ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS MODULE 2

5. KARNAUGH MAPS
SWITCHING FUNCTIONS
Switching circuits or gates are circuits that perform well-defined logic or arithmetic operations on binary
variables. There are only two elements 1 and 0 by which all the mathematical operations are to be
performed.
A switching function is a function of variables which take only the values 0 and 1.
Switching functions can generally be simplified by using the algebraic techniques (Boolean Algebra)
However, two problems arise when algebraic procedures are used:
1. The procedures are difficult to apply in a systematic way.
2. It is difficult to tell when you have arrived at a minimum solution.
To overcome these difficulties we apply,
a. K-Map method
b. Quine-McCluskey procedure
by providing a systematic method for simplifying switching functions.

5.1 MINIMUM FORMS OF SWITCHING FUNCTIONS

In order to simplify the Switching functions or logic expressions in design of logic circuits, we have to
follow two fundamental approaches:

1. Sum – Of- Product Method (SOP)

2. Product- Of- Sum Method (POS)

Both the methods produce a logic circuit corresponding to a given Truth table. (Logic expression).

MINIMUM SUM OF PRODUCT EXPRESSION (SOP)

Define Minimum Sum of Product expression

A minimum sum-of-products expression for a function is defined as a sum of product terms which (a)
has a minimum number of terms and (b) of all those expressions which have the same minimum number
of terms have a minimum number of literals.
The minimum sum of products corresponds directly to a minimum two-level gate circuit such as AND-
OR or NAND-NAND network, which has (a) a minimum number of gates and (b) a minimum number
of gate inputs.

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The given function may have two different minimum Sum of Products forms, each with the same
number of terms and the same number of literals.
Procedure to find minimum Sum of Products form for a given min-term expansion:
1. Combine terms by using XY’ + XY = X. Do this repeatedly to eliminate as many literals as
possible. A given term may be used more than once because X + X = X.
2. Eliminate redundant terms by using the consensus theorem or other theorems.
Problem:
For the truth shown below find the sum of product equation (Expression)

In SOP form consider the fundamental product terms (Min-term) for those input variables whose output
is 1.
In above truth table output Y is 1;
When ABC = 011 (decimal 3), the corresponding fundamental product is A‟BC (011)
ABC =101 (5), the corresponding fundamental product is AB‟C (101)
ABC = 110 (6), the corresponding fundamental product is ABC‟ (110)
ABC = 111 (7), the corresponding fundamental product is ABC (111)
To get the Sum of Products equation, OR (add) these fundamental product terms.
Y = A‟BC + AB‟C + ABC‟ +ABC
.
NOTE:
Each product term in SOP is called min-term and designated by mi
Alternative representation of Sum of Product Expression is by using summation or logical OR
symbol ∑ to be performed on corresponding fundamental product or min-terms denoted by m
Y = F (A, B, C) = ∑ m ( 3, 5, 6, 7)
Where F is a function of 3 Boolean variables A, B, C and 3, 5, 6, 7 are the Min-terms of SOP
expression.
This kind of representation of truth table is also known as Canonical Sum Form
The above three variable min-terms can alternatively be represented by m3 + m5 + m6 + m7
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Problem:
Find a minimum sum-of-products expression for F (a, b, c) = ∑ m (0, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7)

By using those two procedures of minimization, the minimum SOP expression = a‟b‟ + bc‟ + ac

MINIMUM PRODUCT OF SUM EXPRESSION (POS)

Define Minimum Product of Sum expression

A minimum product-of-sums expression for a function is defined as a product of sum terms which (a)
has a minimum number of factors and (b) of all those expressions which have the same number of
factors, has a minimum number of literals.
The minimum product of sums corresponds directly to a minimum two-level gate circuit such as OR-
AND or NOR-NOR network, which has (a) a minimum number of gates and (b) a minimum number of
gate inputs.
The given function may have two different minimum Product of Sums forms, each with the same
number of factors and the same number of literals.
Procedure to find minimum Product of Sum form for a given Max-term expansion:
1. Combine terms by using (X + Y) (X + Y’) = X. Do this repeatedly to eliminate as many literals
as possible. A given term may be used more than once because X + X = X.
2. Eliminate redundant terms by using the consensus theorem or other theorems

Problem:
For the truth shown below find the product of sum equation (Expression)
In POS form consider the fundamental sum terms (Max-term) for those input variables whose output is
0. That means in product of sums method, the fundamental sum produce an output 0 for the
corresponding input condition.

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In below truth table the first output Y = 0 appears for A = 0, B = 0, C = 0. The fundamental sum for
these inputs is A + B + C = 0, because this produces an output 0 for the corresponding input condition
Y=A+B+C=0+0+0=0
The second output Y = 0 appears for A = 0, B = 1, C = 1. The fundamental sum for these inputs is A +
B’ + C’ = 0, because this produces an output 0 for the corresponding input condition
Y = A + B’ + C’ = 0 + 1’ + 1’ = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0

The third output Y = 0 appears for A = 1, B = 1, C = 0. The fundamental sum for these inputs is A’ + B’
+ C = 0, because this produces an output 0 for the corresponding input condition
Y = A’ + B’ + C = 1’ + 1’ + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0
To get the product of sums equation, all you have to do is AND the fundamental sums:
Y = (A + B + C) (A + B‟ + C‟) (A‟ + B‟ + C)

NOTE:
Each sum term in POS is called Max-term and designated by Mi
Alternative representation of Product of Sum Expression is by using product or logical AND
operation; symbol Π to be performed on corresponding fundamental sum or Max-terms denoted
by Mi
Y = F (A, B, C) = Π M ( 0, 3, 6 )
Where F is a function of 3 Boolean variables A, B, C and 0, 3, 6 are the Max-terms of POS
expression.
This kind of representation of truth table is also known as Canonical Product Form
The above three variable max-terms can alternatively be represented by M0 M3M7

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Problem:

CONVERSION BETWEEN SOP and POS

We have seen that SOP representation is obtained by considering ones (1) in a truth table while POS
comes considering zeros (0). Thus SOP and POS occupy complementary locations in a truth table and
one representation can be obtained from the other by:
 Identifying complementary locations.
 Changing min-term to max-term or reverse, and finally
 Changing summation by product or reverse
Example:
Convert the Sum of Product expression Y = F (A, B, C) = ∑ m (1, 4, 5, 7) into Product of Sum
expression.
Truth table corresponding to Y = F (A, B, C) = ∑ m (1, 4, 5, 7)
A B C Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
In order to get Product of Sum expression from SOP expression, identify the output Y = 0 for the input
variable A, B, C. Here output Y = 0 for ABC = 000 = 0, ABC = 010 = 2, ABC = 011 = 3, ABC = 110 =
6. Write those terms as Max-terms of POS expression.
Therefore the Product of Sum expression corresponding to the Function F (A, B, C) = ∑ m (1, 4, 5, 7) is
given by: F (A, B, C) = Π M(0, 2, 3, 6)
Example:

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Write the Max terms corresponding to the Product of Sum function F given below:
F(A, B, C) = (A + B + C’) (A + B’ + C’)(A’ + B’ + C) (A’ + B’ +C’)
Here we have to consider the Boolean value corresponding to the complement of variables as 1 and
variables as 0.
Example: A +B +C’ = 0 0 1 = 1, (A + B’ +C’) = 011 = 3, (A’ + B’ + C) = 110 =6 and (A’ + B’ +C’)
=111 = 7
The max-terms of F = ΠM(1, 3, 6, 7)
5.2 TWO and THREE VARIABLE KARNAUGH MAPS
What is Karnaugh-Map?
A Karnaugh Map is a visual display of the fundamental products needed for SOP solution.
Just like a truth table, the Karnaugh map of a function specifies the value of the function for every
combination of values of the independent variables.
 We can represent Truth table of a function on K-Map
 We can represent min-term/max-term expansion of a function on K-Map
 We can represent algebraic form of a function on K-Map
TWO VARIABLE KARNAUGH-MAP
Using any two variables in a function we can represent 22 = 4 Min-terms/Max-terms (0 through 3) on the
K-Map. The structure of 2 variables Function K-Map is as shown below:

 The values of one variable (A) are listed across the top of the map, and the values of the other
variable (B) are listed on the left side.
 Each square of the map corresponds to a pair of values for A and B as indicated below

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REPRESENTATION OF TRUTH TABLE OF A TWO VARIABLE FUNCTION ON K-MAP

Example:
For the given truth table of function F, write the corresponding Karnaugh Map.
A B F
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 0

 The value of function F for A= B = 0 is plotted in the upper left square, and the other map entries
are plotted in a similar way as shown in above K-Map
 Each 1 on the map corresponds to a min-term of F. We can read the min-terms from the map just
like we can read them from the truth table.
 A 1 in square 00 of the below K-Map indicates that A’B’ is a min-term of F. Similarly, a 1 in
square 01 indicates that A’B is a min-term.

 Min-terms in adjacent squares of the map can be combined since they differ in only one variable.
Thus, A’B’ and A’B combine to form A’, and this is indicated by looping the corresponding 1‟s
on the map shown below:

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THREE VARIABLE KARNAUGH-MAP

Using any three variables in a function, we can represent 23 = 8 Min-terms/ Max-terms (0 through 7) on
the K-Map. The structure of 3 variables function K-Map is as shown below:

 The value of one variable (a) is listed across the top of the map, and the values of the other two
variables (b, c) are listed along the side of the map.
 The rows are labelled in the sequence 00, 01, 11, 10 so that values in adjacent rows differ in only
one variable.
 For each combination of values of the variables, the value of F is read from the truth table and
plotted in the appropriate map square.
REPRESENTATION OF TRUTH TABLE OF A THREE VARIABLE FUNCTION ON K-MAP
For the given truth table of function F, write the corresponding Karnaugh Map
A B C F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
K-Map:

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 For the input combination abc = 010, the value F = 1 is plotted in the square for which a = 0 and
bc =10. For the combination abc =111, the value F = 0 is plotted in the square a = 1 and bc = 11
Location of 8 different min-terms on a three variable K- Map is as shown below:
 Min-terms in adjacent squares of the map differ in only one variable and therefore can be
combined using the theorem XY’ +XY = X
 For example, min-term 011(a’bc) is adjacent to the three min-terms with which it can be
combined - 001(a’b’c), 010 (a’bc’), and 111 (abc)..

 In addition to squares which are physically adjacent, the top and bottom rows of the map are
defined to be adjacent because the corresponding min-terms in these rows differ in only one
variable. Thus 000 and 010 are adjacent, and so are 100 and 110 as shown below

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REPRESENTATION OF MIN-TERM/MAX-TERM EXPANSION OF A THREE VARIABLE

FUNCTION ON K-MAP
Plot the following functions on the given Karnaugh maps:
F (R, S, T) = ∑ m (0, 1, 5, 6) or F(R, S, T) = m0 + m1 + m5 + m6
K-Map:

Given the min-term expansion of a function, it can be plotted on a map by placing 1’s in the squares
which correspond to min-terms of the function and 0’s in the remaining squares (the 0’s may be omitted
if desired) as shown in above figure.
Plot the following functions on the given Karnaugh maps:
F (R, S, T) = Π M (2, 3, 4, 7) or F(R, S, T) = M2M3M4M7
K-Map:

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If a function F is given as a max-term expansion, the map is plotted by placing 0’s in the squares which
correspond to the max-terms and then by filling in the remaining squares with 1’s. Thus, it gives the
same map as that of min-term expansion K-Map shown above.
REPRESENTATION OF ALGEBRAIC FORM OF A THREE VARIABLE FUNCTION ON K-
MAP
If a function is given in algebraic form, it is unnecessary to expand it to min-term form before plotting it
on a map. If the algebraic expression is converted to sum-of products form, then each product term can
be plotted directly as a group of 1’s on the map.
Example:
Plot the following function on the given map:
F(a, b, c) = abc’ + b’c + a’

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Example:
Plot the following function on the given map:
F(x, y, z) = z’ + x’z + yz

Simplification of n variable Function using K-Map

Steps required in simplification
1. Represent the given n variable function on n variable K-Map.
2. Encircle (loop) the octets, quads, and pairs. Remember to roll and overlap to get the largest
groups as possible
3. If any isolated 1’s remain, encircle each
4. Eliminate any redundant group.
5. Write the Boolean equation by ORing the products corresponding to the encircled groups.
THE PAIR
A pair is a group of two 1’s that are horizontally or vertically adjacent. A pair eliminates one variable
and its complement.

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One pair results in term a’c (eliminates one variable b) and another pair results in term b’c (eliminates
the variable a)
THE QUAD
A quad is a group of four 1’s that are horizontally or vertically adjacent. A quad eliminates two variables
and its complements.
Example:

One quad results in term a’d (eliminates two variables b & c) and another quad results in term c’d
(eliminates two variables a & b)
THE OCTET
A octet is a group of eight 1’s that are horizontally or vertically adjacent. A octet eliminates three
variables and its complements.
Example:

Here the octets grouping results in a new term = c, which eliminates three variables a, b, & d

OVERLAPPING THE GROUPS IN K-MAP

Here we are allowed to use the same 1 more than once.
In below K-Map the 1 representing the fundamental product A’BCD is part of the pair group and the
part of the octet group. This type of grouping in K-Map is referred as overlapping

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ROLLING THE GROUPS IN K-MAP

Here we are allowed to group 1’s on the edges of a K-map with the 1’s on opposite edges in terms of
pair or quad or octet groups

. NOTE: In simplification of any Boolean function using K-map, If possible first we have to
search for group of 1‟s in terms Octets (Eight-1‟s), then go for quad (four-1‟s) and finally go
for pairs (two-1‟s)

SIMPLIFICATION OF THREE VARIABLE FUNCTION USING K-MAP

Problem:
Find the minimum SOP form for the function shown below:
Y = F(a, b, c) = ∑ m(1, 3, 5)
Representation of term ∑ m (1, 3, 5) on K-map:

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In above K-map, terms in adjacent squares on the map differ in only one variable and can be combined
using theorem XY’ +XY = X
Here the terms a’b’c and a’bc can be combined, which is as shown in below figure.

Also the terms ab’c and a’b’c can be combined, which is shown in below figure;

The combination of terms a’b’c and a’bc results in a new form: a‟c
Looping of these two terms appears in K-Map ‘s first column where a = 0 and it spans the rows bc = 01
and bc = 11 where c = 1 (take fixed variable value and ignore the variable whose value is changing from
0 to 1 or 1 to 0). Therefore the reduced form = a’c
The combination of terms ab’c and a’b’c results in a new form: b‟c
Looping of these two terms appears in K-Map ‘s first and second column where the value of a is
changing, so we ignore the variable a and in second row where bc =01. Therefore the reduced form =
b’c
So the minimum SOP of the form = a‟c + b‟c

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Problem
Find the minimum SOP form for the function shown below:
Y = F(a, b, c) = ∑ m(0, 2, 4,6,7)

Minimum SOP of the form = c‟ + ab

Eliminating Redundant Groups in K-Map
When we make an unnecessary group (In K-map when all 1’s are already grouped in terms of
pair/quad/octet) in a K-Map results in a redundant group, which is group whose 1’s are already used by
other group,
After you have finished encircling groups in a K-Map, eliminate any redundant group.

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Problem:
Show that XY + X’Z + YZ = XY + X‟Z

Minimum SOP = XY + X‟Z

Here the term YZ is redundant because its 1’s are covered by the other two terms.
TWO OR MORE DIFFERENT MINIMUM SOP FORM
Y = F(a, b, c) = ∑ m(0, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7). Find minimum SOP form.
K-Map:

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In two different ways we can combine the terms in above K-Map; which results in two different
minimum SOP form
Case-1:

Minimum SOP form = a‟b‟ + ac + bc‟

Case-2:

Minimum SOP form = a‟c‟ + ab + b‟c

5.3 FOUR VARIABLE KARNAUGH MAP

Using any four variables in a function, we can represent 24 = 16 Min-terms/Max-terms (0 through 15) on
the K-Map. The structure of 4 variables function K-Map is as shown below:

Structure of 4-variable K-Map

Each min-term is located adjacent to the four terms with which it can combine.

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For example: Min-term m5(0101) could combine with m1(001), m4(100), m7(111) or m13(1101) because
it differs in only one variable from each of the other min-terms.
Problem:
Represent the four variable function F (a, b, c, d) = acd +a‟b +d‟ on a 4-variable K-Map
Here the first term of the given function F is acd = 1 when a = b= c =1, so we place 1’s in the squares
which are in the a = 1 column and cd = 11 row. ( a =1 in two different columns; column3 & 4)
Second term a’b = 1 when a = 0 and b =1 so we place four 1’s in the ab = 01 column (Here bc value is
changing from 0 to 1 or 1 to 0; so we select all 4 rows)
Third term d’ = 1 when d= 0; so we place 1’s in the squares which are in the d = 0 row (1 st & last row)
and in all 4 columns. So we place eight 1’s in two rows for which d = 0 ( Duplicate 1’s are not plotted
because 1 + 1 = 1)
K-Map of function F(a, b, c, d) = acd +a‟b +d‟

Problem:
Find the minimum SOP form for the function Y = F(a, b, c, d) = ∑ m(1, 3, 4, 5, 10,12,13)
After representing the given min-terms of the function F on K- map:

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After making quad and pair groups of 1’s on K-Map:

Minimum SOP of the form = bc’ + a’b’d +ab’cd’

Problem:
Find the minimum SOP form for the function Y = F(a, b, c, d) = ∑ m(0, 2, 3, 5, 6,7,8,10,11,14,15)
After representing the given min-terms of the function F on K- map:

After making octet, quad and pair groups of 1’s on K-Map:

Minimum SOP of the form = c + b‟d‟ +a‟bd

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MINIMUM SOP FUNCTION WITH DON‟T CARE TERMS

In some digital systems, certain input conditions never occur during normal operation; therefore, the
corresponding output never appears. Since the output never appears, it is indicated by an X in the truth
table. Whenever you see an X in a truth table, you can let it equal either 0 or 1, whichever produces a
simpler logic circuit.
K-Map method is easily extended to functions with don’t care terms. The required min-terms are
indicated by 1’s on the map. Don’t care min-terms are indicated by X’s on the map. When choosing
terms to form the minimum sum of products, all the 1’s must be covered but the X’s are only used if
they will simplify the resulting expressions.
Example:
Truth table with Don’t care condition

Truth table has don’t care entries X for all the inputs 1010 through 1111. Output is high for 1001 input
and low for all other inputs. The equivalent SOP form of the K-map:

K-map contains only single 1 term, the most efficient way to encircle the 1 is as shown below:

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 First thing you have to include the 1’s in a quad group, the largest group you can find if you
visualize all X’s as 1s.
 Second thing is after the 1’s has been encircled, all X’s outside the quad are visualized as 0’s. In
this way, the X’s are used to the best possible advantage.
Problem:
A digital system is to be designed in which months of the year is given as input in four bit form.
The month January is represented as „0000‟, February as „0001‟ and so on. The output of the
system should be „1‟ corresponding to the input of the month containing31 days or otherwise it is
„0‟. Consider excess numbers in the input beyond „1011‟ as don‟t care conditions. For this system
of four variables (A, B, C, D) find the following:
i. Write the truth table
ii. Boolean expression in ∑m and ΠM form
iii. Using K-Map simplify in SOP form(simplify Boolean expression of canonical min-term
form)
i. The truth table for the given problem is constructed as shown below:
A B C D Y
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 X
1 1 0 1 X
1 1 1 0 X
1 1 1 1 X

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ii. Boolean expression in ∑m and ΠM form

Boolean Expression in ∑m form is nothing but Sum of Product Form (SOP)
Identify the fundamental product (Min-term) terms corresponding to input conditions in the truth table,
where the output Y =1.
The output Y = 1 for the input conditions ABCD = 0000, ABCD = 0010, ABCD =0100, ABCD = 0110,
ABCD = 0111, ABCD = 1001, and ABCD = 1011
Therefore the required min-terms are; m0, m2, m4, m6, m7, m9 and m11
Also we observe that output with don’t care symbol X correspond to don’t care terms are: d12, d13, d14
and d15
Thus the Boolean expression in ∑m form is given by:
F(A, B, C, D) = ∑m ( 0, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 11) + ∑d(12, 13, 14, 15)
Boolean expression in ΠM form is nothing but Product of Sum form(POS)
POS comes considering zeros (0) in above truth table, which is the complementary of SOP form and the
don’t care terms remains as it is.
Thus the Boolean expression in ΠM form is given by:
F(A, B, C, D) = ΠM ( 1, 3, 5, 8, 10) + ∑d(12, 13, 14, 15)
iii. Using K-Map simplify in SOP form

Minimum Sum of Product form = A‟D‟ +AD +BC

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Problem:
Find the minimum SOP form for the function shown below:
Y = F(a, b, c, d) = ∑ m(1, 3, 5, 7, 9) + ∑ d(6, 12, 13)
K-map

Minimum SOP form = a’d + c’d

How to get the minimum POS form for the given SOP expression?
Find the minimum product of sum for the function Y = F(w, x, y, z) = x‟z‟ + wyz + w‟y‟z‟ +x‟y

In order to get minimum expression of product of sum form, group all 0’s of the K- map

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By grouping 0’s of the above K-Map we get a function F’(w, x, y, z) = y’z + w’xy + wxz’
[Now complement each literals of the term in F’ and replace AND with OR and OR with AND]
The minimum Product of Sum for the given Function F is given by:
F (w, x, y, z) = (y + z‟) (w + x‟ + y‟) (w‟ + x‟ + z)
Problem:
Find the minimum SOP and minimum POS expressions for the following function using K-map.
F(A, B, C, D) = ∑m(1, 3, 4, 11) + ∑d(2, 7, 8,12, 14, 15)

The minimum SOP for the given Function F = A‟B‟D + BC‟D‟ + CD

To find minimum POS form, group all 0’s on the K-Map

By grouping 0’s of the above K-Map we get a function F’ = B’D’+ AC’ + BD + BC

[Now complement each literals of the term in F’ and replace AND with OR and OR with AND]
The minimum POS for the given Function F = (B+D)(A‟+C) (B‟+D‟)(B‟+C‟) Or
Another way of grouping 0’s of the K-map is as follows:
We get a function after grouping 0’s as F’ = B’D’+ AC’ + BD + CD’
[Now complement each literals of the term in F’ and replace AND with OR and OR with AND]
The minimum POS for the given Function F = (B+D)(A‟+C) (B‟+D‟)(C‟+D)

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Therefore Minimum POS form for F = (B+D)(A‟+C) (B‟+D‟) {(B‟+C‟) or (C‟+D)}

Problem:
Determine the minimum sum of products and minimum product of sums for
F(a, b, c, d) = b‟c‟d‟ + bcd +acd‟ + a‟b‟c + a‟bc‟d
After Plotting K-Map for function F

So the minimum sum of product for function F:

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We will find the minimum product of sum for F by plotting the K-map for F’(consider all 0’s in
grouping)

Minimum SOP for F’ = b’c’d + a’bd’ + abc’ +ab’d

Therefore the minimum product of sum for F is obtained by complementing each literals in above
function F’ and replacing OR by AND /AND by OR
The minimum product of sum for F: (b + c +d‟) (a + b‟ + d) (a‟ + b‟ + c) (a‟ + b + d‟)
Problem:
Find the minimum sum of products expression for F = ∑m(2, 4, 8) + ∑d(0, 3, 7)
K-Map for F:

Now make the group of adjacent 1’s and we may consider the don’t care terms X as 1’s if that gives
larger group size. This in turn reduces the number of literals in product term.
As we see there are three 1’s on K-map, it is possible to combine a 1 in 1st row & 2nd column with
adjacent X, so as to get the larger group as a pair.(No other option to get maximum group size)

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After making the first group, K-map contains two 1’s which is not yet grouped. In order get larger size
group we need to use the adjacent don’t care term X along with these 1’s:

So the minimum SOP expression for F is: a‟c‟d‟ + a‟b‟c + b‟c‟d‟

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5.4 DETERMINATION OF MINIMUM EXPRESSIONS USING ESSENTIAL PRIME IMPLICANTS

What is implicant of a function?
Any single 1 or any group of 1’s which can be combined together on a K-map of the function F
represents a product term which is called an implicant of function F.
Several implicants of function F may be possible.
What is prime implicant?
A product term implicant is called a prime implicant if it cannot be combined with another term to
eliminate a variable.

 In above K-Map a’b’c, a’cd’, and ac’ are prime implicants because they cannot be combined
with other terms to eliminate a variable.
 But a’b’c’d’ is not a prime implicant because it can be combined with a’b’cd’ or ab’c’d’
 Also abc’ and ab’c’ is not prime implicant because these terms can be combined together to form
ac’
The minimum sum-of-products expression for a function consists of some (but not necessarily all) of the
prime implicants of a function.
For example in the following K-Map we observe that total six prime implicants are possible but three of
these prime implicants cover all of the 1’s on the map, Minimum number of prime implicants which
cover all of the 1’s on the map will give the minimum solution. Therefore the minimum solution is the
sum of these three prime implicants.
NOTE:
Always we have to select the minimum number of prime implicants which cover all of the 1’s on the K-
map in correct order otherwise; it may results in non-minimum solution.

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ESSENTIAL PRIME IMPLICANT

What is essential prime implicant?
In K-Map if a min-term is covered by only one prime implicant, that prime implicant is said to essential
prime implicant.
Example:

 We observe that prime implicants as A’C’, A’B’D’, ACD, BCD and A’BD
 Min-term 1’s covered by only one prime implicants are: A’B’D’, A’C’ and ACD are essential
prime implicants

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 To complete the minimum solution, one of the nonessential prime implicants is needed. Either
ABD or BCD may be selected. The final solution is:

FLOWCHART FOR DETERMINING A MINIMUM SUM OF PRODUCTS USING A

KARNAUGH MAP
With the help of flow chart explain how to determine minimum sum of products using Karnaugh
Map

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Required Steps:
1. Choose a min-term (a 1) which has not yet been covered.
2. Find all 1’s and X’s adjacent to that min-term (Check the n adjacent squares on an n-
variable map).
3. If a single term covers the min-term and all of the adjacent 1’s and X’s, then that term is
an essential prime implicant, so select that term. (Note that don’t-care terms are treated
like 1’s in steps 2 and 3 but not in step 1.)
4. Repeat steps 1, 2, and 3 until all essential prime implicants have been chosen.
5. Find a minimum set of prime implicants which cover the remaining 1’s on the map. (If
there is more than one such set, choose a set with a minimum number of literals.)

Advantages of K-Map method of simplification of logic expression

1. Minimizes Boolean expressions without the need using various Boolean theorems and
computations.
2. It is the simplest method of reduction of logic expression
3. It minimizes the number of logic gates used
Disadvantages of K-Map method of simplification of logic expression
1. K-map method of simplification of boolean expression is not suitable, when the number of
variables involved in Boolean expression exceed four.
2. It is not suitable for computer reduction
3. Care must be taken to field in every cell with relevant entry such as 0, 1 (or) don’t care terms

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6. QUINE-MCCLUSKY METHOD
******What are the disadvatages of K-Map method? How they are overcome in Quine-
McCluskey method
Disadvantages of K-Map method:
1. K-map method of simplification of boolean expression is not suitable, when the number of
variables involved in Boolean expression exceed four.
2. It is not suitable for computer reduction
3. Care must be taken to field in every cell with relevant entry such as 0, 1 (or) don’t care terms
How to overcome this problem in Quine-McClusky method:
The Quine-McCluskey method reduces the min-term expansion (standard sum of-products form) of a
function to obtain a minimum sum of products. The procedure consists of two main steps:
1. Eliminate as many literals as possible from each term by systematically by applying the theorem
XY + XY‟= X. The resulting terms are called prime implicants.
2. Use a prime implicant chart to select a minimum set of prime implicants which, when ORed
together, are equal to the function being simplified and which contain a minimum number of
literals.
6.1 DETERMINATION OF PRIME IMPLICANTS
Quine-McClusky method involves preparation of two tables: one determines prime implicants and other
selects essential prime implicants to get minimal expression.
 Here the function must be given as a sum of min-terms.
 All of the prime implicants of a function are systematically formed by combining min-terms. The
min-terms are represented in binary notation and combined using XY + XY‟= X
 Two min-terms will combine if they differ in exactly one variable. The examples given below
show both the binary notation and its algebraic equivalent

 In order to find all of the prime implicants, all possible pairs of min-terms should be compared
and combined whenever possible. To reduce the required number of comparisons, the binary
min-terms are sorted into groups according to the number of 1’s in each term.

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Problem:
Simplify the Boolean function f(a, b, c, d) = Σm (0, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14) using Quine-McClusky
method.
Step 1: For the given problem write the equivalent binary min-terms as:

0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
10 1 0 1 0
14 1 1 1 0
Step 2: Create and sort the groups of binary min-terms according to the number of 1’s in each min-term.
Make the groups such as Group 0, Group 1, Group 2, Group3, and so on
Group 0: Contains the min-term, which has zero number of 1’s
Group 1: Contains the min-term, which has one number of 1’s.
Group 2: Contains the min-term, which has two number of 1’s.
Group 3: Contains the min-term, which has three number of 1’s.

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Step 3: In order to find all of the prime implicants, all possible pairs of min-terms should be compared
and combined whenever possible.
 Do not compare the binary min-terms within a group (they differ in at least two variables)
 The binary min-terms in adjacent groups must be compared. Adjacent groups such as Group 0 is
adjacent to Group1, Group1 is adjacent Group 2, Group2 is adjacent to group 3 and so on.
 Two binary min-terms can be combined if they differ in exactly one variable.
 Comparison of binary min-terms in non-adjacent groups is unnecessary. Non-adjacent groups
such as Group 0 is non adjacent to Group 2 and Group3, Group 1 is non-adjacent to Group 3,
Group 2 is non-adjacent to Group 0, Group3 non adjacent to Group 0, Group1 etc.
Comparison:
First we will compare the binary-min-term in Group 0 with all of the min-terms in Group 1,
In Group 0 we have only one binary Min-term; ie 0 0 0 0
In Group 1 we have binary Min-terms 0 0 0 1, 0 0 1 0, 1 0 0 0
Compare 0 0 0 0 with 0 0 0 1: (0 and 1)
Group 0 0 0 0 0 Since these two min-terms differ in exactly one variable; terms can be combined to
Group 1 0 0 0 1 eliminate the fourth variable. After combining we get the new min-terms as: 0 0 0 _
Resulting 0 0 0 _ (0.1)
min-terms (0, 1)
Compare 0 0 0 0 with 0 0 1 0: (0 and 2)
Group 0 0 0 0 0 Since these two min-terms differ in exactly one variable; terms can be combined to
Group 1 0 0 1 0 eliminate the third variable. (0,2)
Resulting 00_0
min-terms (0, 2)
Compare 0 0 0 0 with 1 0 0 0: (0 and 8)
Group 0 0 0 0 0 Since these two min-terms differ in exactly one variable; terms can be combined to
Group 1 1 0 0 0 eliminate the first variable. (0,8)
Resulting _000
min-terms (0, 8)
After comparing group 0 min-term with Group 1 min-terms, put a √ mark in front of those min-terms
which are combined [ Put a √ mark in front of min-terms 0, 1, 2, 8]
Comparison of min-term in Group 0 with the min-terms of Group 2 and Group 3 is unnecessary, since
they are not adjacent. So we proceed to compare min-terms in Group 1 and Group 2

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In Group 1 we have binary Min-terms; ie 0 0 0 1, 0 0 1 0, 1 0 0 0

In Group 2 we have binary Min-terms: ie: 0 1 0 1, 0 1 1 0, 1 0 0 1, 1 0 1 0
Comparing min-term 1 of group 1 with all min-terms in Group 2, we find that it combines with the min-
terms 5 and 9 but not with min-terms 6 or 10 because it differs in more than two positions (variables)
Group 1 0 0 0 1 Since these two min-terms differ in exactly one variable; terms can be combined to
Group 2 0 1 0 1 eliminate the second variable. After combining we get (1, 5)
Resulting 0_01
min-terms (1, 5)

Group 1 0 0 0 1 Since these two min-terms differ in exactly one variable; terms can be combined to
Group 2 1 0 0 1 eliminate the first variable. After combining we get (1, 9)
Resulting _001
min-terms (1, 9)

NOTE: The same procedure is used for the comparison of remaining min-terms of Group 1 and Group2,
also for Group 2 and Group 3. The resulting in min-terms is entered in Column-II of the Table
(Determination of Prime Implicants) shown below:
Table- Determination of Prime Implicants
Column-I Column-II Column-III
Group 0 0 0000 √ (0, 1) 0 0 0 _ √
1 0001 √ (0, 2) 0 0 _ 0 √
Group 1 2 0010 √ (0, 8) _ 0 0 0 √
8 1000 √

5 0101 √ (1, 5) 0_01

Group 2 6 0110 √ (1, 9) _001 √
9 1001 √ (2, 6) 0_10 √
10 1010 √ (2, 10) _010 √
(8, 9) 100_ √
(8, 10) 10_0 √
Group 3 7 0111 √ (5, 7) 01_1
14 1110 √ (6, 7) 011_
(6, 14) _110 √
(10, 14) 1_10 √

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Here min-term 2 of group 1combines only with term 6 and 10 of group 2 and min-term 8 of group1
combines only with term 9 and 10 of group 2.
We finish with column-I by comparing min-terms in group 2 and group3. New terms are formed by
combining terms 5 and 7, terms 6 and 7 and terms 6 and 14 and terms 10 and 14
We observe that combined terms in Column-II have been divided into groups, according to the number
of 1’s in each term.
In Column-II compare only the terms in adjacent Groups which have dashes (missing variables) in
corresponding places and which differ by exactly one in the number of 1’s.
Terms in the first group in Column-II need only be compared with terms in the second group which have
dashes in the same place:
Term (0, 1): 0 0 0 _ combines only with and term (8, 9): 1 0 0 _;which yield in new term as _ 0 0 _ is
listed in Column-III with designation 0, 1, 8, 9
Column-I Column-II Column-III
Group 0 0 0000 √ (0, 1) 0 0 0 _ √ 0, 1, 8, 9 _ 0 0 _
1 0001 √ (0, 2) 0 0 _ 0 √ 0, 2, 8, 10 _ 0 _ 0
Group 1 2 0010 √ (0, 8) _ 0 0 0 √ 0, 8 , 1, 9 _ 0 0 _
8 1000 √ 0, 8, 2, 10 _ 0 _ 0
2, 6, 10, 14 _ _ 1 0
2, 10, 6, 14 _ _ 1 0
5 0101 √ (1, 5) 0 _ 0 1
Group 2 6 0110 √ (1, 9) _ 0 0 1 √
9 1001 √ (2, 6) 0 _ 1 0 √
10 1010 √ (2, 10) _ 0 1 0 √
(8, 9) 1 0 0 _ √
(8, 10) 1 0 _ 0 √
Group 3 7 0111 √ (5, 7) 0 1 _ 1
14 1110 √ (6, 7) 0 1 1 _
(6, 14) _ 1 1 0 √
(10, 14) 1 _ 1 0 √
Term (0, 2) combines only with ( 8, 10), and term (0, 8) combines with both (1, 9) and (2, 10)
Again the terms which have been combined are checked off.
Comparing the terms from the second and third groups in Column-II, we find that (2, 6) combines with
(10, 14) and (2,10) combines with (6, 14)
There are three pairs of duplicate terms in Column-III. These duplicate terms were formed in each case
by combining the same set of four min-terms in a different order.

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We compare terms from the two groups in Column-III. Because no further combination is possible, the
process terminates. We would keep comparing the terms and forming new groups of terms and new
columns until no more terms could be combined.
The terms which have not been checked off because they cannot be combined with other terms are
called prime implicants.
Terms which have not been checked off are:
(1, 5) (5, 7) (6, 7) (0, 1, 8, 9) (0, 2, 8, 10) (2, 6, 10, 14)
(0 _ 0 1) (0 1 _ 1) (0 1 1 _ ) (_ 0 0 _) (_ 0 _ 0) (_ _ 1 0)
The function is equal to sum of its prime implicants;
f = a’c’d + a’bd + a’bc + b’c’ + b’d’ + cd’
Step 4:
Prepare the prime implicant chart for the list of prime implicants obtained. Select the minimum set of
prime implicants using this chart.
6.2 THE PRIME IMPLICANT CHART
Prime Implicant:
A prime implicant of a function F is a product term implicant which is no longer an implicant if any
literal is deleted from it. Or it can be defined as a product term which cannot be combined with another
term to eliminate a variable.
Essential Prime Implicant:
If a min-term is covered by only one prime implicant, then that prime implicant is called an essential
prime implicant and must be included in the minimum SOP form.
How to prepare prime implicant chart?
1. In the first column of prime implicant chart table include all the product terms (prime implicants)
which have not been checked off (without √ Mark) in the above table.
2. In all other columns of the prime implicant chart table include the min-terms given for the
problem.
3. If a prime implicant covers a given min-term, put an X mark at the intersection of the
corresponding row and column
In first row X’s are placed in columns 0, 1, 8 and 9 because prime implicant b’c’ was formed from
the sum of min-terms 0, 1, 8 and 9. Similarly, X’s are placed in columns 0, 2, 8 and 10 opposite the
prime implicant b’d’ and so forth.

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Prime Implicant Chart ∑m

Min-term
Prime Implicants 0 1 2 5 6 7 8 9 10 14
(0, 1 , 8, 9) _00_ b‟ c‟ X X X X
(0, 2, 8, 10) _0_0 b’ d’ X X X X
(2, 6, 10, 14) _ _1 0 c d‟ X X X X
(1, 5) 0_01 a’ c’ d X X
(5, 7) 01_1 a’ b d X X
(6, 7) 011_ a’ b c X X

 If a min-term is covered by only one prime implicant, then that prime implicant is called an
essential prime implicant.
 If a given column contains only one X then the corresponding row is an essential prime
implicant.
 In above table columns 9 and 14 each contain one X, so the corresponding row’s prime
implicants b‟ c‟ & c d‟ are essential prime implicants.
Step 5:
After selecting essential prime implicants from the prime implicant chart table, corresponding rows and
columns should be crossed out. The resultant prime implicant chart table is as shown below:

NOTE: In case if any of the column in implicant chart is not covered by prime implicants, then we
have to select the minimum set of prime implicant to cover the remaining columns

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Step 6: Select the minimum set of prime implicants to cover the remaining columns (5 and 7).
In this example if we select the prime implicant a‟bd (5, 7) covers the remaining two columns, so it is
chosen. The resultant table is as shown below:

Therefore the resulting minimum Sum of Products is: f = b’ c’ + c d’ + a’bd

Problem:
Simplify the Boolean function given below:
Y = F(a, b, c, d) = ∑ m(0, 2, 3, 5, 6,7,8,10,11,14,15) using QUINE-McCLUSKY Method

The given min-terms represented in binary form as:

0 0000
2 0010
3 0011
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
10 1 0 1 0
11 1 0 1 1
14 1 1 1 0
15 1 1 1 1

Create and sort the groups of binary min-terms according to the number of 1’s in each min-term:

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Find all the prime implicants:

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From the above table we select all the terms which have been checked off (not √ marked) and we
consider those terms as prime implicants;
Therefore the prime implicant terms are:
(5, 7) = 01–1 = a’bd
(0, 2, 8, 10) = -0- 0 = b’d’
(2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, 14, 15) = -–1- = c
Selection of essential Prime implicants:
∑m
PRIME IMPLICANTS 0 2 3 5 6 7 8 10 11 14 15
(5, 7) a’bd X X
(0, 2, 8, 10) b’d’ X X X X
(2, 3, 6, 7, c X X X X X X X X
10, 11, 14,
15)

In above table columns 5, 8, 11, 14 and 15 each contain one X, so the corresponding row’s prime
implicants a‟bd, b‟d & c are essential prime implicants. (
Therefore all the 3 prime implicants are essential, the minimum SOP form for function F:
F = a‟bd + b‟d + c
CYCLIC PRIME IMPLICANT CHART
A prime implicant chart which has two or more X’s in every column is called a cyclic prime implicant
chart. If we get cyclic prime implicant chart for a function F, then there will be two or more minimum
SOP form solution for the function F. The following function has such a chart:
F = ∑ m (0, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7)

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From Implicant chart table given below, we observe that all columns have two X’s, so we will proceed
by Trial And Error method.
First Solution in minimum SOP form:
 Here both (0, 1) and (0, 2) cover column 0, so first we will try with (0, 1)
 After crossing out (0, 1) row and the columns 0 and 1, we examine column 2 which is covered by
(0, 2) and (2, 6). The best choice is (2, 6) because it covers two of the remaining columns while
(0, 2) covers only one of the remaining columns.
 After crossing out row (2, 6) and columns 2 and 6, we see that the remaining columns to be
covered is 5 and 7; select (5, 7) which covers both the remaining columns.

Therefore the one solution in minimum SOP form F = a‟b‟ + bc‟ + ac

Second Solution in minimum SOP form:
As we know the other prime implicant that covers the column 0 is (0, 2)
 After crossing out row (0, 2) and columns 0 and 2, we see that column 1 which is covered by (0,
1) and (1, 5). The best choice is (1, 5) because it covers two of the remaining columns while (0,
1) covers only one of the remaining columns.
 After crossing out row (1, 5) and columns 1 and 5, we see that the remaining columns to be
covered is 6 and 7; select (6, 7) which covers both the remaining columns.

Therefore the other solution in minimum SOP form F = a‟c‟ + b‟c + ab

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6.3 PETRICK‟S METHOD:

Petrick’s method is a technique for determining all minimum sum of products solutions from a prime
implicant chart.
 As the number of variables increases, the number of prime implicants and the complexity of the
prime implicant chart may increase siginificantly. In such cases the trial and error method
which we discussed above requires large amount of trial and error to find the minimum solutions.
 Petrick’s method is more systematic way of finding all minimum solutions from a prime
implicant chart than the trial and error method
With example explain Petrick‟s method
Petrick’s method is a technique for determining all minimum sum of products solutions from a prime
implicant chart.
Steps to follow in petrick‟s method:
1. Reduce the prime implicant chart table by eliminating the essential prime implicants row and the
corresponding column.
2. Label the rows of the reduced prime implicant chart as P1. P2, P3,P4,…….etc.
3. Form a logic function P which is true when all columns are covered. P consists of product of sum
terms.
4. Reduce P to a minimum sum of products by multiplying out and applying X + XY = X
5. Each term in result (P) represents a solution that is a set of rows which covers all of the min-
terms in the table. Find the minimum SOP solution by finding those terms which contain a
minimum number of variables.
6. For each of the terms found in step 5, count the number of literals in each prime implicant and
find the total number of literals. Choose the term/terms which correspond to the minimum total
number of literals, and write out the corresponding sums of prime implicants.
Example:
Construct the prime implicant chart for the function: F = ∑ m (0, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7)

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Prime Implicant Chart:

Prime Implicants 0 1 2 5 6 7
P1 (0 ,1) a’b’ X X
P2 (0, 2) a’c X X
P3 (1, 5) b’c X X
P4 (2, 6) bc’ X X
P5 (5, 7) ac X X
P6 (6, 7) ab X X

None of the column contains single X.

 In order to cover min-term 0, we must choose row P1 and P2. Therefore the expression P1 +P2
must be true.
 In order to cover min-term 1, we must choose row P1 and P3. Therefore the expression P1 +P3
must be true.
 In order to cover min-term 2, we must choose row P2 and P4. Therefore the expression P2 + P4
must be true.
 In order to cover min-term 5, we must choose row P3 and P5. Therefore the expression P3 +P5
must be true.
 In order to cover min-term 6, we must choose row P4 and P6. Therefore the expression P4 +P6
must be true.
 In order to cover min-term 7, we must choose row P5 and P6. Therefore the expression P5 +P6
must be true.
Because we must cover all of the min-terms, the following function must be true:
P = (P1 + P2) (P1 +P3) (P2 + P4) ( P3 +P5) ( P4 +P6) ( P5 +P6) = 1
Now by reducing P to a minimum sum products using (X+Y)(X+Z) = (X + YZ) & X.X = X
P = (P1 +P2P3) (P4 + P2P6) ((P5 + P3P6)
= (P1P4 + P1P2P6 + P2P3P4 + P2P3P6)(P5 + P3P6)
=P1P4P5 + P1P2P5P6 + P2P3P4P5 + P2P3P5P6 + P1P3P4P6 + P1P2P3P6 + P2P3P4P6 + P2P3P6
Now we use X + XY = X to eliminate redundant terms from P, which yields
P = P1P4P5 + P1P2P5P6 + P2P3P4P5 + P2P3P5P6 + P1P3P4P6 + P1P2P3P6 + P2P3P6
= P1P4P5 + P1P2P5P6 + P2P3P4P5 + P2P3P5P6 + P1P3P4P6+ P2P3P6
P = P1P4P5 + P1P2P5P6 + P2P3P4P5 + P1P3P4P6+ P2P3P6

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Although there are five possible solutions, only two of these have the minimum number of rows. Thus
the two solutions with the minimum number of prime implicants are obtained by selecting P1P4P5 and
P2P3P6.
The first choice leads to F = a’b’ +bc’ + dc and the second choice to F = a’c’ + b’c + ab
6.4 SIMPLIFICATION OF INCOMPLETELY SPECIFIED FUNCTIONS
DON’T-CARE CONDITIONS IN QUINE MCCLUSKEY METHOD
 In the process of finding the prime implicants, we will treat the don’t-care terms as if they were
required min-terms. In this way, they can be combined with other min-terms to eliminate as
many literals as possible.
 When forming the prime implicant chart, the don’t-cares coulmns are omitted(not listed at the
top)
 This way, when the prime implicant chart is solved, all of the required min-terms will be covered
by one of the selected prime implicants. However, the don’t-care terms are not included in the
final solution unless they have been used in the process of forming one of the selected prime
implicants.
Problem:
Simplify the Boolean expression for the function: F(a, b, c, d)=∑ m(2, 3, 7, 9, 11, 13) + d(1, 10, 15)
using Quine-McClusky method
Step 1: Find the prime Implicants;
The don’t care terms given in the problem are treated like required min-terms when finding the prime
implicants.

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From the above table we observe that terms: (1, 3, 9,11), ( 2, 3, 10, 11), (3, 7, 11, 15) and (9, 11, 13, 15)
are unmarked terms, so consider these terms as Prime implicants.

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Step 2: Form the prime implicant Chart:

The don’t care terms are omitted when forming the prime implicant chart: That means do not consider
don’t care terms such as 1, 10, 15 in prime implicant chart table as columns. Only ∑m terms are
considered as columns.

∑m
PRIME IMPLICANTS 2 3 7 9 11 13
(1, 3, 9,11) b’d X X X
( 2, 3, 10, 11) b’c X X X
(3, 7, 11, 15) cd X X X
(9, 11, 13, 15) ad X X X

In above implicant chart we observe that three columns 2, 7 and 13 contains single X, so the
corresponding rows prime implicant becomes the essential prime implicants. Therefore b’c, cd and ad
are the essential prime implicants. By crossing out these two rows and the corresponding columns we
get the implicant chart as:

Since all the min-terms are covered by the essential prime implicants, the simplified SOP form of
function F is given by:
F = b‟c + cd + ad

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Problem:
Simplify the Boolean function F(A,B, C, D) = ∑m(0, 1, 2, 3, 10, 11. 12, 13. 14. 15) using Quine-
McClusky Method

The prime implicants are: A’B’ + B’C + AC +AB

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Prime Implicant Chart:

Prime Implicants 0 1 2 3 10 11 12 13 14 15
(0,1,2,3) A’B’ X X X X
(2,10,3,11) B’C X X X X
(10,11,14,15) AC X X X X
(12,13,14,15) AB X X X X
Essential prime implicants are: A’B’ and AB
Terms which have not been covered are 10 and 11; We select either (2,10,3,11) =B’C or (10,11,14,15) =
AC as one of the prime implicants to cover the column 10 and 11. Therefore the minimum SOP form of
F = A‟B‟ +AB +B‟C or F = A‟B‟ +AB + AC

Problem:
Using the Quine-McCluskey, method find all prime implicants of f(A,B,C,D) = ∑ m(1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12,
14, 15) + d(4, 10, 13). Identify all essential prime implicants and find all minimum sum-of-products
expressions.
Answer:
Step 1: Find the prime Implicants;
The don’t care terms given in the problem are treated like required min-terms when finding the prime
implicants
ABCD
(1) 0 0 0 1
(4) 0 1 0 0
(8) 1 0 0 0
(3) 0 0 1 1
(5) 0 1 0 1
(6) 0 1 1 0
(9) 1 0 0 1
(10) 1 0 1 0
(12) 1 1 0 0
(13) 1 1 0 1
(14) 1 1 1 0
(15) 1 1 1 1

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ABCD ABCD ABCD

(1) 0 0 0 1 √ (1,3) 00-1 (1,5,9,13) --01
(4) 0 1 0 0 √ (1,5) 0–01 √ (1,9,5,13) --01
(8) 1 0 0 0 √ (1,9) -001 √ (4,5,12,13) -10-
(3) 0 0 1 1 √ (4,5) 010- √ (4,6,12,14) -1-0
(5) 0 1 0 1 √ (4,6) 01-0 √ (4,12,5,13) -10-
(6) 0 1 1 0 √ (4,12) -100 √ (4,12,6,14) -1-0
(9) 1 0 0 1 √ (8, 9) 100- √ (8,9,12,13) 1–0-
(10) 1 0 1 0 √ (8,10) 10-0 √ (8,10,12,14) 1--0
(12) 1 1 0 0 √ (8,12) 1–00 √ (8,12,9,13) 1–0-
(13) 1 1 0 1 √ (5,13) -101 √ (8,12,10,14) 1--0
(14) 1 1 1 0 √ (6,14) -110 √ (12,14,13,15) 1 1 - -
(15) 1 1 1 1 √ (9,13) 1–01 √ (12,13,14,15) 1 1 - -
(10,14) 1 – 1 0 √
(12,13) 1 1 0 - √
(12,14) 1 1 - 0 √
(13,15) 1 1 - 1 √
(14,15) 1 1 1 - √

From above table we observe that the terms which are unmarked are considered as Prime Implicants:
(1, 3) 00–1 = A’B’D
(1, 5, 9, 13) --01 = C’D
(4, 5, 12, 13) -10- = BC’
(4, 6, 12, 14) -1–0 = BD’
(8, 9, 12, 13) 1–0- = AC’
(8, 10, 12, 14) 1--0 = AD’
(12, 14, 13, 15) 11-- = AB
Therefore the prime implicants are: A’B’D, C’D, BC’, BD’, AC’, AD’, AB
The function F becomes F(A, B, C, D) = A’B’D+ C’D+ BC’+ BD’+ AC’+ AD’+ AB
This is not in simplified form.

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Step 2: Form the prime implicant Chart:

The don’t care terms are omitted when forming the prime implicant chart: That means do not consider
don’t care terms such as 4, 10, 13 in prime implicant chart table as columns. Only ∑m terms are
considered as columns.
∑m
PRIME IMPLICANTS 1 3 5 6 8 9 12 14 15
(1, 3) A‟B‟D X X
(1, 5, 9, 13) C’D X X X
(4, 5, 12, 13) BC’ X X
(4, 6, 12, 14) BD‟ X X X
(8, 9, 12, 13) AC’ X X X
(8, 10, 12, 14) AD’ X X X
(12, 14, 13, 15) AB X X X
From above table we observe that columns 3, 6 and 15 contains single X, so the corresponding row
terms are referred as essential prime implicants;
Essential Prime Implicants are: A‟B‟D, BD‟ and AB
Here three columns 5, 8 and 9 are not covered by the essential prime implicants, so we have to select the
minimum set of prime implicants to cover the remaining columns.
C’D covers the remaining column 5 and 9 but not covers the column 8.
Either AC’ or AD’ covers the column 8
Therefore the minimum SOP of F = A‟B‟D + BD‟ + AB + C‟D + AC‟ Or
F = A‟B‟D + BD‟ + AB + C‟D + AD‟ Or
F = A‟B‟D + BD‟ + AB + BC‟ + AC‟

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6.5 SIMPLIFICATION USING MAP-ENTERED VARIABLES

 Although the Quine-McCluskey method can be used with functions with a fairly large number of
variables, it is not very efficient for functions that have many variables and relatively few terms.
 Some of these functions can be simplified by using a modification of the Karnaugh map
method. By using map-entered variables, Karnaugh map techniques can be extended to simplify
functions with more than four or five variables
Example:

When E appears in a square, this means that if E = 1, the corresponding min-term is present in the
function G, and if E = 0, the min-term is absent. Thus, the map represents the six-variable function;

Problem:
Simplify the function Y (A, B, C) = Σ m (2, 6, 7) by using Entered Variable Map method by
taking:
a) “C” as map entered variable
b) “A” as map entered variables
Solution:
Let Y = Σ m (2, 6, 7)
Truth Table: A B C Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

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By considering “C” as map entered variable:

A B C Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 A B YC
0 1 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 C‟
1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

 In truth table when the input variables is reduced to only two variables A and B, the output Y
varies with the other input variable C for different combinations of two variables ‘A’ and ‘B’
 When A = 0, B = 0 (AB =00) we find that output Y = 0; because when AB = 00 in first row of
truth table we see that Y = 0 when the value of C in first row is 0, also in second row when AB =
00, output Y = 1 when the value of C in second row is 1. In general when AB= 00, output Y is 0
irrespective of value of C, ie: Y = C
 When A = 0, B = 1 (AB =01) we find that output Y = C‟; because when AB = 01 in third row of
truth table we see that Y = 1 that is equal to the complemented value of C in third row, also in
fourth row when AB = 01, output Y = 0 that is also equal to the complemented value of C in
fourth row. In general when AB= 01, output Y is complemented value of C, therefore Y = C‟
 When A = 1, B = 0 (AB =10) we find that output Y = 0; because when AB = 10 in fifth row of
truth table we see that Y = 0, also in sixth row when AB = 10, output Y = 0. In general when
AB= 10, output Y is zero which is not dependent on value of C, therefore Y = 0
 When A = 1, B = 1 (AB =11) we find that output Y = 1; because when AB = 11 in seventh row
of truth table we see that Y = 1, also in eighth row when AB = 11, output Y =1. In general when
AB= 11, output Y is one which is not dependent on value of C, therefore Y = 1

The product term representing each group is obtained by including map entered variablein the
group as an additional ANDed term.

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C’ is grouped with 1 to get larger group as 1 can be written as 1 = 1 + C’ to get the product term
B(C’). Also single 1 can be grouped separately to get the product term as AB(1) = AB
Therefore Y = AB + BC‟
By considering “A” as map entered variable

A B C Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
B C YA
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 A
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

Y = BC’(1) + B(A) = BC‟ + AB

Problem:
Simplify Y (A, B, C) = Σm (1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14) by using entered variable map method by
taking a) “D” as map entered variable b) “C and D” as map entered variables

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Problem:
******What is Map Entered Variable method? Using MEV method simplify the following
function:
F(A, B, C, D) = ∑ m (2, 3, 4, 5, 13, 15) + dc(8, 9, 10, 11)
In entered variable map method is K-Map in which one of the input variables is placed in K-Map. This
reduces the K-map size by one degree. EVM technique is particularly useful for mapping problems with
more than 4 input variables.
For example in 3 variables problem that requires 23 = 8 locations in K-Map will require 2(3-1) = 4
locations in EVM method.
F(A, B, C, D) = ∑ m (2, 3, 4, 5, 13, 15) + dc(8, 9, 10, 11)

A B C D Y
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 A B C Y
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 X
1 0 0 0 X 1 0 1 X
1 0 0 1 X 1 1 0 D
1 0 1 0 X 1 1 1 D
1 0 1 1 X
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1

Now draw K-Map for 3-variables; A, B, C

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Therefore the minimum SOP form = B‟C + A‟BC‟ +AD

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