of data that arrives at the gateway, and a switch, which furnishes the
actual path in and out of the gateway for a given packet. It expands the
functionality of the router by performing data translation and protocol conversion.
You will sometimes see the term default gateway on network configuration screens
in Microsoft Windows.
In computer networking, a default gateway is the device that passes traffic from the
local subnet to devices on other subnets. The default gateway often connects a
local network to the Internet, although internal
gateways for local networks also exist.
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Network topologies and types:

Topology is the pattern of interconnection of nodes in a local area network(LAN).
The topology used helps to select the communication medium and the other
network devices. While choosing a topology, care has to be taken that the
installation cost is minimum, the network so designed should be reliable and
flexible. In simple terms the addition or reduction of nodes should be easy and also
fault detection and removal should be simple. Before we talk about topologies in
detail, let us learn about point to point link which has two ends transmitter and
receiver. The main characteristic of Point to Point link is that each transmitter
transmits to exactly one receiver and each receiver receives exactly form one
transmitter. The transmission might occur on a single medium i.e. single wire or
over separate wires.
Star Topology:
The type of network topology in which each of the nodes of the network is
connected to a central node with a point-to-point link in a 'hub' and 'spoke' fashion,
the central node being the 'hub' and the nodes that are attached to the central node
being the 'spokes' (e.g., a collection of point-to-point links from the peripheral
nodes that converge at a central node) – all data that is transmitted between nodes
in the network is transmitted to this central node, which is usually some type of
device that then retransmits the data to some or all of the other nodes in the
network, although the central node may also be a simple common connection point
(such as a 'punch- down' block) without any active device to repeat the signals.
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Bus Topology:
The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are
connected to a common transmission medium which has exactly two endpoints
(this is the 'bus', which is also commonly referred to as the backbone, or trunk) –
all data that is transmitted between nodes in the network is transmitted over this
common transmission medium and is able to be received by all nodes in the
network virtually simultaneously (disregarding propagation delays).
Ring Topology:
The type of network topology in which each of the nodes of the network is
connected to two other nodes in the network and with the first and last nodes
being connected to each other, forming a ring – all data that is transmitted between
nodes in the network travels from one node to the next node in a circular manner
and the data generally flows in a single direction only.
Computer Networks:
A communications network is two or more computers connected to share data and
resources are ―networked.‖ The simple idea behind computer networking is to
allow users to access more information and give them access to devices not
directly attached to their ―local‖ system, such as printers or storage devices.
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Local Area Network (LAN):

A network covering a small geographic area, like a home, office, or building.
Current LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology. For example, a
library will have a wired or a communications network is two or more computers
connected to share data and resources are ―networked.‖ The simple idea behind
computer networking is to allow users to access more information and give them
access to devices not directly attached to their ―local‖ system, such as printers or
storage devices.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

A Metropolitan Area Network is a network that connects two or more Local Area
Networks or Campus Area Networks together but does not extend beyond the
boundaries of the immediate town, city, or metropolitan area. Multiple routers,
switches & hubs are connected to create a MAN.
Wide Area Network (WAN):

WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad geographic
area(i.e. one city to another and one country to another country) and that often uses
transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies.
WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI
reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.
Network Protocols:
In information technology, a protocol is the special set of rules that two or more
machines on a network follow to communicate with each other. They are the
standards that allow computers to communicate. A protocol defines how computers
identify one another on a network, the form that the data should take in transit, and
how this information is processed once it reaches its final destination. A protocol is
needed every time we want to perform any task on a network. It may be
transferring data or taking a printout on a network printer or accessing the central
database.
Although each network protocol is different, they all share the same physical
cabling. This common method of accessing the physical network allows multiple
protocols to peacefully coexist over the network media, and allows the builder of a
network to use common hardware for a variety of protocols. This concept is known
as "Protocol Independence." Thus it is clear that:
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o A protocol means the rules that are applicable for a network.

o It defines the standardized format for data packets, techniques for detecting
and correcting errors and so on.
o A protocol is a formal description of message formats and the rules that two
or more machines must follow to exchange those messages. E.g. using
library books.
Types of protocols are:

1. HTTP
2. FTP
3. TCP/IP
4. SLIP/PPP
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a communications protocol for the
transfer of information on the intranet and the World Wide Web. Its original
purpose was to provide a way to publish and retrieve hypertext pages over the
Internet.
HTTP is a request/response standard between a client and a server. A client is the
end-user; the server is the web site.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is the simplest and most secure way to exchange
files over the Internet. The objectives of FTP are:
o To promote sharing of files (computer programs and/or data).
o To encourage indirect or implicit use of remote computers.
o To shield a user from variations in file storage systems among different
hosts.
o To transfer data reliably, and efficiently.
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol):

The Transmission Control Protocol(TCP) breaks the data into packets that the
network can handle efficiently. It manages the assembling of a message or file into
smaller packets that are transmitted over the Internet. It verifies all the packets
when they arrive at the destination computer and then reassembles them in proper
order. Data can be lost in the intermediate network. So TCP adds support to detect
errors or lost data and to trigger retransmission until the data is correctly and
completely received.
The Internet Protocol(IP)handles the address part of each packet so that it
reaches to the right destination. It gives distinct address (called IP address) to each
data packet. Each gateway computer on the network checks this address to see
where to forward the message. Even though some packets from the same message
are routed differently than others, they'll be reassembled at the destination. An IP
address is a unique identifier for a node or host connection on an IP network. An IP
address is a 32 bit binary number usually represented as 4 decimal values, each
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representing 8 bits, in the range 0 to 255 (known as octets) separated by decimal

points. This is known as "dotted decimal" notation.
Example:
140.179.220.200
The Internet authorities assign ranges of numbers to different organizations. The

organizations assign groups of their numbers to departments. IP operates on
gateway machines that move data from department to organization to region and
then around the world. TCP/IP uses the client/server mode of communication in
which a computer user (a client) makes a request and the server provides the
requested service such as sending a Web page. Also TCP/IP communication is
primarily point-to-point transmission of data which means each communication is
from one computer in the network to another computer. TCP/IP and the higher-
level applications that use it are collectively said to be "stateless" because each
client request is considered a new request unrelated to any previous one. Till the
time complete message or all packets in a message have been delivered, the
connection between the two computers remains intact but after that the
transmission path is available freely. So unlike ordinary phone conversations that
require a dedicated connection for the entire call duration, no dedicated connection
is required. This makes the network paths freely available for everyone to use.
SLIP/PPP (Serial Line Internet Protocol / Point to Point Protocol)

SLIP/PPP provides the ability to transport TCP/IP traffic ever serial line between
two computers. The home user‘s computer has a communications link to the
internet. The home user‘s computer has the networking software that can speak
TCP/IP with other computers on the Internet. The home user‘s computer has an
identifying address (IP address) at which it can be contacted by other computers on
Internet. E.g. dial up connection.
SMTP :- SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a TCP/IP protocol used in

sending and receiving e-mail. However, since it is limited in its ability to queue
messages at the receiving end, it is usually used with one of two other protocols,
POP3 or IMAP, that let the user save messages in a server mailbox and download
them periodically from the server. In other words, users typically use a program
that uses SMTP for sending e-mail and either POP3 or IMAP for receiving e-mail.
On Unix-based systems, send mail is the most widely used
SMTP server for e-mail. A commercial package, Send mail, includes a POP3
server. Microsoft Exchange includes an SMTP server and can also be set up to
include POP3 support.
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POP3:- POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3) is the standard way which has been around
for decades. It is very similar regular mail. Messages are delivered to our
computer, put in our mailbox, and are then our responsibility.
Advantage of POP3:
1. Email is available when we are offline
2. Email is not stored on the server, so our disk usage on the server is less
3. Just about any email client (software) supports POP3
IMAP:- IMAP (Interactive Mail Access Protocol).It is not like the mailbox on
your house. With IMAP mail is delivered to the server, and we connect to the
server to see our mail. The mail is not stored on our machine. When a message is
marked as read, it is marked as read on the server, not on our computer.
Advantages of IMAP:-
1. Email is available from any machine we happen to use
2. Email is stored on the server, so our email cannot be deleted/destroyed
if our computer should happen to crash, be stolen, or destroyed
3. We can access IMAP mail via the web, without even needing a mail
client installed. This means We can check our mail from someone
else's machine or even a public terminal and not have to worry about
the security of your passwords.
Telnet- It is an older internet utility that lets us log on to remote computer system.
It also facilitates for terminal emulation purpose. Terminal emulation means using
a pc like a mainframe computer through networking.
1. Run telnet client- Type telnet in run dialog box.
2. Connect to telnet site -specify the host name, port and terminal
type.
3. Start browsing- surf the shown site with provided instruction.
4. Finally disconnect-press Alt+F4.
Wireless/Mobile Computing
Wireless communication is simply data communication without the use of
landlines. Mobile computing means that the computing device is not continuously
connected to the base or central network.
1. GSM(Global System for Mobile communication): it is leading digital
cellular system. In covered areas, cell phone users can buy one phone that
will work anywhere the standard is supported. It uses narrowband TDMA,
which allows eight simultaneous calls on the same radio frequency.
2. CDMA(Code Division Multiple Access): it is a digital cellular technology
that uses spread-spectrum techniques. CDMA does not assign a specific
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frequency to each user. Instead ,every channel uses the full available
spectrum.
3. WLL(Wireless in Local Loop) : WLL is a system that connects subscribers
to the public switched telephone network using radio signals as a substitute
for other connecting media.
4. Email(Electronic Mail): Email is sending and receiving messages by
computer.
5. Chat: Online textual talk in real time , is called Chatting.
6. Video Conferencing: a two way videophone conversation among multiple
participants is called video conferencing.
7. SMS(Short Message Service): SMS is the transmission of short text
messages to and from a mobile phone, fax machine and or IP address.
8. 3G and EDGE: 3G is a specification for the third generation of mobile
communication of mobile communication technology. 3G promises
increased bandwidth, up to 384 Kbps when a device is stationary.
9. EDGE(Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution ) is a radio based high
speed mobile data standard.
10. Wi-Fi---Wi-Fi is short for Wireless Fidelity . Wi-Fi is a wireless
technology that uses radiofrequency to transmit data through the air. An
Access Point is a separate wireless unit, which has the ability to extend from
the router to maximize wireless reception. Up to 16 users can connect to one
access point .It allows several wireless clients to connect to a single
device.Wi-fi hot spot is defined as any location in which wireless
technology both exists and is available for use to consumers. Wi-fi was
intended to be used for wireless devices and LANS, but is now often used
for internet access.
11. IPR:- The term "Intellectual Property Rights" refers to the legal rights
granted with the aim to protect the creations of the intellect. These rights
include Industrial Property Rights (e.g. patents, industrial designs and
trademarks) and Copyright (right of the author or creator) and Related
Rights (rights of the performers, producers and broadcasting organizations
12. Cloud Computing :- The practice of using a network of remote
servers hosted on the Internet to store, manage, and process data, rather than
a local server or a personal computer.
Advantages:-
1) Cost efficient
2) Backup & Restore
3) Almost unlimited storage
4) Automatic Software Integration
5) Easy access of Information
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Disadvantages:-
1) Technical Issue
2)Security in the cloud
3) Prone to attack
NETWORK SECURITY CONCEPTS:
Protection methods:
1. Authorization - Authorization confirms the service requestor's credentials. It
determines if the service requestor is entitled to perform that operation.
2. Authentication - Each entity involved in using a web service the requestor,
the provider and the broker(if there is one) - is what it actually claims to be.
3. Encryption – conversion of the form of data from one form to another form.
4. Biometric System - involves unique aspect of a person's body such as Finger-
prints, retinal patterns etc to establish his/her Identity.
5. Firewall - A system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a
private network is called firewall. it can be implemented in both hardware
and software or combination or both.
There are several types of firewall techniques-
 Packet filter- accepts or rejects of packets based on user defined rules.
 Application gateway- security mechanism to specific application like FTP
and Telnet servers.
 Circuit level gateway - applies security mechanism when a connection is
established.
 Proxy Server - Intercepts all messages entering and leaving the network.
 Cookies - Cookies are messages that a web server transmits to a web browser
so that the web server can keep track of the user‘s activity on a specific web
site. Cookies have few parameters name, value, expiration date.
Hackers and crackers :

Hackers are more interested in gaining knowledge about computer systems and
possibly using this knowledge for playful pranks.
Crackers are the malicious programmers who break into secure systems.
Cyber Law -
It is a generic term, which refers to all the legal and regulatory aspects of internet
and the World Wide Web.
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WEB SERVERS
WWW (WORLD WIDE WEB)
It is a small part of Internet. It is a kind of Application of internet.It is a set of
protocols that allows us to access any document on the Net through a naming
system based on URLS. Internet was mainly used for obtaining textual
information. But post-WWW the internet popularity grew tremendously because of
graphic intensive nature of www.
Attributes of WWW:
1. User friendly- www resources can be easily used with the help of browser.
2. Multimedia documents-A web page may have graphic, audio, video, and
animation etc at a time.
3. Hypertext and hyperlinks-the dynamic links which can move towards
another web page is hyperlink.
4. Interactive -www with its pages support and enable interactivity between
users and servers.
5. frame-display of more than one section on single web page.
Web server- It is a WWW server that responds to the requests made by web
browsers. e.g. : Apache, IIS, PWS(Personal web server for Windows 98).
Web browser- It is a WWW client that navigates through the World Wide Web
and displays web pages. E.g.: Fire Fox Navigator, Internet Explorer etc.
Web sites- A location on a net server where different web pages are linked
together by dynamic links is called a web site. Each web site has a unique address
called URL.
Web page - A document that can be viewed in a web browser and residing on a
web site is a web page.
Home page- a web page that is the starting page and acts as an indexed page is
home page.
Web portal - that facilitates various type of the functionality as web site. for e.g.
www.yahoo.com,www.rediff.com
Domain name- An internet address which is a character based is called a Domain
name. Some most common domains are com, edu, gov, mil, net, org, and co.Some
domain names are location based also. For e.g. au for Australia, a for Canada, in
for India etc.
URL- A URL (uniform resource locator) that specifies the distinct address for each
resource on the internet. e.g. http://encycle.msn.com/getinfo/stypes.asp
Web hosting - means hosting web server application on a computer system
through which electronic content on the internet is readily available to any web
browser client.
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HTML -
It stands for Hyper Text Markup Language that facilitates to write web document
that can be interpreted by any web browser. It provide certain tags that are
interpreted by the browser how to display and act with the text, graphics etc. tags
are specified in <>.
For e.g.
<body bgcolor=green> it is opening tag
</body> it is closing tag.
body is the tag with bgcolor attributes.
XML (Extensible Markup Language):

XML is a markup language for documents containing structured information.
Structured information contains both content (words, pictures etc.) and some
indication of what role content plays.
DHTML- It stands for Dynamic Hyper Text Markup Language. DHTML refers to
Web content that changes each time it is viewed. For example, the same URL
could result in a different page depending on any number of parameters, such as:
 geographic location
 time of the day
 previous pages viewed by the user
 profile of the reader
WEB SCRIPTING – The process of creating and embedding scripts in a web

page is known as web-scripting.
SCRIPT: A Script is a list of commands embedded in a web page. Scripts are
interpreted and executed by a certain program or scripting –engine.
Types of Scripts:
1. Client Side Script: Client side scripting enables interaction within a web
page. Some popular client-side scripting languages are VBScript, JavaScript,
PHP(Hyper Text Preprocessor).
2. Server-Side Scripts: Server-side scripting enables the completion or carrying
out a task at the server-end and then sending the result to the client –end.
Some popular server-side Scripting Languages are PHP, Perl, ASP(Active
Server Pages), JSP(Java Server Pages) etc.
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OPEN SOURCE TERMINOLOGIES

TERMINOLOGY & DEFINITIONS:
Free Software: The S/W‘s is freely accessible and can be freely used changed
improved copied and distributed by all and payments are needed to make for free
S/W.
Open Source Software: S/w whose source code is available to the customer and it
can be modified and redistributed without any limitation .OSS may come free of
cost but nominal charges has to pay nominal charges (Support of S/W and
development of S/W).
FLOSS (Free Libre and Open Source Software) : S/w which is free as well as
open source S/W. ( Free S/W + Open Source S/W).
GNU (GNU‟s Not Unix) : GNU project emphasize on the freedom and its
objective is to create a system compatible to UNIX but not identical with it.
FSF (Free Software Foundation) : FSF is a non –profit organization created for
the purpose of the free s/w movement. Organization funded many s/w developers
to write free software.
OSI (Open Source Initiative) : Open source software organization dedicated to
cause of promoting open source software it specified the criteria of OSS and its
source code is not freely available.
W3C(World Wide Web Consortium): W3C is responsible for producing the
software standards for World Wide Web.
Proprietary Software: Proprietary Software is the s/w that is neither open nor
freely available, normally the source code of the Proprietary Software is not
available but further distribution and modification is possible by special permission
by the supplier.
Freeware: Freeware are the software freely available , which permit redistribution
but not modification (and their source code is not available). Freeware is
distributed in Binary Form (ready to run) without any licensing fees.
Shareware: Software for which license fee is payable after some time limit, its
source code is not available and modification to the software are not allowed.
Localization: localization refers to the adaptation of language, content and design
to reflect local cultural sensitivities .e.g. Software Localization: where messages
that a program presents to the user need to be translated into various languages.
Internationalization: Opposite of localization.
OPEN SOURCE / FREE SOFTWARE:
Linux : Linux is a famous computer operating system . popular Linux server set of
program –LAMP(Linux, Apache, MySQL, PHP)
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Mozilla : Mozilla is a free internet software that includes

o a web browser
o an email client
o an HTML editor
o IRC client
Apache server: Apache web server is an open source web server available for
many platforms such as BSD, Linux, and Microsoft Windows etc. Apache Web
server is maintained by open community of developers of Apache software
foundation.
MYSQL : MYSQL is one of the most popular open source database system.
Features of MYSQL:
o Multithreading
o Multi –User
o SQL Relational Database Server
o Works in many different platform
Postgres SQL: Postgres SQL is a free software object relational database server .
Postgres SQL can be downloaded from www.postgressql org.
Pango: Pango project is to provide an open source framework for the layout and
rendering of internationalized text into GTK + GNOME environment. Pango using
Unicode for all of its encoding ,and will eventually support output in all the
world‘s major languages.
Open Office : Open Office is an office applications suite. It is intended to

compatible and directly complete with Microsoft office. Open Office Version 1.1
includes:
o Writer (word processor)

o Calculation(spreadsheet)
o Draw(graphics program) etc.
Tomcat : Tomcat functions as a servlet container. Tomcat implements the servlet

and the Java Server Pages .Tomcat comes with the jasper compiler that complies
JSPs into servlets.
PHP(Hypertext Preprocessor) : PHP is a widely used open source programming

language for server side application and developing web content.
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Python: Python is an interactive programming language originally as scripting

language for Amoeba OS capable of making system calls.
Web 2.0 services : Web 2.0 is the term given to describe a second generation of
the World Wide Web that is focused on the ability for people to collaborate and
share information online. Web 2.0 basically refers to the transition from static
HTML Web pages to a more dynamic Web that is more organized and is based on
serving Web applications to users. Other improved functionality of Web 2.0
includes open communication with an emphasis on Web-based communities of
users, and more open sharing of information. Over time Web 2.0 has been used
more as a marketing term than a computer-science-based term. Blogs, wikis, and
Web services are all seen as components of Web 2.0. Web 2.0 was previously used
as a synonym for Semantic Web, but while the two are similar, they do not share
precisely the same meaning.
*****************************
203
Book References
1. C++ By E Balagurusamy
2. IGNOU Study Material
3. McGRAW Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth, S. Sudarshan
4. Ronald J. Tocci Neal S. Widmer
QR Code References
1. E- Content developed by Sajad Akbar Rather (I/C ICT DIET SOPORE)
2. E- Content developed by Javeed Hassan Sofi (Tr. GMS Brar Bandipora)
3. www. easytuts4you.com
4. SuccessCDs (http://youtu.be/Kelm63Q-LO8)
5. Knowledge Gate (http://youtu.be/C-CzmtqMVfo/)
6. http://youtu.be/SJXTjSqjcLg
***************************************
204

Computer Science for Class 12th

Uploaded by

Computer Science for Class 12th

Uploaded by

Energized Study Material of

Computer Science XII

Mr. Javeed Hassan Sofi (MCA/BEd)

Mr. Sajad Akbar Rather (MCA/MEd)

Mr. Javaid Ahmad Wani (MCA/BEd)

A complete energized Study material of Computer

Copyright © 2020 by DSEK, SIE Kashmir

As per Latest Syllabus of JKBOSE

Unit 1: Programing in C++(Review from Class XI) 2

Unit 2: Objected-Oriented Programing in C++ 57

Unit 3: Data Structures using C++ 111

Unit 4: Databases Management System And SQL 135

Unit 5: Boolean Algebra 151

Unit 6: COMMUNICATION & OPEN SOURCES CONCEPTS 177

Unit 1 (Review C++ covered in Class XI)

o Fundamental characteristics of the object oriented C++ programming

■ data abstraction, that is, the creation of classes to describe objects

In traditional, procedural programming, data and functions (subroutines,

o If the data representation is changed, e.g. if a record is extended, the

Developing A C++ Program:

2. The source file is put through a compiler for translation. If everything

In addition to error messages, the compiler will also issue warnings. A

A Beginner’s C++ Program:

Structure of function main():

A Simple C++ program:

int main() // main function

Check your Progress:

Q2: What is the output of following C++ program?

Getting Started with C++:

Letters A-Z , a-z

(i) Decimal Integer Literals:- An integer literal without leading 0 (zero) is

(iii) Hexadecimal Integer Literals :- Hexadecimal Integer Literals starts with

An operator is a symbol or character or word which trigger some operation

(ii) Binary operators: Binary operators require two operands to operate

(iii) Ternary Operator: Ternary operator require three operands to operate

COMMENTS IN A C++ PROGRAM.:

INPUT OUTPUT (I/O) OPERATIONS IN C++:

Where data may be a variable or constant or string etc. e.g.

cout<< a ; ( here a can be any variable)

cin>> variablename; e.g

cin>> ch; ( here “ch” can be any variable)

e.g cout<< roll<< age<< endl;

DATA TYPES, VARIABLES & CONSTANTS:

1. Fundamental or Built-in data types.

Variables:- A named memory location, whose contains can be changed with in

We can also initialize a variable at the time of declaration by using following

Constant:- A named memory location, whose contains cannot be changed with in

const datatypes constant_name = value ;

FORMATTED OUTPUT (MANIPULATORS):

The output of the above code will be

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In order to use these manipulator , it is must to include header file iomanip.h

OPERATORS AND EXPRESSIONS:-

Increment and Decrement Operators (++ , - -) :

a = a + 1; is same as ++a; or a++;

Both the increment & decrement operators come in two versions:

(i) Prefix increment/decrement:- When an increment or decrement operator

If sum = 10 and count =10 then

(ii) Postfix increment/decrement:- When an increment or decrement operator

operand in evaluating the expression before incrementing or decrementing the

Relational Operator: These operators are used to compare two values. If

Logical Operators: In addition to the relational operator, C++ contains three

Assignment Operator: C++ offers an assignment operator (=) to assign a value to

where var generally represents a variable and expression may be a constant or a

a = a + 10 ; can be written as a+=10 ;

Var = var operator expression ; is same as

Following are some examples of C++ shorthands:

x -=10 ; equivalent to x = x -10 ;

(i) Implicit type conversion:- An implicit type conversion is a conversion

(data type) expression

Precedence of Operators:- Operator precedence determines which operator will

5 + 3 * 2 is calculated as 5 + (3 * 2), giving 11

; // only a semicolon (;)

Compound Statement :- A compound statement is a group of statements enclosed

Every programming language provides three constructs:

Selection Construct:- The selection construct means the execution of statement(s)