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Introduction of Operating System

Last Updated : 02 Jan, 2025

An operating system acts as an intermediary between the user of a

computer and computer hardware. In short its an interface between
computer hardware and user.

The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment in

which a user can execute programs conveniently and efficiently.
An operating system is software that manages computer hardware
and softwares. The hardware must provide appropriate mechanisms
to ensure the correct operation of the computer system and to
prevent user programs from interfering with the proper operation of
the system.
Operating system is a program running at all times on the computer
(usually called the kernel), with all else being application programs.
Concerned with the assignment of resources among programs e.g.
memory, processors and input / output devices.

History of Operating System

The operating system has been evolving through the years. The
following table shows the history of OS.

Era Key Developments Examples

The first Operating System was GN-

1956 GM-NAA I/O (1956)
NAA I/O in 1956 by Genera; Motors.

IBM developed a time sharing system OS/360, DOS/360

1960s
TSS/360 and TSS/360

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Era Key Developments Examples

Unix popularized simplicity and

Unix (1971), CP/M
1970s multitasking; rise of personal
(1974)
computers with basic OSs.

GUI-based OSs gained traction; Apple Macintosh

1980s networking features became (1984), Windows
standard. (1985)

Open-source Linux emerged; GUIs in Linux (1991),

1990s
Windows and Mac OS improved. Windows 95 (1995)

Mobile OSs dominated; cloud and

2000s- iOS (2007), Android
virtualization technologies advanced
Present (2008)
computing.

Please refer History of Operating Systems for more details.

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Characteristics of Operating Systems

Let us now discuss some of the important characteristic features of
operating systems:

Device Management: The operating system keeps track of all the

devices. So, it is also called the Input/Output controller that decides
which process gets the device, when, and for how much time.
File Management: It allocates and de-allocates the resources and
also decides who gets the resource.
Job Accounting: It keeps track of time and resources used by various
jobs or users.
Error-detecting Aids: These contain methods that include the
production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging
and error-detecting methods.
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Memory Management: It is responsible for managing the primary

memory of a computer, including what part of it are in use by whom
also check how much amount free or used and allocate process
Processor Management: It allocates the processor to a process and
then de-allocates the processor when it is no longer required or the
job is done.
Control on System Performance: It records the delays between the
request for a service and the system.
Security: It prevents unauthorized access to programs and data using
passwords or some kind of protection technique.
Convenience: An OS makes a computer more convenient to use.
Efficiency: An OS allows the computer system resources to be used
efficiently.
Ability to Evolve: An OS should be constructed in such a way as to
permit the effective development, testing, and introduction of new
system functions at the same time without interfering with service.
Throughput: An OS should be constructed so that It can give
maximum throughput (Number of tasks per unit time).

List of common Operating Systems

There are multiple types of operating systems each having its own
unique features:

Windows OS

Developer : Microsoft
Key Features : User-friendly interface, software compatibility,
hardware support, Strong gaming support.
Advantages : Easy to use for most users, Broad support from third-
party applications ,Frequent updates and support.
Typical Use Cases : Personal computing, Business environment,
Gaming.

macOS

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Developer : Apple.
Key Features : Sleek, intuitive user interface, Strong integration with
other Apple products, Robust security features, High performance
and stability.
Advantages : Optimized for Apple hardware, Seamless experience
across Apple ecosystem, Superior graphics and multimedia
capabilities.
Typical Use Cases : Creative industries (design, video editing, music
production), Personal computing, Professional environments.

Linux

Developer : Community-driven (various distributions).

Key Features : Open-source and highly customizable, Robust
security and stability, Lightweight and can run on older hardware,
Large selection of distributions (e.g., Ubuntu, Fedora, Debian).
Advantages : Free to use and distribute, Strong community support,
Suitable for servers and development environments.
Typical Use Cases : Servers and data centers, Development and
programming, Personal computing for tech enthusiasts.

Unix

Developer: Originally AT&T Bell Labs, various commercial and open-

source versions available
Key Features: Multiuser and multitasking capabilities, Strong security
and stability, Powerful command-line interface, Portability across
different hardware platforms
Advantages: Reliable and robust performance, Suitable for high-
performance computing and servers, Extensive support for
networking
Typical Use Cases: Servers and workstations, Development
environments, Research and academic settings

Functionalities of Operating System

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Resource Management: When parallel accessing happens in the OS

means when multiple users are accessing the system the OS works
as Resource Manager, Its responsibility is to provide hardware to the
user. It decreases the load in the system.
Process Management: It includes various tasks like scheduling and
termination of the process. It is done with the help of CPU
Scheduling algorithms .
Storage Management: The file system mechanism used for the
management of the storage. NIFS , CIFS , CFS , NFS , etc. are some
file systems. All the data is stored in various tracks of Hard disks that
are all managed by the storage manager. It included Hard Disk .
Memory Management: Refers to the management of primary
memory. The operating system has to keep track of how much
memory has been used and by whom. It has to decide which process
needs memory space and how much. OS also has to allocate and
deallocate the memory space.
Security/Privacy Management: Privacy is also provided by the
Operating system using passwords so that unauthorized applications
can’t access programs or data. For example, Windows uses Kerberos
authentication to prevent unauthorized access to data.

The process operating system as User Interface:

1. User
2. System and application programs
3. Operating system
4. Hardware

Every general-purpose computer consists of hardware, an operating

system(s), system programs, and application programs. The hardware
consists of memory, CPU, ALU, I/O devices, peripheral devices, and
storage devices. The system program consists of compilers, loaders,
editors, OS, etc.

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Conceptual View of Computer System

Every computer must have an operating system to run other programs.

The operating system coordinates the use of the hardware among the
various system programs and application programs for various users. It
simply provides an environment within which other programs can do
useful work.

An OS is a package of some programs that runs on a computer machine,

allowing it to perform efficiently. It manages the simple tasks of
recognizing input from the keyboard, managing files and directories on
disk, displaying output on the screen, and controlling peripheral devices.

Layered Design of Operating System

Fig. Layered OS

The extended machine provides operations like context save,

dispatching, swapping, and I/O initiation. The operating system layer is
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located on top of the extended machine layer. This arrangement

considerably simplifies the coding and testing of OS modules by
separating the algorithm of a function from the implementation of its
primitive operations. It is now easier to test, debug, and modify an OS
module than in a monolithic OS. We say that the lower layer provides
an abstraction that is the extended machine. We call the operating
system layer the top layer of the OS.

Purposes and Tasks of Operating Systems

Several tasks are performed by the Operating Systems and it also helps
in serving a lot of purposes which are mentioned below. We will see
how Operating System helps us in serving in a better way with the help
of the task performed by it.

Purposes of an Operating System

It controls the allocation and use of the computing System’s

resources among the various user and tasks.
It provides an interface between the computer hardware and the
programmer that simplifies and makes it feasible for coding and
debugging of application programs.

Tasks of an Operating System

1. Provides the facilities to create and modify programs and data files
using an editor.
2. Access to the compiler for translating the user program from high-
level language to machine language.
3. Provide a loader program to move the compiled program code to the
computer’s memory for execution.
4. Provide routines that handle the details of I/O programming.

I/O System Management

The module that keeps track of the status of devices is called the I/O
traffic controller. Each I/O device has a device handler that resides in a

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separate process associated with that device.

The I/O subsystem consists of

A memory Management component that includes buffering caching

and spooling.
A general device driver interface.

Drivers for Specific Hardware Devices

Below mentioned are the drivers which are required for a specific
Hardware Device. Here we discussed Assemblers, compilers, and
interpreters, loaders.

Assembler

The input to an assembler is an assembly language program. The

output is an object program plus information that enables the loader to
prepare the object program for execution. At one time, the computer
programmer had at his disposal a basic machine that interpreted,
through hardware, certain fundamental instructions. He would program
this computer by writing a series of ones and Zeros (Machine language)
and placing them into the memory of the machine. Examples of
assembly languages include

Compiler and Interpreter

The High-level languages – examples are C, C++, Java, Python, etc

(around 300+ famous high-level languages) are processed by compilers
and interpreters . A compiler is a program that accepts a source program
in a “high-level language “and produces machine code in one go. Some
of the compiled languages are FORTRAN, COBOL, C, C++, Rust, and
Go. An interpreter is a program that does the same thing but converts
high-level code to machine code line-by-line and not all at once.
Examples of interpreted languages are

Python
Perl
Ruby

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Loader
A Loader is a routine that loads an object program and prepares it for
execution. There are various loading schemes: absolute, relocating, and
direct-linking. In general, the loader must load, relocate and link the
object program. The loader is a program that places programs into
memory and prepares them for execution. In a simple loading scheme,
the assembler outputs the machine language translation of a program
on a secondary device and a loader places it in the core. The loader
places into memory the machine language version of the user’s program
and transfers control to it. Since the loader program is much smaller
than the assembler, those make more core available to the user’s
program.

Components of an Operating Systems

There are two basic components of an Operating System.

Shell
Kernel

Shell

Shell is the outermost layer of the Operating System and it handles the
interaction with the user. The main task of the Shell is the management
of interaction between the User and OS. Shell provides better
communication with the user and the Operating System Shell does it by
giving proper input to the user it also interprets input for the OS and
handles the output from the OS. It works as a way of communication
between the User and the OS.

Kernel

The kernel is one of the components of the Operating System which

works as a core component. The rest of the components depends on
Kernel for the supply of the important services that are provided by the
Operating System. The kernel is the primary interface between the
Operating system and Hardware.
Functions of Kernel

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The following functions are to be performed by the Kernel.

It helps in controlling the System Calls.

It helps in I/O Management.
It helps in the management of applications, memory, etc.

Types of Kernel
There are four types of Kernel that are mentioned below.

Monolithic Kernel
Microkernel
Hybrid Kernel
Exokernel

For more, refer to Kernel in Operating System .

Difference Between 32-Bit and 64-Bit Operating Systems

32-Bit Operating System 64-Bit Operating System

32-Bit OS is required for running of

64-Bit Processors can run on any of
32-Bit Processors, as they are not
the Operating Systems, like 32-Bit
capable of running on 64-bit
OS or 64-Bit OS.
processors.

32-Bit OS gives a low efficient 64-Bit Operating System provides

performance. highly efficient Performance.

Less amount of data is managed in

A large amount of data can be
32-Bit Operating System as
stored in 64-Bit Operating System.
compared to 64-Bit Os.

32-Bit Operating System can 64-Bit Operating System can

address 2^32 bytes of RAM. address 2^64 bytes of RAM.

The fundamental goals of operating system are

Efficient use: Ensure efficient use of a computer’s resources.

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User convenience: Provide convenient methods of using a computer

system.
Non interference: Prevent interference in the activities of its users.

Efficient use
An operating system must ensure efficient use of the fundamental
computer system resources of memory, CPU, and I/O devices such as
disks and printers. Poor efficiency can result if a program does not use a
resource allocated to it. Efficient use of resources can be obtained by
monitoring use of resources and performing corrective actions when
necessary. However, monitoring use of resources increases the
overhead, which lowers efficiency of use. In practice, operating systems
that emphasize efficient use limit their overhead by either restricting
their focus to efficiency of a few important resources, like the CPU and
the memory, or by not monitoring the use of resources at all, and
instead handling user programs and resources in a manner that
guarantees high efficiency.

User convenience

In the early days of computing, user convenience was synonymous with

bare necessity—the mere ability to execute a program written in a
higher level language was considered adequate. Experience with early
operating systems led to demands for better service, which in those
days meant only fast response to a user request. Other facets of user
convenience evolved with the use of computers in new fields. Early
operating systems had command-line interfaces, which required a user
to type in a command and specify values of its parameters. Users
needed substantial training to learn use of the commands, which was
acceptable because most users were scientists or computer
professionals. However, simpler interfaces were needed to facilitate use
of computers by new classes of users. Hence graphical user interfaces
(GUIs) were evolved. These interfaces used icons on a screen to
represent programs and files and interpreted mouse clicks on the icons
and associated menus as commands concerning them. In many ways,
this move can be compared to the spread of car driving skills in the first
half of the twentieth century. Over a period of time, driving became less
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of a specialty and more of a skill that could be acquired with limited

training and experience.

Non interference

A computer user can face different kinds of interference in his

computational activities. Execution of his program can be disrupted by
actions of other persons, or the OS services which he wishes to use can
be disrupted in a similar manner. The OS prevents such interference by
allocating resources for exclusive use of programs and OS services, and
preventing illegal accesses to resources. Another form of interference
concerns programs and data stored in user files.

Advantages of Operating System

It helps in managing the data present in the device i.e. Memory
Management.
It helps in making the best use of computer hardware.
It helps in maintaining the security of the device.
It helps different applications in running them efficiently.

Disadvantages of Operating System

Operating Systems can be difficult for someone to use.
Some OS are expensive and they require heavy maintenance.
Operating Systems can come under threat if used by hackers.

Conclusion
OS (operating system) – this is how we call the absolute core of modern
computing API which directly interacts between you and machine.
Types of Operating System and its FeaturesDifferent types of operating
systems have their distinct features, so we can choose the right one for
different applications. Windows (widely used), macOS (high security
level), Linux (flexible OS) and smaller systems/devices such as Android
and iOS, it all depends on the requirements of what you need.

In a similar way like technology improves, operating systems will

always have a part in managing jobs such as security and enhancing
user experience. Operating systems are mostly about the way you use

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IT – even if not at a high level, as would have been required by

developers or professionals. Few focus areas when picking OS are too,
getting a good job done at the moment and all set for later tasks as
well.

Frequently Asked Questions on Operating Systems –

FAQs

Explain Operating System

The operating system can be explained as the intermediate,

which works between the user and the system hardware so that
the user can get a nice experience while using a system. Without
an Operating system, there will be a lot of difficulties can be faced
by the user while running a system.

What are the types of operating Systems?

The types of Operating systems are listed below.

Batch Operating System

Multi-Programming System
Multi-Processing System
Multi-Tasking Operating System
Time-Sharing Operating System
Distributed Operating System
Network Operating System
Real-Time Operating System

What is the importance of an Operating System?

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The operating system is one of the most important parts of a

Computer System. Without an Operating System, the system will
not be able to work. As Operating System works as an interpreter
between the user and the hardware part, which helps in the
smooth functioning of the system.

What is an OS Structure?

Operating System structure is basically the model in which the

system works. The structure of the operating system should be
user-friendly, such that if any user having less knowledge about
the system comes then he/she will not face any difficulties while
running the system.

What do you mean by a process in Operating System?

A process can be simply defined as the instance of a computer.

The process always includes the program code and its operations
both. The process also includes the threads running in the
computer system. It can be a single thread or a multiple thread.

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