1

VELLORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY CHENNAI CAMPUS

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

BMEE402L- Heat and Mass Transfer

(3-0-0 = 3 Credits)

B.TECH- Mechanical Engineering,

3rd Year (Winter Semester: 2024-25)

Dr. Pritam Das

Assistant Professor (Sr.), SMEC
Email Id: pritam.das@vit.ac.in
VISION AND MISSION STATEMENTS OF SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING (SMEC)

Vision

To be a leader in imparting world-class education in Mechanical Engineering,

with a vision to nurture scientists and technocrats of the highest caliber
engaged in global sustainable development.

Mission

• M1: To create and maintain an environment fostering excellence in teaching

& learning, research and innovation in Mechanical Engineering and allied
disciplines.

• M2: To equip students with the required knowledge and skills to engage
seamlessly in higher education and employment sectors ensuring that
societal demands are met.
Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy

K6

K5

K4

K3

K2

K1
 Course Objectives
1. To impart a comprehensive knowledge of various modes of heat
and mass transfer.

2. To empower the students for solving heat transfer problems in

the industry.

3. To equip the student in the design of heat exchangers.

Course Outcomes

At the end of the course, the student will be able to

1. Solve the steady and unsteady heat conduction problems for

simple geometries

2. Analyse the natural and forced convective heat transfer

processes

3. Design the heat exchangers using the LMTD and

effectiveness-NTU methods

4. Solve the radiation heat transfer problems

5. Analyse the various mass transfer processes

Module:1 Conduction – I
Fundamental laws; Identification of significant modes of heat
transfer in practical applications. General equation of heat
conduction in cartesian, cylindrical and spherical coordinates;
One Dimensional steady state conduction in simple geometries -
plane wall, cylindrical and spherical shells; Electrical analogy;
Conduction in composite walls and shells; Critical thickness of
insulation; Thermal contact resistance; Overall heat transfer
coefficient; One dimensional steady conduction heat transfer
with internal heat generation in plane walls, cylinders and
spheres.
Module:2 Conduction – II

Extended surfaces (Fins). Conduction shape factor; Unsteady

state heat transfer - Systems with negligible internal resistance

- Lumped heat capacity analysis; Infinite bodies - flat plate,

cylinder and sphere; Semi-Infinite bodies - Chart solutions.

Module:3 Forced Convection

Equations of conservation of mass, momentum and energy.

Boundary layers for flow over a flat plate, curved objects and flow
through circular pipes. External flow over flat plate, cylinder,
sphere and bank of tubes; Internal flow through circular and non –
circular pipes.

Module: 4: Natural Convection

Flow over vertical, horizontal and inclined plates; Flow over

cylinders and spheres; Combined free and forced Convection;
Introductory concepts of boiling and condensation
Module:5 Heat Exchangers

Classification of heat exchanger, LMTD, AMTD, Design of heat

exchanger; Concentric pipe heat exchanger, shell and tube heat
exchanger, cross - flow heat exchanger; Analysis epsilon - NTU
method; Introduction to compact heat exchanger.

Module: 6: Radiation

Terminology and laws; black body, gray body; Radiation from

real surfaces; Effect of orientation - view factor; Equivalent
emissivity method, electrical analogy – surface and space
resistances. Radiation shields.
Module:7 Mass Transfer

Basic concepts - diffusion mass transfer - Fick’s law of diffusion -

steady state molecular diffusion - convective mass transfer -

momentum, heat and mass transfer analogy - convective mass

transfer correlations.
Text Books

1. Yunus A Cengel and Afshin J Ghajar, Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals and Applications,
2015, 5th edition, McGraw-Hill..

2. Sachdeva R C, Fundamentals of Engineering Heat and Mass Transfer, 2017, 5th edition, New
Age International.

3. Necati Ozisik M, Heat Transfer –A Basic Approach, 2016, McGraw Hill, New York.

Reference Books

1. Theodore L. Bergman, Adrienne S. Lavine, Frank P. Incropera, David P. DeWitt, Fundamentals

of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2018, 8th edition, Wiley.

2. J P Holman and Souvik Bhattacharyya, Heat Transfer, 2016, 10th edition, McGraw-Hill.

3. Kothandaraman, C.P, “Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer”, 2015, New Age International,
New Delhi.
 WhatsApp group (HMT_B1 Slot Winter 2024-25)

Scan the below QR code to join the group:

Scheme of Evaluation

Exam Weightage (%)

Project Review 1 10
Project Review 2 10
Project Review 3 10
Continuous assessment test (CAT) -1 15
Continuous assessment test (CAT)-2 15 (Open Book)
Final assessment test (FAT) 40
Total 100
 Module I
Conduction-I
•Heat: The form of energy that can be transferred from one system
to another as a result of temperature difference.
•Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as
a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to
another.
•Heat Transfer deals with the determination of the rates of such
energy transfers as well as variation of temperature.
•The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-
temperature medium to the lower-temperature one.
•Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same
temperature.
 Difference between
Thermodynamics & Heat Transfer
Thermodynamics Heat Transfer

1. Amount of heat transfer is 1. Rate of heat transfer is

determined. determined.
Hot water
Vol = 1 litre
m = 1 kg
T1 = 80C
T2 = 30C

tx = 4 hours
ty = 8 hours Brand Y
Brand X
Q = m cp T
 Difference between
Thermodynamics & Heat Transfer
Thermodynamics Heat Transfer

1. Amount of heat transfer is 1. Rate of heat transfer is

determined. determined.
2. Modes/Mechanisms of 2. Modes/Mechanisms of
heat transfer are not heat transfer are
studied. studied.
3. Systems will be in
equilibrium (Quasi-static 3. Systems will not be in
processes). equilibrium.
4. High temp to low and low 4. High temp to low temp
temp to high temp are only are discussed.
discussed.
Application Areas of Heat Transfer
Applications of Heat Transfer

1. Design of boiler, condenser, Heat Exchanger etc.,

2. Electronics Cooling
3. Space applications (Re-entry Vehicles)
4. Jet & Rocket Propulsion Systems
5. Cryogenic Storage.
6. IC Engines, Incinerators & Combustion.
7. Refrigeration & A/C
8. Manufacturing Processes
9. Thermal Stress Analysis
Modes of Heat Transfer

(i) Conduction
(ii) Convection
(iii) Radiation
✓ Heat Transfer is Thermal Energy in transit due to spatial temperature
difference.
 Conduction
• Conduction: The transfer of energy from the
more energetic particles of a substance to the
adjacent less energetic ones as a result of
interactions between the particles.
• In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the
collisions and diffusion of the molecules during
their random motion.
• In solids, it is due to the combination of
vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and the
energy transport by free electrons.
Conduction
Difference in Temperature
+
Medium
+
(No Bulk Motion)

Lattice Vibration

Conduction
Free electrons

Conduction by Lattice Vibration

 Conduction
Free Electrons Lattice Vibration (Molecular Vibration)
Occurs only in metals Occurs in all solids
Fast Process Slow Process

Note: In metals both the mechanisms of conduction occurs but

conduction by free electrons is predominant.

Free electrons gain energy upon heating and move faster and transfer
the thermal energy. They move in between the atoms before they
collide with the atoms
Conduction

T1
JOSEPH FOURIER
Governed by Fourier’s Law:
T The rate of conductive heat transfer is
directly proportional to temperature gradient
and Area of cross section. but is inversely
T
T2 proportional to the thickness of the layer.

 dT 
dx Q = −k Ac  
 dx 
x Where,
𝑄 - rate of heat transfer (W)
k - thermal conductivity (W/mK)

Ac - area of cross section (m2)

dT/dx- temperature gradient (K/m)

The equation implies that the heat transfer decreases along the direction of
heat flow
 CONDUCTION IN SOLID
• Thermal energy conducted by lattice vibrations and transport by
free electrons

• Transport by free electrons is dominant in case of metals.

Therefore, good electrical conductors are almost good thermal
conductor eg. Cu, Al, Ag etc.

• Good electrical insulators are also good thermal insulators

except diamond

• Diamond is an electrical insulator but thermal conductivity is 5

times higher than Cu or Ag
CONDUCTION IN LIQUID

• Collisions between molecule of varying temperature

• Situation is complicated compared to gas because of

closed packed molecules and effect of molecular force

field during collision

• Water has thermal conductivity (k) of 0.63 W/m/K at

ambient temperature
CONDUCTION IN GAS
• Collisions between molecules of varying temperature

• Related to kinetic theory of gases

• Rate of transport of energy by conduction increases with

temperature

• k, thermal conductivity of a gas increases with temperature

• k is almost independent of pressure upto a moderate pressure

• k changes when pressure is critical pressure of a gas or more

• Amongst gases hydrogen has the highest thermal conductivity

of 0.175 W/m/K at 0° C
 Thermal Conductivity (k)
• Thermal Conductivity is the rate of heat
transfer through a unit thickness of the
material per unit area per unit temperature
difference
• High value of k indicates good heat conductor
• Low value of k indicates a poor heat conductor
or an insulator
• Copper and silver are good conductors while
rubber, wood, styrofoam are bad conductors.
Ans: 2.466 MW/m2

Ans: (i) 29452.5 W (ii) -700 °C/m

 Convection
• Convection is the mode of energy transfer
between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or
gas that is in motion
• It involves the combined effects of conduction
and fluid motion
• Forced Convection takes place when the flow
caused by an external means like a fan or a pump
• Free Convection takes place due to density
differences
Convection
Difference in Temperature Water
+
Medium Pan
+
Bulk Motion
Upon heating
Expands (Volume increases)

Mass remains same

Convection is governed by
Newton’s Law of Cooling
 Examples of Convection

(a) Forced Convection, (b) Free Convection, (c) Boiling, (d) Condensation 14
Rate Equation for Convection
Newton’s law of cooling gives the rate for convection
equation
The rate of heat transfer by convection between a hot solid body and the
surroundings cold fluid is directly proportional to the temperature difference
between them and is also directly proportional to the area of contact between
them.
Q conv = hA(Ts − T)
W
h = Convective heat transfer coefficient, 2
m −K
A = Area, m2
T s= Surface temperature, K
T = Fluid temperature, K

• The Convective heat transfer coefficient (h) is not

a property of the fluid
 Natural Convectio n
-Bulk motion is due to density difference
which in turn is due to temperature
difference

Convection
Forced Convectio n
-Bulk motion is due to external aid like fan,
blower, pump etc.,

22
Radiation
Thermal radiation is a mode of heat transfer which does not require any material
medium for its propagation, hence occurs by electromagnetic waves travelling
with the speed of light.
Difference in Temp
+
No Medium / Medium
Radiation
Governed by
Stefan-Boltzmann Law Josef Stefan Ludwig Boltzmann
The rate of radiative heat transfer is directly proportional to fourth
power of absolute temperature and surface area.

Experimentally proved by
JOSEF STEFAN and
Theoretically proved by
LUDWIG BOLTZMANN

Ice and snow are also black body

Notations
 Modes of Heat Transfer
Mode of Heat Solid Liquid Gas Vacuum
Transfer
Conduction Y N/Y N/Y N

Convection N Y Y N

Radiation Y Y Y Y
(Q) (Q) (Q) (Q)
Recap
Convection
Radiation
 Identification of Heat Transfer
Modes
• Hot coffee in a flask:
 Identification of Heat Transfer
Modes…
• Fire place in a room:
 Heat Conduction Equations and
Its Importance
• Conduction analysis will give the temperature
distribution in a medium
• Although heat transfer and temperature are
closely related, they are of a different nature.
• Temperature has only magnitude. It is a scalar
quantity.
• Heat transfer has direction as well as
magnitude. It is a vector quantity.
• We work with a coordinate system and
indicate direction with plus or minus signs.
Heat Conduction Equations
• The driving force for any form of heat transfer is the temperature difference.
• The larger the temperature difference, the larger the rate of heat transfer.
• Three prime coordinate systems:
– rectangular T(x, y, z, t)
– cylindrical T(r, , z, t)
– spherical T(r, , , t).
 Steady versus Transient Heat
Transfer
• Steady implies no change with time at any point within the medium.
• Transient implies variation with time or time dependence.
• In the special case of variation with time but not with position, the
temperature of the medium changes uniformly with time. Such heat
transfer systems are called lumped systems.
 Multidimensional Heat Transfer
• Heat transfer problems are also classified as being:
– one-dimensional
– two dimensional
– three-dimensional
• In the most general case, heat transfer through a medium is three-
dimensional. However, some problems can be classified as two- or one-
dimensional depending on the relative magnitudes of heat transfer rates
in different directions and the level of accuracy desired.
• One-dimensional if the temperature in the medium varies in one direction
only and thus heat is transferred in one direction, and the variation of
temperature and thus heat transfer in other directions are negligible or
zero.
• Two-dimensional if the temperature in a medium, in some cases, varies
mainly in two primary directions, and the variation of temperature in the
third direction (and thus heat transfer in that direction) is negligible.
 GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION
• In the last section we considered one-dimensional heat
conduction and assumed heat conduction in other
directions to be negligible.
• Most heat transfer problems encountered in practice
can be approximated as being one-dimensional.
• However, this is not always the case, and sometimes
we need to consider heat transfer in other directions as
well.
• In such cases heat conduction is said to be
multidimensional, and in this section we develop the
governing differential equation in such systems in
rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical coordinate
systems.
Heat Conduction Equation
Cartesian Coordinates
 Heat Conduction Equation
Cartesian Coordinates
An energy balance on this element during a small time interval Δt can be expressed as
Heat Conduction Equation
Cartesian Coordinates
 Meaning of the Heat Conduction
Equation
• At any point in the medium, the net rate
of energy transfer by conduction into a
unit volume plus the volumetric rate of
heat generation must equal the rate of
change of thermal energy stored in the
volume
 Thermal diffusivity
• Thermal diffusivity is one of the important concepts in
the heat transfer process.
• Thermal diffusivity is defined as the rate of
temperature spread through a material.
• The thermal diffusivity of a material is given by the
thermal conductivity divided by the product of its
density and specific heat capacity.
𝑘
𝛼=
𝜌𝐶𝑝
• SI unit of thermal diffusivity is m²/s
Other Simplified Forms of Heat Conduction
Equation
Other Simplified Forms of Heat
Conduction Equation
Heat Conduction Equation
Cylindrical Coordinates
Heat Conduction Equation Spherical
Coordinates
All Heat Conduction Equations in one
Place
How to Solve the Heat Conduction
Equation
• The heat conduction equation is a partial
differential equation with temperature varying
in space (x, y, z directions) and time
• Boundary conditions and initial conditions are
needed
• Since the equation is 2nd order in space, two
boundary conditions are needed
• Since the equation is 1 initial condition is
needed
Common Boundary Conditions
Also called as
Dirichlet condition

Also called as
Neumann condition
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION
EQUATION
• Consider heat conduction through a large plane wall such as
the wall of a house, the glass of a single pane window, the
metal plate at the bottom of a pressing iron, a cast-iron steam
pipe, a cylindrical nuclear fuel element, an electrical
resistance wire, the wall of a spherical container, or a
spherical metal ball that is being quenched or tempered.
• Heat conduction in these and many other geometries can be
approximated as being one-dimensional since heat
conduction through these geometries is dominant in one
direction and negligible in other directions.
• Next we develop the one-dimensional heat conduction
equation in rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates.
Combined 1-D Heat Conduction
Equation
 1-D Steady State Conduction

• Heat transfers in predominantly one direction

• Temperature is independent of time
• Simple for analysis and useful in numerous
• Engineering applications
• Examples:- Fins, slabs, furnaces
1-D Steady State Plane Wall
1-D Steady State Cylindrical Shell
1-D Steady State Spherical Shell
 Thermal Resistance and Electrical Analogy

Thermal resistance is a measurement of a material's or a component's resistance to heat flow.

It is the reciprocal of thermal conductance, which is the ability to conduct heat.
Thermal Resistance and Electrical Analogy
 Composite Walls
• Walls involving any number of series and
parallel thermal resistances due to layers of
different materials
Composite Wall in Series

4
Composite Wall in Parallel
Composite Wall in Series and Parallel
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Hollow Cylinder
Hollow Composite Cylinder
 Critical Insulation Thickness
• In radial systems, the conduction resistance
increases with increase of insulation thickness
• The convection resistance decreases with
increase in insulation thickness and thereby
surface area
• Optimum Insulation thickness minimizes the
heat loss
Critical Insulation Thickness
Thermal Contact Resistance
 Thermal Contact Resistance…
• In composite systems, the temperature drop
across the interface may be considerable
• This is due to contact resistance
• Surface roughness is responsible for contact
resistance
• Contact spots are interspersed with gaps filled
with air
• Heat transfer is due to conduction across the
contact area and conduction and or radiation
across the gaps
 Thermal Contact Resistance…

• Contact resistance is equivalent to parallel

resistances due to contact spots and gaps
• For rough surfaces, the resistance is mostly
due to gaps
• Thermal Contact Resistance per unit area is
1-D Steady State with no Heat
Generation-Summary
 Heat Generation
• Examples:
– electrical energy being converted to heat at a rate of I2R
– fuel elements of nuclear reactors
– exothermic chemical reactions
• Heat generation is a volumetric phenomenon.
• The rate of heat generation unit: W/m3 or Btu/h·ft3.
• The rate of heat generation in a medium may vary with time as well as position within
the medium.
1-D Steady State with Heat Generation
• Thermal energy generation is observed in
electrical conductors, due to Ohmic heating

• Heat generation also occurs in nuclear

reactors during deceleration and absorption of
neutrons
• Heat generation also occurs during exothermic
reactions
1-D Steady State with Heat Generation
Plane Wall
1-D Steady State with Heat
Generation Plane Wall…
Implementing the Convective
Boundary Condition
1-D Steady State with Heat
Generation Cylinder
1-D Steady State with Heat Generation
Sphere