Typographic Design:

Form and Communication

Rob Carter
Ben Day
Philip Meggs
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in 2019 with funding from
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Typographic Design:

Form and Communication

"The whole duty of typography,
as of calligraphy,
is to communicate with the imagination,
without loss by the way,
the thought or image
intended to be communicated
by the Author."

Thomas James Cobden-Sanderson

St. Barbara. Polychromed

walnut sculpture. Fifteenth-
century German or French,
The Virginia Museum of
Fine Arts
 Typographic Design:

Form and Communication

Rob Carter
Ben Day
PROPERTY OF THE LIBRARY
Philip Meggs lADT-Nashviile
One Bridgestone Park
Nashville, TN 37214

SHE
Van Nostrand Reinhold Company
New York
Copyright ©1985 by Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company Inc.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number
85-667
ISBN 0-442-26166-7

All rights reserved. No part of this work covered

by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or
used in any form or by any means —graphic, elec¬
tronic, or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, taping, or information storage and
retrieval systems —without written permission of
the publisher

Printed in the United States of America

Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc.

115 Fifth Avenue
New York, New York 10003

Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Limited

Molly Millars Lane
Wokingham, Berkshire RG11 2PY, England

Van Nostrand Reinhold

480 LaTrobe Street
Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia

Macmillan of Canada
Division of Canada Publishing Corporation
164 Commander Boulevard
Agincourt, Ontario MIS 3C7, Canada

16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Carter, Rob.
Typographic design.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Printing, Practical —Style manuals. 2. Printing,
Practical —Layout. 3. Graphic arts I Day, Ben.
II. Meggs, Philip B III Title.
Z253.C32 1985 686.2'24 85-667
ISBN 0-442-26166-7 (pbk.)

IV
For Sally, Melanie, and Libby
Introduction

While typography has changed and expanded dur¬

ing the past two decades, the resource materials
available today do not reflect the nature and scope
of typographic design in our times. It is the authors'
intention to provide a concise, yet comprehensive,
overview of the fundamental information neces¬
sary for effective typographic-design practice. A
knowledge of form and communication encom¬
passes a range of subjects, including our typo¬
graphic heritage, letterform anatomy, visual
organization, and the interface between form and
meaning.

In addition to these fundamentals, this volume

presents other topics critical to informed design
practice. Recent research provides the designer
with an expanded awareness of legibility factors,
enabling increased communicative clarity. Tech¬
nological complexity requires comprehension of
earlier and current typesetting processes, for both
affect the language of typography. Theoretical and
structural problem-solving approaches, evolved
by design educators, reveal underlying concepts.
Case studies in applied problem solving demon¬
strate a knowledge of typographic form and com¬
munication. An understanding of typographic
classification and form subtlety is gained from the
study of type specimens.

Throughout this book, the authors share a

compilation of information and examples with
practitioners and students. It yields both insights
and inspiration, bringing order to the complex and
diversified subject of typographic design.

VI
 Contents

1 The Evolution of Typography 1 4 Legibility 81

From the origins of writing Distinguishing characteristics

to Gutenberg's invention of letters 82
of movable type 2
The nature of words 84
Typography from Gutenberg
to the nineteenth century 7 Capital and lowercase letters 85

The nineteenth century and Interletter and

the Industrial Revolution 12 interword spacing 85

Typography in the Type size, line length,

twentieth century 18 and interline spacing 86

Weight 87
2 The Anatomy of Typography 25
Character width 87
Letterforms analyzed 26
Italics 87
The typographic font 29
Color combinations 88
Basic classification of typefaces 32
Justified and
Typographic measurement 34 unjustified typography 88

The type family 37 Paragraphs and indentations 89

Legibility and the grid 89

3 Syntax and Communication 41

Typographic syntax 42 5 TypographicTechnology 91

Visual hierarchy 52 Hand composition 92

Typographic space 58 Linotype 93

ABA form 62 Monotype 94

The typographic grid 66 Ludlow 95

The typographic message 68 Phototypesetting 96

Verbal/visual equations 71 Display photographic typesetting 98

Function and expression 77 Digital typesetting 99

VII
6 Typographic Design Education 103 Poem and news combinations 113

Generation of a typographic Typographic cubes 114

sign from a gestural mark 104
Calendar typography 114
Letter/digit configurations 105
Interpretive typography:
Urban letterform studies 105 form and content 115

Inventing sign systems 106 Typeface history posters 116

Letterform analysis 106 Type specimen book page 116

Interpretive compositions 107 Alphabet letterpress book 117

Repetition and pattern making 108 Symphony posters 117

Typography and Type chronology booklet 118

image transformations 108
Thematic exhibition posters 119
Visual organization
and grid structures 109 Graphic itinerary 120

Unity of form and communication 110

7 Case Studies inTypographic Design 121
Typographic variations
through changing parameters 111 The NASA visual identity system 122

Experimental compositions An exhibition catalog

with found typography 112 for F/uxus Etc. 126

The redesign of
the Minneapolis Tribune 129

Permutations in a
title-page design 132

Typographic film titles 136

The periodical format

for Nautical Quarterly 139
 8 Type Specimens 141

Old Style 143

Sans Serif 173

Transitional 205

Modern 213

Egyptian 221

Display fonts 228

Text column specimens 238

Glossary 243

Appendices 248

Copyfitting 248

. Character count table

for text type specimens 249

Suggested working methods

in typographic design 250

Proofreader's marks 251

A chronology of typeface designs 252

Bibliography 254

Picture Credits 255

Index 258
1 The Evolution of Typography

Typography is an intensely visual form of

communication. Because this visible language
communicates thoughts dVid information through
human sight, its history is presented here in chron¬
ological visual form on four timelines. This evolu¬
tion is shown in the context of world events,
architectural development, and art history.

The first timeline predates typography. It begins

with the invention of writing over five thousand
years ago and ends with the invention of movable
type in Europe during the middle of the fifteenth
century. The second timeline covers the long era
of the handpress and handset metal types. This
period, from Gutenberg's invention of movable
type to the end of the eighteenth century, lasted
about three hundred and fifty years. In the third
timeline, the industrial revolution and nineteenth
century are revealed as an era of technological
innovation accompanied by an outpouring of new
typographic forms. The fourth timeline begins
with the year 1900 and continues until the present.
The aesthetic concerns of modernism, the need
for functional communication, and technical
progress have shaped twentieth-century typo¬
graphic design.

1
 1. 2 4. 7.

From the origins c. 3150 B.C The earliest c. 3000 B C Cuneiform, c. 2400 B.C.: False-door stele c. 1570-1349 B.C Poly-

of writing written documents are im¬ the earliest writing system, inscribed with hieroglyphic chromed wood sculpture from

to Gutenberg's pressed clay tablets from consisting of wedge-shaped writing, from Old Kingdom New Kingdom Egypt, with

invention of Sumer. The signs represent marks on clay tablets, was Egypt. hieroglyphic inscriptions.

movable type: clay tokens, which were used invented by the Sumerians. 5. 8.
3150 B.C.-A.D. 1450 for record keeping before the c. 2100 B.C : Cuneiform tab¬ c. 1450 B.C : Detail, The Book
invention of writing. 2500 B.C Egyptians begin let listing expenditures of grain of the Dead of Tuthmosis III,
to make papyrus, a new writ¬ and animals. hieroglyphic writing on
Note: Picture credits and fur¬ ing material derived from the 6. papyrus
ther descriptive information stems of the papyrus plant. c. 1800-1400 B C Stone¬
start on page 255. 3. henge, a megalithic monu¬
c. 2600 B.C. Completion of ment of thirty-foot-tall stones
the pyramids at Giza, Egypt. set into circular patterns.

7.

2
9. 10. 13. 14.
c. 1500 B.C.: The twenty-two 389 B.C.: Inscription in the 414-413 B.C : Fragment of a c. 50 B.C.-A.D. 500: Roman 150: The Roman codex, with
characters of the Phoenician Phoenician alphabet on a frag¬ Greek record of sale, carved square capitals (capitalis quad¬ folded pages, begins to be used
alphabet. ment of a marble bowl. on stone. rats) were carefully written alongside the rolled scroll.
11. with a flat pen 16.
c. 800 B C.: Homer writes the Fourth Century B.C.: Greek c. 160 B.C.: Parchment, a new c. 100-600: Roman rustic
Iliad and Odyssey. manuscript writing. writing material made from c. A.D. 33: Crucifixion of writing (capitalis rustics) con¬
12. animal skins, is developed in Christ. served space by using more
540 B C.: The first public 448-432 B.C.: The Parthe¬ the Greek state of Pergamum. 15. condensed letters written with
library is established in Athens, non, temple of the goddess c. 79: Brush writing from a a flat pen held in an almost
Greece. Athena, on the Acropolis in 44 B C.: Julius Caesar is wall at Pompeii, preserved by vertical position.
Athens, Greece. murdered. the volcanic eruption of
Vesuvius.

105: Ts'ai Lun invents paper

in China.

c. 1500 B.C.

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17. 19. 22
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18. Rome. Carved into marble, thousand-year medieval era, Augustulus, last ruler of the uncials, a lettering style of the
Undated: The fluid gestural monumental Roman capitals knowledge and learning are western Roman Empire, is de¬ Christian Church, introduces
quality, harmonious propor¬ survived the thousand-year kept alive in the Christian posed by the Ostrogoths. pronounced ascenders and
tions, and beautiful forms of Dark Ages, monastery, where manuscript 20. descenders
Roman writing are effectively books are lettered in the 533-49 Church of Sant' 23.
translated into the permanent 325: Emperor Constantine scriptoria. Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna Sixth-Ninth Centuries: Insular
stone carving of monumental adopts Christianity as the state 21. majuscules, a formal style with
capitals (capitalis religion of the Roman Empire. 452: Attila the Hun invades Third-Sixth Centuries: Uncials exaggerated serifs, was de¬
monumentatis). and ravages northern Italy. are rounded, freely drawn veloped by Irish monks from
majuscule letters, first used by the half-uncials.
the Greeks as early as the third
century B.C

A.D. 118

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4
 27. 29. 31.
732: The Battle of Tours ends 868: The earliest extant print Eighth-Twelfth Centuries: Eleventh-Twelfth Centuries: Thirteenth-Fifteenth Cen¬
the Muslim advance into ed manuscript, the Diamond Caroline minuscules became Early Gothic lettering, a turies: Gothic Textura Quadrata,
Europe. Sutra, is printed in cKina. the standard throughout transitional style between or Textur, the late Gothic style
25. Europe after Charlemagne Caroline minuscules and with rigorous verticality and
800: Charlemagne is crowned Tenth Century: High Cross at issued his reform decree of Textur, has an increased vertical compressed forms.
emperor of the Holy Roman Kells, Meath County, Ireland. 796, calling for a uniform emphasis.
Empire by Pope Leo III. 26. writing style. 30. 1347-1351: First wave of the
24. c. Eleventh Century: Round Twelfth Century: Bronze and Black Death, a plague that
c. 800: Portrait of Christ from tower on the Rock of Cashel, 1034: Pi Sheng invents mov¬ copper crucifix from northern decimates the European
The Book of Kells, a Celtic Tipperary County, Ireland, a able type in the Orient Italy. population.
manuscript. lookout and refuge against 32.
Viking invaders. 1096-1099: The First Crusade. 1215: The Magna Carta grants Thirteenth Century: Byzantine
28. constitutional liberties in School, Madonna and Child
1163-1250: Construction of England. on a Curved Throne.
Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris.

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33. 39
Thirteenth-Fifteenth Cen¬ 1431: Jeanne d'Arc is burned c. 1450: Johann Gutenberg in¬ Woodblock print of the hand¬

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rounded Gothic letter, flour¬ 36. Germany. positors setting type from a
ished in southern Europe. Fifteenth Century: First page 38. type case in the background.
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35.

Rotunda

36.

6
 42. 45. 47.
Typography from 1450-1500: The first half 1467: Sweynheym and Pan- c. 1485: Filippino Lippi, c. 1494: Scholar and printer
Gutenberg to the century of typographic print¬ nartz, the first roman-style Portrait of a Youth. Aldus Manutius established
nineteenth century: ing is called the Incunabula. type, influenced by Roman in¬ 46. the Aldine Press in Venice to
A. D. 1450-1800 41. scriptions! capitals and manu¬ 1486: Erhard Ratdolt, the publish works by the great
1465: Sweynheym and Pan- scripts written in Caroline earliest known specimen sheet Greek and Roman thinkers.
The humanist philosophy that nartz, the first type designed minuscules. of printing types. 48.
flowered during the Renais¬ in Italy. It had some Roman 43. 1495: Francesco Griffo
sance embraced the study of features. 1470. Nicolas Jenson, early 1492: Christopher Columbus (punch cutter for Aldus
classical literature, a belief in
Venetian roman typeface. discovers America. Manutius), roman type first
human dignity and worth, a
44. used in De aetna by Pietro
spirit of individualism, and a
1475. William Caxton, typog¬ Bembo.
shift from religious to secular
raphy from the first book
concerns.
printed in the English language.

1450

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46

7
49. 51. 53. 55.
1501: Francesco Griffo, the Woodblock initial by Geoffroy 1517: Martin Luther posts his 1525: Albrecht Durer, con¬ 1519-47: Pierre Nepveu,
first italic typeface, based on Tory, who returned to France ninety-five theses on the door struction of the letter B Chateau of Chambord, France.
chancery script handwriting. from study in Italy in 1505, in¬ of Wittenberg Palace Church, 54 56.
50. spired by roman letterforms launching the Reformation. 1529: Geoffroy Tory, con¬ c. 1480-1561: Claude Gara-
Home of Albrecht Durer, and Renaissance design ideals. 52. struction of the letter B. mond, outstanding designer
Nuremberg, Germany. 1523: Lodovico Arrighi, an of Old Style typefaces during
Italian writing master, intro¬ the French Renaissance
duces his formal chancery
italic type.

1501

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r oralaq; inuentis Acheloiamifaiit uuisf
E tuos agrefum pyxfnbdntmindYaUni,
F erkfnml,TdHr/q;'pcdem,Dryddesq;pUclUt
M unerd ueflra atno,tu'q; 6 cui prim jrcmcnkm
F udit cquim magno tellus per cuff tridenti
N cptune,ct adtornemorum,an pinguid Ccc&
T crcentum vine:(vndentdumetniuuend,
I pf newts liqucnspdtnuntfdtusq; Licki
c

49.

Defe uariejortidc fitter?J>oi/f)e in quefto Tratta*

teffo troueraije io ti uofejji adunajjer una cfefcriuere

8
 57 59.
63.
c. 1540: Titian, Portrait of 1546: Jacques Kerver, typog¬ 1582: Pope Gregory XIII initi¬ 1603: Shakespeare writes 1621: Jean Jannon, typefaces
Cardinal Pietro Bembo. raphy, illustration, and decora¬ ates the Gregorian Calendar, Hamlet. upon which twentieth-century
tive initials which were which is still in use. 62. Garamonds are based.
1543: Copernicus publishes combined into a rare elegance
1607: Carlo Maderna, facade 64.
his theory of the heliocentric during the French Renaissance, 1584. Sir Walter Raleigh dis¬ of St. Peter's, the Vatican. 1628: The Vatican Press,
solar system. 60.
covers and annexes Virginia. specimen of roman capitals.
58. after 1577: El Greco, Saint 61. 1609: Regular weekly news¬
1544. Simone de Colines, title Martin and the Beggar. 1595. JohannTheodor de Bry, papers appear in Strasbourg,
page with woodcut border.
illustrative initial E. Germany.

c. 1540

FRANCISCVS
LIVRE PREMIER DE
Vohphilcracomptccontmcilluyfutaduiscn fongc quit dormant,(y cn
dormantfctrouuoit cn unc uaUccfcrmcc d'unc grand cloflurc cn for¬
me dc py rami defer laqucllc cfloit apis un obclfeuc dc merucdlciife
hault cur,fell regarda fongneufementpar grande admiration.

A forcR efpouentable aiant eftepar moy paflee,

& apres auoirdelaiflccefte premiere region par
ledoulxfommeilqui m’auoitlors efpris\ie me
trouuay tout de nouueau en vn lieu beaucoup
plus dele<ftablc que ie premier, car il cftoit borde
& enuironnc de plaifans cotaulx vcrdoians, &
58. peuplezdcdiueries manicres darbies,comme
chefnes, faux, planes, ormes, fraifnes, charmes,
tilleulz,&autres,plantez felon lafpeddu lieu.&
abas atrauers la plaine, y auoit dc petitz buyf-
fons d'arbrilTeaiix fauluaiges, come geneftz, geneuners, bruyercs, &: tama-
rins,chargez de fleurs.parmy les prez croilfoienc les herbes medicmalcs, a
fcauoirles troisconfolides, enule,cheurefeuil,branquc vrfinejiuekhcsper-
filde macedoine,piuoyne,guymauues,pIantain,betoync,&:autresfimpIes
de routes fortes &elpeces,pluheurs defquelles m’elloient mcogneucs. Vn
peu plus auant que le my lieu de cefte plaine,y auoit vne fablonnicre mcflee
depetites mottes verdes, &pleine d'herbe menuette, & vn pent boys de
palmiers,efquelz les Egypties cueillentpain,vin, liuille, vellemcnt, &: mef-
rainpourbaibr.leurs fueillesfcmbloicntlamesdelpees, &: eftoict clurgccs
de frui&.il y en auoit de grandes, moiennes,&petites,& leur ont les anciens
donnecc

59. 62.

La crainte de l’Eternel eft

le chef de fcience: mais les
60.
fols mefprifent fapiece &
63.

9
65. 68 71.
1632-43: TheTaj Mahal, India. 1657: First fountain pen is c. 1670: Christoffel van Dyck, During the eighteenth century, 1709: Matthaus Poppelmann,

66. manufactured in Paris. Dutch Old Style type. type design went through a Zwinger Palace, Dresden.
c. 1630: Sir Anthony van 67. gradual transition from Old
Dyck, portrait of Henri II de c. 1664: Jan Vermeer, Woman 1686: Sir Isaac Newton sets Style to Modern Style fonts 1709: England adopts the first
Lorraine. Holding a Balance. forth his law of gravity designed late in the century. modern copyright law.
69. 72.
1639: The first printing press 1666: The great fire of 1675-1710: Sir Christopher 1700: The emergence of the 1720 William Caslon, Caslon
in the British Colonies is estab¬ London. Wren, St Paul's Cathedral, Rococo Style. Old Style types which from
lished in Massachusetts. London. 70. this date were used through¬
1667: Milton writes Paradise 1702: Philippe Grandjean out the British Empire.
Lost. (punch cutter), Romain du Roi,
the first transitional face.

1632

ABCDEFGHIKLMN
OPQRSTU VWX YZJ
Quoufque tandem abutere,
Catilina, patientia noftra ? qu
Quoufque tandem abutere, Ca¬
tilina, patientia nojba ? quam-

'**XY>:*
n y^>: yjty yyy ; )

This new Foundery was begun in the Year 1720, 5?

# and hnifh’d 17635 and will (with God’s leave) be ^
jjf carried on, improved, and inlarged, by William
Sg. Caslon and Son, Letter-Founders in LONDON. Sr

sa doctrine et de ses lois. Apres, il nous fait voir tous

les hommes renfermes en un seul homme, et sa femme
meme tir^e de lui; la concorde des manages et la

lumes in-40 sur papier-velin de la fabrique de mes¬

sieurs Matthieu Johannot pere et fds, d’Annonai,
premiers fabricants de cette sorte de papiers en
81.

10.
 73. 76. 79. 81.
1722: Castletown, near 1750s: John Baskerville cre¬ 1773: Johann David 1784: Francois Ambroise 1791: The American Bill of
Dublin, Ireland. ates extraordinary transitional Steingruber, letter A from Didot, the first true Modern Rights guarantees freedoms of
typefaces. Architectonishes Alphabet. Style typeface. religion, speech, and the press.
1738: First spinning machines 77. 80.
are patented in England. 1765: Thomas Cotterell intro¬ 1774: John Holt, broadside of 1789: The fall of the Bastille 1793: French King Louis XVI
74. duces display types two inches the American revolutionary launches the French and Marie Antoinette are sent
1744: Benjamin Franklin, title tall (shown actual size). era, using Caslon type. Revolution. to the guillotine.
page using Caslon type. 78. 82.
75. 1768: Pierre Simon Fournier 1775: JamesWatt constructs 1791: Giambattista Bodoni, 1796: Aloys Senefelder
1750: Francois Boucher, The le Jeune, ornamented types. the first efficient steam engine. Modern Style typefaces of invents lithography.
Love Letter (detail).
geometric construction, with
1776: The American Declara¬ hairline serifs. 1799: Nicolas-Louis Robert
tion of Independence is signed. invents the papermaking
machine.

1722

LA

M. T. CIC E R O’s
D IVI N A
CATO MAJOR,
OR HIS
COMMEDIA
D I
DISCOURSE
DANTE ALIGHIERI
CON

OLD-AGE: ILLUSTRAZIONI

With Explanatory NOTES.

T O M O I

PHILADELPHIA :
PISA
Printed and Sold by B. FRANKLIN,
MDCCXLIV. D A L L A TIPOGRAFIA
DELLA SOCIETA LETTER ARIA

MDCCCI V.

74. 82.

e i !BM tun iliifiiTi

To the PUBLICK.
HI5TOIRE
D E

LOUIS DE BOURBON,
Second du Nom,

JPTLXWCjEL

DE CONDE
DU SANG,
,
>*.* ..oil. - ... '
le Grand.

L1FRE PREMIER.
80.
1621-1643.

ILouis de Bourbon,;

le 7' Septembre kzi ; il fin u!!l

" d'Engutcn J nom I.eureux qui
ni£moire du vain-

78.

77.

11.
 85. 87.

The nineteenth The Industrial Revolution had 1804: Napoleon Bonaparte 1815: Vincent Figgins shows 1816: William Caslon IV intro¬

century and a dramatic impact upon typog¬ crowned Emperor of France. the first Egyptian (slab-serif) duces the first sans serif type.

the Industrial raphy and the graphic arts. typefaces. 88.

Revolution: New technology radically 1808: Beethoven composes 86 1818: Page from Manuale

A.D. 1800-1899 altered printing, and designers his Fifth Symphony. 1815: Vincent Figgins shows Tipographico, which pre¬

responded with an outpouring 84 the earliest shaded type. sented the lifework of

of new forms and images 1812: Jacques-Louis David, Giambattista Bodoni.

83. Napoleon in his Study. 89

c. 1803: Robert Thorne de¬ 1821: Robert Thorne, Tuscan

signs the first Fat Face. 1814: Friedrich Koenig invents styles with splayed serifs.

the steam-powered printing

press.

1800

ABCDEFGHIJK

LETTERFOUNDER
Manchester

PARANGONE •+*

Quousque tandem abutere, Cati-

lina, patientia nostra? quamdiu
etiarn furor iste tuus nos eludet?
quem ad finem sese effrenata ja-
ctabit audacia? nihilne te noctur-
num presidium Palatii, nihil ur-
bis vitjilifp, nihil timor popu/i, ni¬
hil concursus bonorum omnium,
nih il h ie munitissimus habendi se-

MARCUS TULL. CICERO

ORATOR ATQUE PHILOSOPHUS.

CHERASCO joj

12
90. 91. 92. 94. 96.
1822: Thomas Jefferson, c. 1826: Bower, Bacon and 1827: Darius Wells invents the 1836: Davy and Berry, poster 1837: Handbill set in Fat Face.
rotunda of the University of Bower, early reversed type mechanical router, making the printed with wood type
Virginia in the neoclassical entitled White. manufacture of large display 1837: Victoria crowned Queen
style based on Greek and wood types possible. 1830s-80s: Wood-type post¬ of England.
Roman architecture. 1826: Joseph Niepce takes 93. ers and broadsides flourished
the first photograph from 1833: Vincent Figgins intro¬ in America and Europe.
1822: Joseph Niepce pro¬ nature. duces outline types. 95.
duces the first photographic
1836: Vincent Figgins, per¬
printing plate.
spective type.

THEATRE-ROYAL NORWICH.
FOR THE BENEFIT OF

A. Jtwvfltetjr.
rawia
On THURSDAY, 12th Ray, 1836,
Will be performed the POPULAR PLAY, of The

CASTLE
SPECTRE. Earl Osmond....Mr.
K-L'in iM ... Mr. HAMKRTON
Earl P. n v. . . Mr. NICHOLS
K.-uhor Philip. . Mr. GRAY
I
MADDOCKS
Kcnric. .. .Mr.
Saib.Mr.
Muley , ...Mr.
G. SMITH
HARRISON
BRYAN
Motley . Mr. GILL | Hassan.... Mr. NANTZ.
Antml, .... Mrs. G. SMITH
Alien.Mr?. WATKINSON | Evelina . .. .Miss HONEY. 96.

A COMIC SONG
Tu cnncloJc Will the NAUTICAL DRAMA, of The Working Jften, MtentionU

2-C. /Sr37

It Is your imperious duty to drop your

Hammers and Sledges ! one and all, to
your post repair, THIS ll' /'/.’K VOO V.
at FIVE o'clock 1*. >1. and attend the

STORM ^ SEA! The Pilot, Mr. MADDOCKS

Barnstable, Mr. G. SMITH—Cap tain Doroughcliffe, (a regular Yankee), Mr. GILL
GREAT MEETING
called by the papers of this morning', to he
Long Tom Coffin, Mr. NANTZ held at tlie CITY IIAYL, then and there
Captain of the Alacrity, Mr. HAMERTON—Colonel Howard Mr. GRAY to co-opcratc with such as have the GREAT GOOD
Lieutenant Griffith, Mr. TAYLOR—Serjeant Drill, Mr. NICHOLS.
OF ALL THEIR FELLOW CITIZENS at Heart.
Sailors, Soldiers, &c.
Tour liberty! yea, your LABOlTIt!! is the subject
Kale Plowdcn, Mrs. PLUMER—Cecilia, Miss HONEY
Irish Woman, Mrs. WATKINSON. of the call: who that values the services of HEROES
of the lleeolatioa whose blood achieved our Inde¬
DAVY S. BERRY, PRINTERS, ALBION OFFICE. pendence as a Nation, will for a moment doubt he
owes a few hours this afternoon to his wife and
94. children?
HAITCOCK.

mM@nm

93.

13
97. 99.
c. 1840-52: Sir Charles Barry 1845: Robert Besley, the first 1851: Joseph Paxton designs 1854: The United States makes 1859: Charles Darwin pub¬

and A. W. N. Pugin, Houses of Clarendon style. the Crystal Palace. its first treaty with Japan. lishes Origin of Species by
Parliament, inspiration for the 100 Means of Natural Selection.

Gothic Revival. 1848. The California gold 1853: Handbill combining 1856 Sir Henry Bessemer 103

98. rush begins. Egyptian, outline, and decora¬ develops process for convert¬ 1860: Charleston Mercury.
c. 1841: Wood and Shar- tive types. ing iron to steel. broadsheet announcing the
woods, ornamental type. 101. 102 dissolution of the Union.
1854: Broadside using elon¬ 1859: William H. Page and
During the 1840s, ornament¬ gated Fat Face fonts. Company, Ornamented
ed type becomes increasingly Clarendons.
important.

c. 1840

AT Orange Court IIon.se Virginia, on Tuesday the 27th day of June, pros., being the
day after the County Court of Orange in that month; I shall sell at public auc¬
tion, to the highest bidder, that part of the Library of the late James Madison,
which, in a recent division of his books with the University of Virginia, fell to the
share of my testator; and at the same time I will sell other books, the property
of my said testator. In all there are some

SEVE1 Oil EIGHT III]IDREI) VOLIMES.

among which are many very rare and desirable works, some in Greek, some in
Latin, numerous others in French, and yet more in English, in almost all the de¬
AJN EVBNINC3r partments of Literature; not a few of them being in this manner exposed to sale
only because the University possessed already copies of the same editions. The
WITH THE
sale beginning on the day above mentioned, will he continued from day to day till
all the books shall have been sold, on the following terms:
Cash will be required of eaeh purchaser whose aggregate purchases shall a-
mount to no more than Five dollars; those whose purchases shall exceed that a-
mount, will have the privilege either to pay the cash or to give bond with approved
security, bearing interest from the date, and payable six months thereafter.
ELHANON ROW, Administrator,
with the will annexed of John P. Todd, dec’d.
May 30, 1854.
MR. WARDEN
Respectfully announces a Series of his Popular
Musical Entertainments at the above place.
Dispensing with the use of burnt cork, and the vulgar
burlesque of Ethiopian character, (which. many suppose
render the music effective!) Mr. Warden will sing the
Pathetic and Humorous Songs of the Christy Minstrels
in a style unobjectionable and pleasing to all.

ADMITTANCE:
TWI3HT1T-FIVE CENTS.
psr- TURN OVER.
•--rOGT
i .
176 FULTON STREET,
Opposite St\Pauls Chapel.
B MAVERICK
J.G W1SS1NGER.

OVER

108
100.

audacia tua? nihilne te nocturnum presi¬

dium palatii, nihil urbis vigilise, nihil timor
14
 106.
108.
1861-65: American Civil War. 1866: The first successful c. 1875: J. Ottmann, chromo- 1879: Thomas Edison invents c. 1885: Maverick and
transatlantic cable is laid. lithographic card for Mrs. the electric lightbulb. Wissinger, engraved business
1863: Abraham Lincoln
Winslow's Soothing Syrup. 107. card.
signs the Emancipation 1867: Alfred Nobel invents
1883: The Brooklyn Bridge is 109.
Proclamation. dynamite. 1876: Alexander Graham Bell opened to traffic. c. 1880s: Lettering printed by
104.
invents the telephone. chromolithography.
c. 1865: Honore Daumier. 1867: Christopher Sholes
1883: William Jenney designs 110.
The Third-Class Carriage. constructs the first practical 1877: Thomas Edison invents the first skyscraper, a ten-story 1886: Ottmar Mergenthaler
typewriter. the phonograph. metal frame building in invents the Linotype, the first
105.
Chicago. keyboard typesetting machine.
1869: Currier and Ives,
American Homestead Winter.

1861

CHARLESTON

MERCURY
EXTRA:
1‘usxrti unnuiuirnisli/ til 1.1.1 o'clock, /*..»/. December
JtO lb. 1HOO. ,

OIUHXiM K

To ttinwlre 11(1 I oimi hi/mill the Mute of snoth liiriiliiin noil

other Moll, uniti il irilh her miller the ruin/,net nilillnl " The
1 on* titnf ion «>/‘ flu- t nih il Shih-tt of . luH'ririt." 102.
/*• -■' 'A' -i >- •<*', /•-, o, - utti.t, 1
mu.,', , m ini'l ordain, tml

T>»*« hTiVtn.Uic, .j.r.l <• i u. i„ ( ,rw1(n,,l(. ,.I, lb,, ivvfiiiv-ih 1 rtJ ,liy of May. in the

jo at *>f ••at -lit- t! -••v. n l.'imirml .i:„; ,-i^bf \ oi-bi, whereby the < on^titation of the

I'uiir.j Siui- \, «... all and pait- ,»f V.Ms of the ticilcral

Ay-'rmbh "1 thi*- Mai'-. Liiilm- aim-mlnn-rii- til tin- -aid • ■u,-fmui*m, are hereby repealed;

and that the <tnkm m-w "c a .South Carolina ,,ml Staler, under lire name of

The ( tided Stales \m.-neu. l«.-r. by dissolved.

UNION IS
109.

DISSOLVED!
103.

106.

15
111. 112. 115. 116.

1887: Advertisement for 1889: Alexandre Gustave William Morris' typeface de¬ 1891-98: William Morris'

Estey Organs. Eiffel, the Eiffel Tower. signs: 1890, Golden: 1892, Kelmscott Press launches a

113. Troy; 1893, Chaucer. revival of printing and

1887: Tolbert Lanston invents c. 1890s: Coca-Cola syrup jug. typography.

the monotype. 114. 117.

1892 Paul Gauguin, 1892: William Morris, page

By the Sea. from News from Nowhere,

1887

This is the Golden type.

TTbie \q the 'Croy type.
This is the CbaucerType.
115.

Afloat CHAPTER XXIV. UP THE THAMES

again THE SECOND DAY.
HEY were not slow to
take my hint; & indeed,
as to the mere time of
day, it was best for us
to be off, as it was past
seven o’clock, & the day
promised to be very hot.
So we got up and went
down to our boat; Ellen
thoughtful and abstract'
ed; the old man very kind and courteous, as if to
make up for his crabbedness of opinion. Clara was
cheerful & natural, but a little subdued, I thought;
and she at least was not sorry to be gone, and often
looked shyly and timidly at Ellen and her strange
wild beauty. So we got into theboat, Dick saying
as he took his place, " Well, it is a fine day! ” and
the old man answering" What! you like that,do
you ? ” once more; and presently Dick was sending
the bows swiftly through the slow weed'checked
stream. I turned round as we got intomid'Stream,
andwavingmyhandto ourhosts, saw Ellen lean'
ing on the old man’s shoulder, and caressing his
healthy apple-red cheek, and quite a keen pang
smote me as I thoughthow I should never see the
beautiful girlagain. Presently I insistedon taking
the sculls, and Irowed a good deal that day; which
nodoubt accounts forthe fact that we got very late
2 to

117.

16
 118. 119. 121. 122.
1893: Henri van de Velde, title 1897: Edmond Deman, title 1897: Will Bradley, title page 1899: Josef Hoffmann,
page for Van Nu en Straks. page in the curvilinear Art in his "Chap Book" style, re¬ catalog cover for a Vienna
Nouveau style. viving Caslon type and colonial Secession exhibition.
1895: The Lumiere brothers 120. woodcut techniques. 123.
give the first motion-picture 1890s-1940s: Inspired by
1898-1902: Hector Guimard,
presentation.
Kelmscott, Americans Freder¬ 1898: Zeppelin invents his entrance to Paris Metro
ic Goudy and Bruce Rogers airship. Station.
bring renewed excellence to
book and typeface design.

1893

FREDWGOUDN
D IGNING
^40 FINE APvTJ BUILDING

BOOK AND CATALOGUE COVERS, BORDERS,

INITIAL LETTERS. ADVERTISEMENTS, Etc.
> c* 4* J* > > j» F, W. GOUDY, CHICAGO

120.

A LADY OF
QUALITY
Being a most curious, hitherto
unknown history, as related by
Mr. Isaac Bickerstaff but not
presented to the World of
Fashion through the pages of
The Tatler, and now for the
first time written down by

Frances Hodgson Burnett

New York: From the Publishing House of

CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS,
1 S3'157 Fifth Avenue. MDCCCXC^II.

121. 123.

119.

17
 129
124. 125.
1914-18: World War I. 1917: John Heartfield, Dadaist
1909: Filippo Marinetti founds
Typography in the 1900: Peter Behrens, dedi¬
advertisement
Futurism, experimentation
twentieth century: cation page from Feste des
with typographic form and 1915: Kasimir Malevich, 130
1900-present. Lebens und der Kunst.
Suprematist paintings shown 1917: Vilmos Huszar, De Stiji
syntax.
at the 0.10 group exhibition. magazine cover.
1903: The Wright brothers 126.

succeed in the first powered c. 1910: German sans serif 128

c. 1916: Bert Thomas, British 1918 Czar Nicholas II and his
flight. "block style."
war bonds poster. family are executed.
127.
1913: Wassily Kandinsky, 131.
1905: Einstein proposes his
1917-22: The Dada movement 1919: Raoul Plausmann, Dada
theory of relativity. Improvisation 31 (Sea Battle).
protests the war and conven¬ poem.

tional art.

1900

Soeben
erschienen!

S©efoen
S

erschienen! / 4 +
/

Soeben
+ +J00 FRAULK ' N UtFD L ’ SBHABKR
WJERBCNQ

erschienen! A/ • & 8TRA0bKffSllLD

KAFMUMAITS

-
^ o
£ Ar

©natnaUitipgrapbi™
^ -f DER MALIK-VERLAG, BERLIN-SODENDE

129.

kP- er iolIM lp’Cr Oum

Jjni ^eriii ptR"0-'

bpr [tiBem^RRDfc
ONNOo gplanpouk

konftipout perikovl

jR/iEEgfi £Eeg r
oapAerrre EE [
mgl ed Pad*N <
Ml NoU tn OU t
128. 130. 131.

18
 133. 134. 137. 139.
1920: Women's suffrage is c. 1923: Alexander 1924: Gerrit Rietveld, 1925: Constantin Brancusi, 1926: Piet Zwart,
granted in the United States. Rodchenko, Russian Schroeder house. Bird in Space. advertisement.
Constructivist poster. 135. 138.
1920: Bolsheviks triumph in
1925: El Lissitzky, title page. 1925: JanTschichold, title 1927: Charles Lindbergh
the Russian Revolution. 1924: Surrealist manifesto. 136. page for his article, makes the first solo Atlantic
132.
1925: Herbert Bayer, univer¬ "Elementary Typography." flight.
1921-25: Piet Mondrian,
sal alphabet. 140.
Diamond Painting in Red,
1928: Piet Zwart,
Yellow, and Blue.
advertisement.

1920

KABELS

OOGE
DIE KUNSTISMEN
ZELFINDUCTIE
N.K.F

LES ISMES DE LART DELFT

140.
THE ISMS OF ART

mitteilungen
t ■C
o
.tn
IE
a
CD sonderheft
135. L.
O) elementare
O typographic
Q.

138.

bauhaus
136. 139
137.

19
 142.
1939: Germany invades 1945: Atomic bombs destroy
1930: Chrysler Building, an 1933: Adolf Hitler becomes
1929: The New York Stock
Poland: World War II begins. Hiroshima and Nagasaki, end¬
example of the Art Deco chancellor of Germany.
Market collapses, and the
146. ing World War II.
Great Depression begins. decorative geometric style. 145.
1936: Walker Evans, family of 1942: Jean Carlu, 148.
141. 143.
advertisement. 1948: Paul Rand, title page.
1930: Paul Renner, prospectus 1931: Max Bill, exhibition sharecroppers.

poster. 147.
for Futura.
1944: Max Bill, exhibition
144.
c. 1932: Alexey Brodovitch, poster.

exhibition poster.

I
1929

DIE
FUTURA
SICH DIE WELT
EROBERTE

0
MAPPE^^^^

var sar-ws:
144.

negerkunst
konkrete kunst prahistorische
felsbilder sodairikas

1 kunstgewerbemuseum Zurich
i ausstellung 2.—30. august 1931
IMXH I geSiinet 10—12 14—18 nhr

1 sonntag —17 nhr

montag geschlossen
i eintritt —.50
i
I nachmittag and sonntag fret

147. 143. 148.

145. 146. 142.

20
 149 151. 152. 155. 156.
1948: Willem de Kooning: 1950-55: Le Corbusier Notre 1952: Henri Matisse, 1956: Willem Sandberg, book 1959: Saul Bass, film title.
Painting. Dame de Haut. Woman with Amphora and cover. 157.
150
Pomegranates. 1959: Frank Lloyd Wright, the
1950: Ladislav Sutnar, book 1952: School segregation is 153. 1957: Russia launches Sputnik Guggenheim Museum, New
cover. declared unconstitutional by 1955: Josef Muller- I, the first earth satellite. York.
the U.S. Supreme Court. Brockmann, concert poster. 158.
1950: North Korea invades 154. 1959: Carlo L.Vivarelli, maga¬
South Korea.
1956: Saul Bass, zine cover.
advertisement.

1948

NeueGrafik
New Graphic Design
Graphisme actuel
149.

153.

154.

150. 157.

21
159. 161. 164.
c. 1961: George Lois, pharma¬ 1963: President John F, 1965: The U S. Marines land
1959: Henry Wolf, magazine 1959. Otto Storch, figurative
ceutical advertisement. Kennedy is assassinated. in force in Vietnam
cover. typography.
165. 166. 167.
160. 162
1962: Eero Saarinen, Dulles 1965: Seymour Chwast and 1966: George Lois, magazine
c. 1959: Gerald Holton, "peace 1960: Karl Gerstner,
International Airport. Milton Glaser, poster. cover.
symbol." advertisement
163.
c. 1960 Herb Lubalin,
advertisement

DIVINE TO EAT. EASY TO MAKE, AND

1959 BEAUTIFUL TO LOOK ON! ELEGANT PAR-
FAITS. THERE ARE TWO TYPES: THE
FRENCH. WHICH IS A CREAMY. DEL¬
ICATE, COOL (BUT NOT ICY) MIX¬
TURE WITH A BASE OF SUGAR,
EGGS. CREAM, FRUIT AND/OR
flavorings; and the Ameri¬
can, MADE WITH COMMERCIAL
ICE CREAMS OR SHERBETS OR
allergic

ughfly?
BOTH WITH A SURPRISE INGRE¬
DIENT. SUCH AS FRUITS, COR¬

SIMEDJNE
DIALS, COGNAC. NUTS, SAUCES
(SEE McCALL'S FINE SAUCE
RECIPES ON PAGE 00). WITH
AMERICAN PARFAITS, YOUR
IMAGINATION CAN HAVE FREE Ugliness, like beauty, is in the eye ol the DehoHler It is a value imposed upon
REIN. WITH THE FRENCH. HOW¬ a thing which, propeily used, might well be sailed Deautitui At S ■ 4 L *e try to
avoid misleading labels Out business is to design lor advertising Typography
EVER, YOU MUST FOLLOW REC- is one ol our essential tools II what we do with it is effective we don t care if
IPE DIRECTIONS TO THE it is called pretty, ugly, or pretty ugly II you think as we do *e ought to get
LETTER. PAR FAIT MEANS, OF
COURSE, PERFECT, AND WE
CAN IMAGINE FEW MORE PER¬
FECT DESSERTS. ESPECIALLY
IF YOU WANT TO SHOW OFF.
ughfly? QinjeHneSprks
FOR THESE ARE TRULY SHOW- . , „ L-onpsnor a^ociatrj »„h
OFF RECIPES! FROM THE
COOKS STANDPOINT, THERE
IS A REAL ADVANTAGE IN SERV¬
S'iw£'»N
"1'- ,® >«I“'»I’'--1IM.,S'<'
1 tWTOhV wo(
ING FROZEN DESSERTS FOR
THE OBVIOUS REASON. THEY
MUST BE MADE WELL AHEAD
WTHlSr.
AND REFRIGERATED. THUS.
«aiKe's THE BIG DESSERT PROBLEM
IS OUT OF THE WAY WHEN IT S
159. TIME TO PREPARE THE MAIN 163. 164.
PART OF THE MEAL. AT FAR
RIGHT, YOU SEE AN AMER¬
ICAN PAR FAIT, VANILLA
ICE CREAM LAYERED
WITH PISTACHIO
AND TOPPED
WITH WA L-
NUTS AND
WHIPPED
CREAM.
THE STRAW¬
BERRY AND
APRICOT

“Oh my God
PARFAITS
ARE BOTH
CLASSIC
FRENCH
FOR THE RECIPES.
TURN TO PAGE 00, WHERE
YOU WILL FINDTHE FRENCH AS WELL
AS GOOD VARIATIONS OF THE QUICK

-we hit
AND POPULAR AMERICAN PARFAITS
THEN, PLAN A PARTY.

161.

a little girl.”

The true story of M Company.

From Fort Dix to Vietnam.
167.

162 166

22
168. 170. 172. 174. 175.
c. 1968: Seymour Chwast and c. 1967: Symbol for the en¬ 1972: WolfgangWeingart, 1974. Cook and Shanosky, 1976: American Bicentennial.
Milton Glaser, poster. vironmental movement. typographic interpretation of standard symbol signs. Symbol design by Bruce
169. 171. a poem. Blackburn.
1968: R. Buckminster Fuller, 1969: First moon walk. 173.
American Pavilion, Montreal
1974: Herb Lubalin, news¬
World's Fair.
paper cover.

1968

Separatdruck aus <Zwischentone>: Texte von Elsbeth Bornoz, ZUrich

1961.1971Sa=SSSS=S«s"

in Griin
roter Hibiskus
schwarze Gestalt
winklige Gasseni
aktus blauer Schatten
Steinodendistel weisses Licht
Steinode

Ilangsames Drehen
Windmuhlensegel
Windmuhlenkegel
Schatten
Licht
trunken von Weiss
weisse Treppe Kubenhauser
sanfter Anstieg Kuben
Steinplattenplatz

172.

iy|to«paphjf anilHie Information,

•Vc* Tcehnoloijics Pleoie

174.

; USPOSTAGEg0

Stop the Whate bo Hot aboot

“Perpetrator*” Robert Indiana?

the moil significant

throughout the world.
Tk« 8pt«*rl»« Revival
Tom Carnase. one o( Ibe foremost dcalgncra ol
letterforms. lias created a trend tuck to Spenccrta
through his artful liandling ol It
Carparilr De*t*» le Rtf Bulom
And mull business Both are finding that the Im
- -AMERICAN
they present to the public » becoming more ant
a Isrlnt In their lutcewhil growth Tire first article REVOLUTION
on corporate design It try t.ou Ports man Design
Director, Columbia Broadcasting System The Hi'a
by Ernie Smith. Proprietor of Port Jerry, a
BICENTENNIAL
A Satfe* ol Newspaper Lo*oa 1776-1976
The prominent illustrator and satlrttl. Chas. Slaclunan,
depict* hu graphic impression* of the nature ol toi
of our moil ptomlnenl newapapers Ihrough ihe
redesign of their logotype* 175.
Noa-CoMuntcelion
Ed Sord. one of America s I
hn views on the iubiect of non communication m
no uncertain terms These lotctnattng drawings will
be a regular lea lure In' U&lc "
Whal e New bom ITC
A flirt time thcwring ol the newest creations ol
typeface design era to be offered by ITC to the wodd
buying public through ITC Subscriber*

173.

23
176. 178. 181.
1977: Pompidou National 1978: Willi Kunz, poster 1983: Michael Graves, Port¬

Center of Arts and Culture, design. land, Oregon, city hall.

Paris. 179. 182

177. 1979: Richard Greenberg, 1980s: Digital typography and

1977: Bill Bonnell, RyderTypes film titles. computer technology impact

trademark. 180 typographic design.

1982: Tim Priddy,
advertisement.

24
2 The Anatomy of Typography

Typographic design is a complex area of human

activity requiring a broad background for informed
practice. This chapter explores the basic language
of typography. Letterforms, the fundamental
components of all typographic communications,
are carefully examined. Nomenclature, measure¬
ment, and the nature of the typographic font and
family are presented.

The alphabet is a series of elemental visual signs in

a fixed sequence, representing spoken sounds.
Each letter signifies only one thing: its elementary
sound or name. The twenty-six characters of the
alphabet can be combined into thousands of
words, creating a visual record of the spoken lan¬
guage. This is the magic of writing and typography,
which have been called "thoughts-made-visible"
and "frozen sounds."

25
 Letterforms analyzed

The four timelines in chapter one graphically pre¬ 186) identifies the major components of letter-
sent the evolution of letterforms and typographic form construction. In medieval times, horizontal
design from the beginning of writing to the pres¬ guidelines were drawn to contain and align each
ent. Our contemporary typographic forms have line of lettering. Today, letterforms and their parts
been forged by this historical evolution. Typog¬ are drawn on imaginary guidelines to bring uni¬
raphy evolved from handwriting, which is created formity to typography.
by making a series of marks by hand; therefore,
the fundamental element constructing a letter- Baseline: An imaginary line upon which the base
form is the linear stroke. Each letter of our alpha¬ of each capital letter rests.
bet developed as a simple mark whose visual
characteristics clearly separated it from all the Capline: An imaginary line that runs along the tops
others. of the capital letters.

The marking properties of brush, reed pen, and Meanline: An imaginary line that establishes the
183. stone engraver's chisel influenced the early form height of the body of lowercase letters.
Strokes written with the reed of the alphabet (Fig. 183). The reed pen, used in
pen (top), and brush (middle), ancient Rome and the medieval monastery, was x-height: The distance from the baseline to the
and carved with a chisel held at an angle, called a cant, to the page. This meanline. Typically, this is the height of lowercase
(bottom). produced a pattern of thick-and-thin strokes. letters and is most easily measured on the lower¬
Since the time of the ancient Greeks, capital letter- case x.
forms have consisted of simple, geometric forms
based on the square, circle, and triangle. The basic All characters align optically on the baseline. The
shape of each capital letter can be extracted from body heights of lowercase characters align opti¬
the structure in Figure 184, which is composed cally at the x-height, and the tops of capitals align
of a bisected square, a circle, a triangle, an inverted optically along the capline. To achieve precise
triangle, and two smaller circles. alignments, the typeface designer makes optical
adjustments.
The resulting vocabulary of forms, however, lacks
several important attributes: optically adjusted Apex: The peak of the triangle of an uppercase A.
proportions, expressive design properties, and
184.
maximum legibility and readability. The transition Arm: A projecting horizontal stroke that is un¬
from rudimentary marks to letterforms with attached on one or both ends, as in the letters T
graphic clarity and precision is a matter of design. and E.

Because early capital letters were cut into stone, Ascender: A stroke on a lowercase letter that rises
these letters developed with a minimum number above the meanline.
of curved lines, for curved strokes were difficult
to cut (Fig. 185). Lowercase letters evolved as Bowl: A curved stroke enclosing the counterform
reed-pen writing. Curved strokes could be quickly of a letter. An exception is the bottom form of the
written and were used to reduce the number of lowercase roman g, which is called a loop.
strokes needed to write many characters.
185. Counter: The negative space that is fully or par¬
Capital and lowercase letter- The parts of letterforms tially enclosed by a letterform.
form construction. Over the centuries, a nomenclature has evolved
that identifies the various components of individual Crossbar: The horizontal stroke connecting two
letterforms. By learning this vocabulary, designers sides of the letterform (as in e, A, and H) or bi¬
and typographers can develop a greater under¬ secting the main stroke (as in f and t).
standing and sensitivity to the visual harmony and
complexity of the alphabet. The following list (Fig.

26
 Capline

Meanline

x-height

Baseline

Descender: A stroke on a lowercase letterform

that falls below the baseline.

Ear: A small stroke that projects from the upper

right side of the bowl of the lowercase roman g.

Eye: The enclosed part of the lowercase e.

Fillet: The contoured edge that connects the serif

and stem in bracketed serifs. (Bracketed serifs
are connected to the main stroke by this curved
edge; unbracketed serifs connect to the main
stroke with an abrupt angle without this contoured
transition.)

Hairline: The thinnest strokes within a typeface

k
that has strokes of varying weights. 1-Ascender

Leg: The lower diagonal stroke on the letter k.

Link: The stroke that connects the bowl and the

loop of a lowercase roman g.

' Loop: See Bowl.

Serifs: Short strokes that extend from and at an

angle to the upper and lower ends of the major
strokes of a letterform. Apex

Shoulder: A curved stroke projecting from a stem.

Spine: The central curved stroke of the letter 5.

Spur: A projection —smaller than a serif— that

reinforces the point at the end of a curved stroke,
as in the letter G.
S Hairline

A
/

1 Crossbar
Fillet

Stem: A major vertical or diagonal stroke in a

Bowl Serifs
letterform.

Stroke: Any of the linear elements within a letter-

form; originally, any mark or dash made by the
Counter
movement of a pen or brush in writing.

Spur
Tail: A diagonal stroke or loop at the end of a
letter, as in R or/.

Terminal: The end of any stroke that does not

terminate with a serif. 186.

27
 Proportions of the letterform
The proportions of the individual letterform are ening of the strokes, which is particularly pro¬

o1499 Old Style

an important consideration in typography. Four
major variables control letterform proportion and
have considerable impact upon the visual appear¬
ance of a typeface: the ratio of letterform height
to stroke width; the variation between the thick¬
nounced on curves. Note how the placement of
weight within the Old Style 0 creates a diagonal
axis. As time has passed, type designers have been
less influenced by writing.

o
est and thinnest strokes of the letterform; the By the late 1700s, the impact of writing declined,
width of the strokes; and the relationship of the and this diagonal axis became completely vertical
x-height to the height of capitals, ascenders, and in many typefaces of that period. In many of the
descenders. earliest sans serif typefaces, stress disappeared
completely. Some of these typefaces have a mono¬
1757 Baskerville
The stroke-to-height ratio. The roman letter- line stroke that is completely even in weight.
form has the stroke-width-to-capital-height
proportion found on Roman inscriptions (Fig. Expanded and condensed styles. The design
187). Superimposition on a grid demonstrates qualities of the typographic font change dramati¬
that the height of the letter is ten times the stroke cally when the widths of the letterforms are ex¬
width. In the adjacent rectangles, the center letter panded or condensed. The word proportion, set
1793 Bodoni
is reduced to one-half the normal stroke width,

o
in two sans serif typefaces, demonstrates extreme
and the letter on the right has its stroke width expansion and condensation (Fig. 189). In the top
expanded to twice the normal width. In both cases, example, set in Aurora Condensed, the stroke-to-
pronounced change in the weight and appearance height ratio is one to nine. In the bottom example,
of the letterform occurs. set in Information, the stroke-to-height ratio is one
1816 First sans serif to two. Although both words are exactly the same

o
Contrast in stroke weight. A change in the con¬ height, the condensed typeface takes up far less
trast between thick and thin strokes can alter the area on the page.
optical gualities of letterforms. The series of Os
in Figure 188, shown with the date of each speci¬ X-height and proportion. The proportional
men, demonstrates how the development of tech¬ relationship between the x-height and capital,
c. 1928 Ultra Bodoni nology and printing has enabled typeface designers ascender, and descender lengths influences the

o
to make thinner strokes. optical qualities of typography in a significant way.
The same characters are set in seventy-two-point
In the Old Style typography of the Renaissance, type using three typefaces with widely varying
designers attempted to capture some of the visual x-heights (Fig. 190). This example demonstrates
properties of pen writing. Since the writing pens how these proportional relationships change the
1957 Univers 55 of the period had a flat edge, they created thick and appearance of type. The impact of x-height upon
thin strokes. Stress is the term to define this thick¬ legibility will be discussed in chapter four.
188.

190.
On the same size body (72
point), the x-height variation
among three typefaces—
Garamond Old Style, Bodoni,
and Helvetica—are shown.
The proportion of the x-height
to the point size significantly
affects the appearance of type.

28
 The typographic font

A font is a set of characters of the same size and Superior and inferior figures: Small numbers,
PROPORTIOKPROPOII1II

style containing all the letters, numbers, and usually slightly smaller than the x-height, used for
marks needed for typesetting. A typographic font footnotes and fractions. Superior figures hang from
exhibits structural unity when all the characters the capline, and inferior figures sit on the baseline.
relate to one another visually. The weights of thick
and thin strokes must be consistent, and the op¬ Fractions: Common mathematical expressions
tical alignment of letterforms must appear even. made up of a superior figure, an inferior figure,
The distribution of lights and darks within each and a slash mark. These are set as a single type
character and in the spaces between characters character.
must be carefully controlled to achieve an even¬
ness of tone within the font. Ligatures: Two or more characters linked together
as one unit, such as ff. The ampersand is a ligature
In some display faces, the font might include only originating as a letter combination for the French
the twenty-six capital letters. In a complete font word et ("and") in medieval manuscripts.
for complex typesetting, such as for textbooks,
it is possible to have nearly 200 characters. The Digraphs: A ligature composed of two vowels
font for ITC Garamond Book (Fig. 191) includes which are used to represent a diphthong (a mono¬
most of the following types of characters. syllabic speech sound composed of two vowels).

Capitals: The set of large letters that is used in Mathematical signs: Characters used to notate
the initial position. basic mathematical processes.

Lowercase: The set of smaller letters, so named Punctuation: A system of standard signs used in
because in metal typesetting these were stored in written and printed matter to structure and sepa¬
the lower type case. rate units and to clarify meaning.

Small caps: A complete set of capital letters that Accented characters: Characters with accents
are the same height as the x-height of the lower¬ for foreign language typesetting or for indicating
case letters. These are often used for abbrevia¬ pronunciation.
tions, cross references, and emphasis.
Dingbats: Assorted signs, symbols, reference
Ranging figures: Numbers that are the same marks, and ornaments designed for use with a
height as the capital letters and sit on the baseline. type font.

Old Style figures: A set of numbers that are com¬ Monetary symbols: Logograms used to signify
patible with lowercase letters; 7, 2, and 0 align monetary systems (U S. dollar and cent marks,
with the x-height; 6 and 8 have ascenders; and 3, British pound mark, and so on).
4, 5, 7, and 9 have descenders.

189.

abcdefgh i jk 1 m nopqrst u v w x y z 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0/i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 o

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ fffiffiflfflg0^GElSfig0ae6e
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ’”**«») [ ]<>%°0' "•
1234567890 $s£c&

191.
29
 Optical relationships within a font Unity of design in the type font
Mechanical and mathematical letterform con¬ Tremendous diversity of form exists in the typo¬
struction can result in serious spatial problems graphic font. Twenty-six capitals, twenty-six lower¬
caused by the diversity of form within the alpha¬ case letters, ten numerals, punctuation, and other
bet. These letterform combinations (Fig. 192) graphic elements in a font must be integrated into
show the optical adjustment necessary to achieve a system that can be successfully combined into
visual harmony within the font. The apexes extend innumerable words.
beyond the guidelines. Otherwise, they would
appear too short. Curved letterforms are slightly Letterform combinations from theTimes Roman
larger than letters that terminate squarely with the Bold font (Fig. 193) demonstrate several design
guidelines. This prevents them from appearing principles that bring wholeness to typography.
AEV OEC too small. Letterforms share similar parts. We see this in the
repetition of diagonals in AV W M. Likewise, the
In two-storied capitals and figures, the top half letters b dp q and m n h u share parts.
HRESKXB appears too large if the form is divided in the
mathematical center. To balance these letters op¬ A repetition of curves, verticals, horizontals, and
tically, their top halves are drawn slightly narrower serifs combined bring variety and unity to type¬
than the bottom. Horizontal strokes in both curved setting using this typeface. The designer has
and straight letterforms are drawn slightly thin¬ created many subtle relationships. For example,
ner than vertical strokes. Otherwise, the horizontals the bottom strokes of the capital Z and L have
EOR would appear too thick. longer serifs than the bottom stroke of the E.
This change in detail compensates for the larger
Tight junctions where strokes meet are often counterform on the right side of the first two
Wrap opened slightly to prevent the appearance of letters. All well-designed fonts of type display
thickening at the joint. Letters combining diagonal this principle of repetition with the variety that is
and vertical strokes must be designed to achieve found in Times Roman Bold.
MKV a balance between the top and bottom counter¬
forms. Strokes can be tapered slightly to open up
the spaces, and adjustments in the amount of
stroke overlap can achieve a harmony of parts.

Letters whose vertical strokes determine their

HE height are drawn slightly taller than letters whose
height is determined by a horizontal stroke. Opti¬
cally, they will appear the same height. The stroke
weight of compact letterforms, such as those with
closed counterforms, are drawn slightly smaller
BHM than the stroke weight of letterforms having open
counterforms. This optically balances the weight.
Curved strokes are usually thicker at their mid¬
mij section than the vertical strokes, to achieve an
even appearance.
192
These adjustments are very subtle and are often
imperceptible to the reader. However, their over¬
all effect is a more ordered and harmonious
appearance.

30
31
Basic classification of typefaces An infinite variety of typestyles are available today.
Phototypography with its simple and economical
introduction of new typefaces, has made the en¬
tire history of typography accessible. Numerous
efforts have been made to classify typefaces, with
most falling into the following major categories.
Some classification systems add a decorative or
novelty category for the wide range of fanciful
typestyles that defy categorization.

Old Style Old Style type began with designs of the punchcutter
Francesco Griffo, who worked for the famous Venetian
scholar-printer Aldus Manutius during the 1490s.
Griffo’s designs evolved from earlier Italian type de¬
signs. His Old Style capitals were influenced by carved
Roman capitals; lowercase letters were inspired by fif¬
teenth-century humanistic writing styles, based on the
earlier Carolingian minuscules. Old Style letterforms
have the weight stress of rounded forms at an angle, as
in handwriting. The serifs are bracketed (that is. uni¬
fied with the stroke by a tapered, curved line). Also,
the top serifs on the lowercase letters are at an angle.

Italic letterforms slant to the right. Today, ive use them

primarily for emphasis and differentiation. When the
first italic appeared in the earliest pocket book.,’’
printed by Aldus Manutius in 1501 it was used as an
independent typestyle. The first itcdic characters were
close-set and condensed; therefore, Manutius was
able to get more words on each line. Some italic styles
are based on handwriting with connected strokes and
are called scripts.

Transitional During the 1700s, typestyles gradually evolved from

Old Style to Modern. Typefaces from the middle of the
eighteenth century, including those by John Baskerville,
are called Transitional. The contrast between thick and
thin strokes is greater than in Old Style faces. Lowercase
serifs are more horizontal, and the stress within the
rounded forms shifts to a less diagonal axis. Transitional
characters are usually wider than Old Style characters.

32
Modern Late in the 1700s, typefaces termed Modern evolved from
Transitional styles. These typefaces have extreme contrasts
between thick and thin strokes. Thin strokes are reduced J
to hairlines. The weight stress of rounded characters is
vertical. Serifs are horizontal hairlines that join the stems
at a right angle without bracketing. The uppercase width is
regularized; wide letters such as Mand Ware condensed
and other letters, including Pand T, are expanded. Modern -
style typefaces have a strong geometric quality projected
by rigorous horizontal, vertical, and circular forms.

Egyptian In 1815, the English typefounder Vincent Figgins

introduced slab - serif typestyles under the name
Antique. At the time, there was a mania for an-
cient Egyptian artifacts, and other typefounders
C

f
}
^
adopted the name Egyptian for their slab-serif
designs. These typestyles have heavy square or ^
rectangular serifs that are usually unbracketed.
The stress of curved strokes is often minimal. In
some slab-serif typefaces, all strokes are the
same weight.

Sans Serif The first sans serif typestyle appeared in an 1816

specimen book of the English typefounder William
Caslon IV. The most obvious characteristic of
these styles is, as the name implies, the absence
«

of serifs. In many sans serif typefaces, strokes are

uniform, with little or no contrast between thick
and thin strokes. Stress is almost always vertical.
Many sans serif typefaces are geometric in their
construction; others combine both organic and
geometric qualities.

33
 1. Face (printing surface)
Typographic measurement
2. Counter
3. Beard
4. Shoulder

5. Feet
6. Groove
7. Nick

8 Point size (body size)

9. Type-high (.918" height)
10. Set width

Our measurement system for typography was

originally developed for the handset metal type
invented by Johann Gutenberg around A.D. 2 Inches
1450. The rectangular, metal block of type (Fig.
194) has a raised letterform on top, which was
inked to print the image.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Picas 6 Picas = 1 Inch

0 12 72 Points 12 Points = 1 Pica

Metal type measurement
72 Points = 1 Inch
The small sizes of text type necessitated the de¬
velopment of a measuring system with extremely
195.
fine increments. There were no standards for
196
typographic measurements until the French type
designer and founder Pierre Simon Fournier le A MERIOAN SYSTEM OF
Jeune introduced his point system of measure¬ A interchangeable type bodies.
ment in 1737. The contemporary American
40 DbL Paragon
measurement system, which was adopted during
the 1870s, has two basic units: the point and the
pica (Fig. 195). There are approximately seventy-
two points in an inch (each point is 0.138 inches)
and twelve points in a pica. There are about six
picas in an inch.

Metal type exists in three dimensions, and an

understanding of typographic measurement be¬
gins with this early technology. All metal type must
be the exact same height, which is called type-
high (0.918 inch). This uniform height enabled all
types to print a uniform impression upon the
paper. The depth of the type, which is called the
point size or body size, is measured in points.
Before the development of the point and pica sys¬
tem, various sizes of type were identified by names,
such as brevier, long primer, and pica; these be¬
came 8-point, 10-point, and 12-point type. The
chart (Fig. 196), reproduced from a nineteenth-
century printers' magazine, shows the major point
sizes of type with their old names. Types that are
12-point and under are called text type and are
primarily used for body copy. Sizes above 12-point
are called display type, and they are used for titles,
headlines, signage, and the like. Traditional metal
type had a range of text and display sizes in incre¬
ments from 5-point to 72-point (Fig. 197).

196.
Reproduced actual size from
The Inland Printer, April 1885.

34
198.
This line has word spacing with em quads.

This line has word spacing with en quads.

■iiiii
This line has word spacing with thick quads.

This line has word spacing with middle quads.

This line has word spacing with thin quads.

Thislinehaswordspacingwithhairquads.

As shown in Figure 194, the width of type is called 5 Point

_6 Point_
the set width and varies with the design of each _7 Point_
individual letter. The letters M and W have the _8 Point_
widest set width; / has the narrowest. The length _9 Point_
of a line of type is the sum of the set width of all _10 Point_
the characters and spaces in the line. It is mea¬ _11 Point_
sured in picas. _12 Point_
_14 Point_
Spatial measurement
The designer measures and specifies the spatial 18 Point_
intervals between typographic elements. These
intervals are: interletter spacing, traditionally called 24 Point
letterspacing, which is the interval between letters;
interword spacing, also called wordspacing, which
is the interval between words; and interline spac¬ 30 Point
ing, traditionally called leading (because thin strips
of lead are placed between lines of metal type to
increase the spatial interval between them), which
is the interval between two lines of type.
36 Point
In traditional metal typography, interline and inter¬
word spacings are achieved by inserting metal
blocks called quads between the pieces of type.
42 Point
• Because these are not as tall as the type itself, they
do not print. A quad that is a square of the point
size is called an e/77; one-half an em quad is called
an en. In metal type, other smaller divisions of
48 Point
space are fractions of the em (Fig. 198). These
metal spacers are used for letter- and wordspac¬
ing, paragraph indentations, and centering or
justifying lines of type. 54 Point
For design considerations, the em of a condensed
typestyle can be narrower than a square, and the
em of an expanded typestyle can be wider than a
square. This is demonstrated by the em quads from
four styles in the Univers family of typefaces
(Fig. 199).
60 Point
72 Point
■
197.
Hgglgnu mm mm

Univers 53 em 55 em 57 em 59 em

199
35
 Thislineissetwithplusoneunitofinterletterspacing.
This line is set with normal, unaltered interletter spacing.
This line is set with minus one unit of interletter spacing.
This line is 9et with minus two units of interletter spacing.
The he 6 set with rrixs Ihree iris of ntatefe- qscng
201

13 Units I 10 Units I 9 Units I5 Units MO Units 111

While em and en are still used as typographic

terms, spacing in keyboard phototypesetting and
digital typesetting is controlled by a computer,
using a unit system. The unit is a relative measure¬
ment determined by dividing the em (that is, the
square of the type size) into equal vertical divisions.
Different typesetting systems use different num¬
bers of units; sixteen, thirty-two, and sixty-four
are common. The width of each character (Fig.
200) is assigned a unit value or width. During type¬
setting, the character is exposed, then the type¬
setting machine advances the number of units
assigned to that character before exposing the 200.
next character. The unit value includes space on The unit value of each letter in
each side of the letter for normal interletter spac¬ the word Design is shown.
ing. Adding or subtracting units can expand or
contract the space between letters, changing the
tone of the typography (Fig. 201). As will be dis¬
cussed later, spacing influences the aesthetics and
legibility of typesetting.

Some letter combinations, such as TA, have awk¬

ward spatial relationships. Such interletter space
can be adjusted, making the interval more consis¬
tent with other letter combinations. This is called
kerning. In metal type, kerning was achieved by
sawing notches in the types. Computer-controlled
typesetters can be programmed to make an auto¬
matic adjustment when these awkward combina¬ In this setting, minus one unit
tions appear. is used for tighter interletter
spacing.

In this setting, minus two units

is used. The letters touch.

36
 The type family

202.

A type family consists of a group of related type¬

faces, unified by a set of similar design character¬
istics. Each face in the family is an individual one
that has been created by changing visual aspects
of the parent font. Early type families consisted of
three fonts: the regular roman face, a bolder ver¬
sion, and an italic. The roman, bold, and italic fonts
Baskerville
of the Baskerville family (Fig. 202) demonstrate
that a change in stroke weight produces the bold
version, and a change in stroke angle creates the
italic. The bold font expands typographic possibil¬
Baskerville
ities by bringing impact to titles, headings, and
display settings. In addition to weight and angle
changes, members of a type family are created by
changing proportions or by design elaboration. Baskerville
Weight changes. By simply changing the stroke
width relative to the height of the letters, a whole
series of alphabets, ranging from extremely light
to very bold, can be produced. In England, a
classification standard has been developed that
contains eight weights: extralight, light, semilight,
medium, semibold, bold, extrabold, and ultrabold.
Most type families do not, however, consist of
eight weights. Four weights — light, regular or
book, medium, and bold —are often sufficient for
most design purposes. In the Avant Garde family
(Fig. 203) stroke weight is the only aspect that
changes in these five fonts.
AVANT GARDE
Proportion. Changing the proportions of a type-
style by making letterforms wider (expanded) or
narrower (condensed), as discussed earlier, is
AVANT GARDE
another method for adding typefaces to a type
family. Terms used to express changes in propor¬
tion include: ultra-expanded, extra-expanded,
expanded, regular, condensed, extra-condensed,
and ultra-condensed.
AVANT GARDE
Sometimes confusion results because there is no
standardized terminology for discussing the varia¬
tions in type families. For example, the regular face
is sometimes called normal, roman, or book. Terms
used to name light weights include lightline, slim,
AVANT GARDE
and hairline. Black, elephant, massive, heavy, and
thick have been used to designate bold weights 203
in some type families. Names given to condensed
variations include narrow, contracted, elongated,
and compressed. Expanded faces have been called
extended, wide, and stretched.
37
Futura Italic
Baskerville Italic
Bodoni Italic
204.

Angle. In our discussion about the basic classifi¬ others can be used successfully. Goudy Hand-
cation of typefaces, italics were presented as a tooled (Fig. 206) is based on Goudy Bold. A white
linear element is placed on each major stroke.
Cheltenham
major independent category. They were first in¬
troduced four hundred years ago as a new style. Dimensionality is suggested, and the face alludes Cheltenham
Now italics serve as a member of type families, to incised inscriptional lettering. Cheltenham
and they are used for contrast or emphasis. Italic
Decorative and novelty typestyles should be used Cheltenham
fonts that retain curvilinear strokes inspired by
handwriting are called cursives or scripts. In geo¬ with great care by the graphic designer. At best, Cheltenham
these express a feeling appropriate to the content
metric typefaces constructed with drafting instru¬ Cheltenham
ments, the italic fonts created by slanting the stroke and allow for unique design solutions. Unfor¬
angle are called obliques. Baskerville Italic (Fig. tunately, the use of design elaboration is often a Cheltenham.
204) is a cursive, demonstrating a handwriting mere straining for effect. Cheltenham
influence; Futura Italic is an oblique face; and Cheltenham
Bodoni Italic has both cursive and oblique qualities. The Cheltenham family
Although the Bodoni family was constructed with One of the earliest and most extensive type families Cheltenham
the aid of drafting instruments, details in the italic is the Cheltenham series of typefaces (Fig. 207). Cheltenham
font (such as some lower serifs) have a cursive The first version, Cheltenham Old Style, was ini¬
tially designed around the turn of the century by
Cheltenham
quality.
architect Bertram G. Goodhue in collaboration Cheltenham
Elaboration. In design an elaboration is an added with Ingalls Kimball of the Cheltenham Press in Cheltenham
complexity, fullness of detail, or ornamentation. New York City. When this typeface went into com¬
mercial production at the American Type Founders Cheltenham
Design elaboration can be used to add new type¬
faces to a type family. These might include outline Company, designer Morris F Benton supervised Cheltenham
fonts, three-dimensional effects, and the applica¬ its development. Benton designed about eighteen
Cheltenham
tion of ornaments to letterforms. Some of the additional typefaces for the Cheltenham family.
variations of Helvetica (Fig. 205) that are avail¬ Variations developed by other typefounders and Cheltenham
able from the German firm of Dr. Boger Photosatz manufacturers of typesetting equipment expand¬ Qhdtenfem
GmbH include outlines, inlines, perspectives, ed this family to more than thirty styles. The de¬
rounded terminals, and even an antique effect. sign properties linking the Cheltenham family are
short slab serifs with rounded brackets, tall as¬ Cheltenham
While many elaborations are gaudy and interfere cenders and long descenders, and a moderate
with the integrity and legibility of the letterforms. weight differential between thick and thin strokes.
207

Goudy Handtooled
206.
38
 205.
Elaborations of Helvetica
Medium.

39

llnims
45 46 47 48 49

Univers Univers Univers Univers Univers

53 55 56 57 58 59

Univers Univers Univers Univers Univers Univers

63 65 66 67 68

Univers Univers Univers Univers Univers

73 75 76

Univers Univers Univers

83

Univers
208

The Univers family

A full range of typographic expression and visual within and between the letters, which results in
contrast becomes possible when all the major expanded and condensed styles. Roman fonts are
characteristics — weight, proportion, and angle — designated with an odd number, and oblique fonts
are orchestrated into a unified family. An outstand¬ are designated with an even number.
ing example is the Univers family (Fig. 208). This
family of twenty-one typestyles was designed by In the design of Univers, Frutiger sparked a trend
Adrian Frutiger. Instead of the usual terminology in type design toward a larger x-height. The lower¬
Frutiger used numerals to designate the typefaces. case letters are larger relative to ascenders, de¬
Univers 55 is the "parent" face; its stroke weight scenders, and capitals. The size and weight of
and proportions are the norm from which all the capitals are closer to the size and weight of lower¬
other designs were developed. The black-and- case letters, creating increased harmony on the
white relationships and proportions of Univers 55 page of text. Because the twenty-one members of
are ideal for text settings. Careful study of Figure the Univers family share the same x-height, capital
208 reveals that the first digit in each font's num¬ height, and ascender and descender length and
ber indicates the stroke weight, three being the are produced as a system, they can be intermixed
lightest and eight the heaviest. The second digit and used together without limitation. This gives
indicates expansion and contraction of the spaces the designer extraordinary flexibility (Fig. 209).

39
 209
Typographic interpretation of
The Bells by Edgar Allan Poe

H
using the Univers family.

ear the

sledges with the

$ILVERBBeElL,lSS
wH hat a world of merriment their melody foretells!

ow they tinkle,

tinkle.

tinkle, in the icy air of night!

W hile the stars that

v
n
e r s P A

All the heavens seem to twinkle

With a crystalline delight:

K. meping time, time, time.

In a sort of Runic rhyme,

To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells

From the bells, |^) 0 | | ^

Bells, Bells,
n»B_ElLlL_S
Bells - -
BELLS,

F,rom the jingling and the tingling of the bells.

40
3 Syntax and Communication

Like the anatomy of typography, typographic

syntax and communication have a language that
must be learned to understand typographic de¬
sign. Syntax is the connecting of typographic
signs to form words and sentences on the page.
The elements of design —letter, word, line, col¬
umn, and margin — are made into a cohesive whole
through the use of visual hierarchy, typographic
space, ABA form, and grid systems. In this chapter,
the relationship between form and meaning is also
addressed. The imaginative designer can expand
and clarify content through the communicative
use of visual form.

41
Typographic syntax

In grammar, syntax is the manner in which words

are combined to form phrases, clauses, or sen¬
tences. We define typographic syntax as the pro¬
cess of arranging typographic elements into a
cohesive whole. The study of typographic syntax
begins with its basic unit, the letter, and progresses
to word, line, column, and margin.

210.
This composition demon¬
strates contrasting visual char¬
acteristics of three letterforms.
(Designer Robert Boyle)
211.
Through precise letterform
drawing and carefully consid¬
ered form-to-counterform
interaction, two dissimilar
letters form a cohesive sign.
(Designer: Gail Collins)

212.
Two letterforms are each
broken into two geometric
shapes of varying size and
density, and the four resulting
forms are combined into a deli¬
cate, asymmetrically balanced
symbol. (Designer: Frank
Armstrong)

211.
42
The letter
Our initial discussion of typographic syntax ad¬
dresses the intrinsic character of the individual
letter. This well-drawn form, exhibiting subtlety
and precision, is the unit that distinguishes one
family of type from another. It exists in various
weights, sizes, and shapes (Fig. 210).
213.
Although the letter typically functions as part of It is the figure/ground reversal
a word, individual letters are frequently combined in the repetition of the letter
into new configurations. As shown in Figures 211 T that creates a balanced and
and 212, combinations of letters A and g and P expressive poster. (Designer:
and Q reveal a stable gestalt. In the illustrated ex¬ Willi Kunz)
amples, there is an expressiveness and boldness 214.
to the individual letters. The syntax displayed here A dynamic composition is
is an example of letter combinations acting as formed by the precise spatial
signs, extracted from a larger system of signs. location of the letterforms a,
r, and p, which also spell the
A typographic sign is visually dynamic because of author's name. (Designer:
its interaction with the surrounding white space Paul Rand)
or void — the white of the paper. This form-to-void
relationship is inherent in the totality of typo¬
graphic expression. The repetition of the letter T
in Figure 213 is balanced and complemented by
its white space. On the title page for Hans Arp's
book On My Way, the visual interplay between the
three letterforms animates the page (Fig. 214).
This equilibrium and spatial interaction, and the
manner in which it is achieved will be discussed
further in our study of typographic space.
213.
Contemplating this ability of space to define form,
Amos Chang observed, "... it is the existence of
intangible elements, the negative, in architectonic
forms which makes them come alive, become
human, naturally harmonize with one another,
and enable us to experience them with human
sensibility."

The Documents of Modern Art. Director, Robert Motherwell

On My Way poetry and essays 1912... 1947

Willcnborn, Schulte., Inc. New York, iq.|8

212.

214.
43.
 215 217.
A star, a glass, and a word This dissection of the word

contribute to form a sign for Camerata displays the letter-

joy. The word's meaning is ex¬ form combinations and the

pressed visually and poetically relationships between con¬

(Designer: Frank Armstrong) sonants and their connecting

vowels. Contrast and repeti¬
tion create lateral movement
within a word, and the overall
arrangement relates to the
word's meaning. (Designer:
Sergio de Jesus)

215. 217.

C a a
a
m r
Camerata
am
me
e
ce oo 216.
Word-to-word interaction
exhibits rhythmic recurrences

II d of form and counterform. In¬

dividual letterforms are paired
and their corresponding interi¬
+ 2- 2 Ml or counters are related here.
(Designer: John Rodgers)

cellar door
44
 flliucHi lucHi

The word 218.

By definition, a word has the potential to express between each pair of letters appear equal to the In the Olivetti logo, the x-height
an idea (Fig. 215), object, or event. Word signs are space between every other pair of letters. Be¬ establishes continuity, and the
independent of the things they represent, yet by cause these counterform spaces have such differ¬ five ascending vertical forms
design they can be made to signify and reveal ent configurations, this spacing must be achieved create a horizontal rhythm.
their meaning. through optical balance, rather than through The repetition of rounded
measurement. forms (o and e) and the "echo
Form and counterform relationships, found with¬ effect" of a rounded form fol¬
in individual letterforms, also exist within individual Figure 217 shows a dissection of the word Camer- lowed by vertical strokes
words. Speaking on the structural consideration ata, displaying various interletter relationships, in¬ create a lively unity; the angled
of form and counterform and the designing of cluding both geometric and organic features. In strokes of the letter v intro¬
typefaces, Adrian Frutiger stated: "The material of this example, the word's internal pattern is created duce an element of contrast
typography is the black, and it is the designer's by the visual properties of the individual letter- (Designer: Walter Ballmer)
task with the help of this black to capture space, forms and their various juxtapositions. This ar¬
to create harmonious whites inside the letters as rangement displays the nature of the internal
well as between them " pattern. Camerata is an Italian word meaning "a
room full of people"; this meaning supplies yet
By observing this principle and by combining form another interpretation of the overall pattern. Such
and counterform into word units, the designer form-to-content relationships will be discussed
discovers subtle typographic connections and later in this chapter.
rhythms (Fig. 216). The word unit is a constellation
of individual letterforms, suggesting a union and A concern for form and counterform is evident in
forming a cohesive whole. Optically adjusted the equilibrium that is established among the
spaces and consistent counterform relationships letterforms comprising the word Camerata. It is
assure the overall clarity of this union. extremely important to see the interior rhythms
of a single word. In the example shown, the letters
Discussing interletter spacing, the painter and C, m, r, and t function as elements of contrast,
graphic artist Ben Shahn tells about his training while the three as and the e act as the unifying
as an apprentice who lettered on lithographic elements. A similar use of contrast and repetition
stones in 1913. The shop foreman explained, "Imag¬ is demonstrated by the progression of letterforms
ine you have in your hand a glass that will hold only within the corporate logotype for Olivetti (Fig. 218).
so much water. Now you must provide space be¬
tween your letters —whatever their slants and Obviously, not all words offer the potential for such
curves may be —to hold just that much water, no a rich typographic internal pattern. The complex
more or less." The universal principle for spacing and lively forms reproduced here clearly show the
letters is this: the typographer, calligrapher, or variety and fullness of form that exists in some
designer attempts to make the interletter space deceptively simple word units.

45
219. 220.

Of all the a<chievements

of the human mind, the birth of the alphabet
is the most momentous.

222.

The line
219. Words are joined to form verbal sentences and The placement of punctuation marks is of special
Symmetrical placement typographic lines. The configuration and placement significance to these alignments. In Figure 225
produces a quiet, balanced of lines of type are significant structural concerns. punctuation marks extend into the margin. Slight
configuration. In its most basic form, a line of type consists of a adjustments and subtle refinements heighten the
220. single point size and a single weight extended hori¬ degree of unity.
Asymmetrical placement zontally over a specific line width.
achieves a dynamic division of Typographic rules are used in conjunction with
space on the page. (Designer: Lines of type can be arranged symmetrically (Fig. type and separate one line of type from another
Ivy Li) 219), or asymmetrically (Fig. 220). The viewer/ or one group of typographic lines from another
reader must sense a clearly established relation¬ as in Figure 221, or in footnotes. Rules are found
ship between individual lines of type and the sur¬ in a variety of forms (Fig. 226) and in numerous
rounding space (Fig. 221). sizes and weights. (The use of visual punctuation,
including typographic rules, is detailed in Visual
The smallest change in point size, weight, or line hierarchy.)
length controls the overall emphasis given to a line
of type. The designer or typographer must deter¬ Earlier, we discussed kerning and the optical spac¬
mine when the overall effect is balanced and fully ing of letterforms. Control of these factors make
integrated. All design considerations —typeface possible a judicious use of letterspacing in a line
selection, alignments, and spacing —should dis¬ of type. The orientation of lines raises a multiplicity
play connections that are apparent and distinct of other spacing concerns; for example, interword
(Fig. 222). JanTschichold states, "The relation¬ spacing, interline spacing, and line-to-page rela¬
ship of the sizes must in any case be clearly visible, tionships, as well as the establishment of columns
its effect must be lively, and it must always follow and margins.
the sense of the text exactly."

The length of a group of lines of type can be equal

(justified) or unequal (flush left/ragged right,
ragged left/flush right, or centered). The examples
in this section illustrate various typographic align¬
ments. Typographic form becomes lively and har¬
monious through these alignments, which enhance
individual lines of type and activate the surround¬
ing space (Figs. 223 and 224).

the human mind,

the birth of the alphabet

is the most

momentous.

221 222.
Type and rules combine to This multiple-line composition
bring a sense of unity to the contains varying line weights,
page. Note the recurrence of yet expresses wholeness
similar space intervals and the through the careful placement
attention given to individual of all elements. It displays the
line breaks (the rhythmic pat¬ diversity possible in the spac¬
tern of line endings). (Design¬ ing of lines of type. (Designer:
er: Cheryl Van Arnam) Wolfgang Weingart)
221
46
 "Bauhaus Masters"
Marcel Breuer
Paul Klee
Herbert Bayer

"Bauhaus Masters"
Marcel Breuer
Paul Klee
Herbert Bayer
225.

223.
Complex and subtle relation¬
ships in interline spacing are
Activation of pitch os an aft active voriablo trims forms
a rhythmic sequence into melody. achieved here by varying type
A vortical displacement ot visual olomonts results
from diltarenlintion of pitch values size, weight, and spatial inter¬
Elements are organized generating another level of spatial complexity.

within the aural field

As the magnitude ot displacement val which separate the state¬
from a horn onto/ axis

according to the principles of spatial orientation

ments for the reader. The
Harmonic relationship*
becomes ambiguous.
rhythm overall effect is rhythmic and
Aural rhythm In its fundamental si
m of positive elements, sublet fo variable duration and volume ot constant pitch, separated by variable durations of silor
ore primarily defined expressive. (Designer: Frank
melody
Armstrong)
Translation of rhythm produces o sequence of visual elements in horizon tat onentallon tc
and harmony 224
which determine spatial orientation In this conversation, the place¬
Although ibesc element! in nzomal axis, volume modlfict
in the visual field. Curvilinearond oblique v. flattens ore developed ment of lines and intervals re¬
ns visual representations of certain expressive techniques
Increasingly complex spatial relationships ore developed from the variation ot
flects the dialogue. (Designer:
in the articulation of sounds.
Warren Lehrer)
In the visual fluid
225.
a smooth transition between successive sounds to rhyttnic sequences.
through the translation In the top setting the lines
is represented as a curvilinear form
are flush left, but the edge
while a horizontal succession ot oblique forms
ot on harmonic sequence
appears uneven because of
is equivalent to a rapid alternation of sounds.

the punctuation. In the bottom

which is basod
version, "hanging" the punctu¬
ation into the margin is an
on a simultaneous occurrence
adjustment resulting in an

of sounds.
optically aligned edge.

223.

thorn
Straight-line rule

look at all these scarfs

how's business? Bar rule
lousy
lousy lousy lousy
i don't know what it is
well
it's hard to work in this wind
how long have you been into the business?

this business
only about six weeks
you're doing pretty good?
Bracket rule
i normally do really really well
today is like lousy
i'm think'll of going in
cause of the weather and the wind
i mean nonnally
i make like
eighty to a hundred an hour
today I've been out here an hour and nothing
it's one of those days

i normally do really well

and i'm starting to get
like stores to buy the stuff from me
and dun they can sell it Swelled rule
what's your name?

brenda
maybe one day you'll be famous brenda
end i can say
i met her in the perk
Scotch rule
yeah
maybe one oj these days
maybe i'll have wy moi store
reeilyt
i'm curious Leader
what's your ancestry?

224. 226
47
227. 228
Six columns of type are ar¬ Three columns of type create
ranged horizontally, allowing a vertical movement.Their un¬
ample breathing space for the even depths serve to balance
photographic image. Varying other elements. The use of
column depths make possible rules and bold headings breaks
a clear integration of typo¬ the overall grayness of the
graphic and pictorial form. text. (Art Directors: Bart
(Art Director: Bart Crosby: Crosby and Carl Wohlt)
Designer: CarlWohlt)

5 Oollar Encoding 7 In-Line Photocopying 9 Adrtce A Detail Uetmg Printer

Auto-Peed 3 Full Information Audit Trail
Each Item, including Its unique eudit/ Your required number of photocopies is As your lockbox material* are prepared
As youi mail is sorted, It is brought to Following MICR Scan/Capture (and The dollar amount, which was pre¬
sequence number. Is captured on made lor each check. Our electronic for marling, our printers mb generate rose
ths feed station to begin processing MICR correction, if necessary) a 25-char¬ viously keyed Into the data base, is
MICR encoded onto eech check. microfilm end this record is maintained photocopying process produces high- advice of deposit a summary of yowr
Amt lockbox number is entered, the acter audit trail is printed on the beck
by First Chicago for seven years resolution images that are as legible r* avaiiabdrty and a detailed bating of a*
screen displays the list of your accept¬ of each check which includes the lock-
the originate. Also, printed to the right your itams by amount, transit routing
able payees end data capture begins. box number, date, machine number,
of eech check photocopy, is the number, account number, audit trad and
sequence number and operator's
complete eudit trail end other dels base avariabrirty on an item-by-xtam baste
2 MfCfi Scar,. Capture initials. This information is also entered
The operator keys in the dollar amount into your data base information for quick reference
of each check which then passes
through the MtCft scan unit Availably 4 Endorsement 8 Pocket Sorting
is assigned at the workstation and data During this processing step, each Here your checks are sorted into
is recorded in your data base indicating: check is endorsed automatically by the pockets consisting of checks that heve
Routing/Transit Number. Account workstation. One of eight different been fully processed end those that
Number. Check Serial Number. Dollar endorsements is available from the may raquire special processing accord¬
Amount and Availability workstation to satisfy your individual ing to your specific instructions
needs, such as “Restricted Endorse¬
ment." in addition to the standard First
Chicago bank endorsement.

227

228.
48
 Column and margin
The visual qualities of a column of text are based
on contrast, ratio (depth-to-width), and texture,
The following information summarizes the
company's lines of business, products, markets properties that determine an optically balanced
and locations of pnncipal domestic and
international operations
arrangement and affect the form and counter¬
form relationships of columns and margins. The
Products
Engineered Fasteners and Automotive and truck. 1 Automotive Components depth and width of all columns (and their adjoin¬
Components appliance, business machine, 2 Construction Fasteners
construction, electrical equip¬
ment, electronics, furniture,
3
4
Industnat Fasteners
Plastic and Metal Components
ing space intervals) should be carefully examined,
health care equipment, plant
maintenance, telecommunica¬
5 Specialty Chemical Products
with attention given to typographic texture and
tions and recreational and
sports apparel industries tone. Texture is the tactile appearance of the type,
and tone is its lightness or darkness.

Either horizontal or vertical movements may be

emphasized. One will often dominate, as shown in
Figures 227 and 228. Eye movement across the
page (side to side and top to bottom) is controlled
by column rhythms and rules. By their manipula¬
tion, the designer can group information accord¬
Packaging Products Brewery soft drink. |utce. dairy.
canned food, food processing
1 Muitipacfcaging P'oaucts
2 Plastic Cups and Containers ing to its role in a given layout (Fig. 229).
and vending machine 3 Specialty Film Products
industries

1
Electronic Products and Telecommunications. 1 Automotive Controls
Components computers, word processing. 2 Electromechanical Switches
photo Typesetting, consumer 3 Electronic Keyboards
electronics arid industrial 4 Film Capacitors
equipment industries 5 Thick Film Circuits

Precision Tools and Gearing Aerospace, automotive and 1 Metal Cutting Tods
a* ✓ truck, construction equipment. 2 Specialty- Gearing
farm implement, industrial
equipment, military equipment,
mining and oil dulling equip¬
/■ ment and railroad equipment

K ‘s'. ‘
s
industries

Instruments and Systems Automotive and truck, industrial 1 Medical Disposables

vm
manufacturing, hospital 2 Precision Instruments anq
rehabilitation centers, medical Systems
supply brewery soft drink
juice and canned food and
fastener production and
assembly machine Indus tuns

229
Columns and margins are care¬
fully balanced through the use
of contrasting type sizes and
weights and of two rule
weights. (Art Director; Bart
Crosby; Designer: CarlWohlt)

49
 230 231
In this annual report there are This magazine page exhibits

subtle spatial relationships. the needed contrast between

text and caption elements. The
These include the form/
counterform of the column to column width of the text is

the margin; the placement of double the column width of

heading and subheading, the caption. (Art Director: Ben

which extend into the margin Day; Designer: Anne Stewart)

for emphasis; and the column

mass to rules, photograph,
and caption.
(Designer: Frank Armstrong)

The one- and two-column arrangements shown margins for clarity and balance depends on the
in Figures 230 and 231 display some of the pos¬ information contained within the page. For ex¬
sibilities for text-column placement. In the two- ample, in an open arrangement the type explains
column arrangement, the column depth is equal. components of an automated workstation (see
Vitality and contrast are achieved by the place¬ Figure 227). In the more compact arrangement
ment of the adjacent photograph, its caption, and illustrated in Figure 228, a large amount of run¬
the bar rule containing the title. In both examples, ning copy must be presented. Other requirements
the caption-column width and the text-column might include the need to place folios (page num¬
width are of different lengths. This change in bers) or running heads in the margins.
column measure must be sufficient to bring about
definite contrast, indicating that the caption is not The scale and proportion of columns and margins
part of the text. and their relationship to one another must be care¬
fully adjusted. The column proportion (two units
Other possibilities for column contrast are shown wide to three units high) is the same as the page
in Figure 232. Variations between the columns are proportion in the diagram in Figure 235. The mar¬
produced by a change in interline spacing and gin ratio is two margin units to three to four to six,
changes in type size and weight. Relative to one as indicated. In other words, the bottom margin is
another, the columns can be seen as open or twice as high as the top margin. JanTschichold
closed, light or dark. The resulting change in den¬ has pointed out that this complex series of column-
sity becomes a design consideration. These transi¬ to-margin ratios, based on the golden section, is
tions make possible a stepped progression into the found in numerous medieval manuscripts.
white of the page. The critically placed spatial inter¬
vals create a pronounced movement and tension. Paragraph breaks within a column greatly influ¬
ence the relationship between a column of text
Type size may vary from column to column (Fig. and its surrounding margins. A break may be in¬
233) or within a column from top to bottom (Fig. troduced as an indentation, as a space interval, or
234) . This variation emphasizes the copy pre¬ as a combination of both. Designers have also
sented in the larger type size. (For further discus¬ developed their own ways to indicate paragraphs
sion, see Visual hierarchy.) This change in visual (Fig. 236). The overall page organization will deter¬
weight contributes to a variation in page density, mine the most suitable method.
a form of contrast which makes it possible to bal¬
ance various type elements, adding rhythmic When columns, margins, and their interrelation¬
qualities to the page through a deliberate arrange¬ ships are clear and appropriate to content, the
ment of light to dark relationships. result is a printed page of distinction. Every prob¬
lem demands a fresh approach, yet the underlying
The typographic properties of a given column of principle of an ordered unity that is responsive
text are partly defined by the surrounding white to the meaningful blend of form and counterform
space on the page. The selection of appropriate is always the goal.

50
 232. 236.
This experimental text compo¬ Placement of a bullet (a typo¬
sition reveals various combina¬ graphic dot used for emphasis)
tions of typographic texture upon intercolumn rules desig¬
and tone. nates new paragraphs in this
booklet design. (Designer:
Jeff Barnes)

235

234

I ^2 I \ UlhllSihLs

by liwrph Dyer

For centuries the mainstay ol muMt and art m UKik a series of lovers, and pouted out her dismay
The Bridgeport Hospital family 4.367 members strong, is a special and mean¬ the Western world was a system of patronage In literymove poclrv Notwithstanding his divided
ingful community. Ourgoals blend the values of fine health care and human sustained by the twin pi Han ol court and church. loyalties, her husband saw to It that her name
Musicians, a mu entirely cumlonable with ihe dav in September was celebrated in a manner
compassion with a balanced regard for technology and the demands of cost anattgvntcm, adrustcvl to (he demands id their befitting the consort ol a Hungarian potentate
princely or ccctcslasncal employers Havdri '« The festivities- eoneerts, theatrical events,
containment. Our mission is health care: the time clock of our Hospital commu¬
international lame cvemuallv Irecd him trom the fireworks, hunting panles-occupied several
nity is idiosyncratic and without regard for "appropriate hours of rest." Every constraints ol court service Mosul chafed under weeks Yearly, between 1 TVfi ami 1802 (with the
the yoke ol subordination forced upon hint at exception of 18021 a new Mass by Haydn was
person in this community values, and is valued for. his and her role in the SatzhutK. unill in desperation he threw it ott lot sung in the Bcigktrche at Eisenstadt as the center
complex process of healing. The photographs and essay on these pages bring to a freelance career Beethoven broke completely
with the old system His jtemus was such tltai, The prince w.ts mil's man of cultivated
your attention some of the highlights of fiscal year 198’. despite the coarseness ol his manners and some
times insolent behavior, patrons and would-lw tended to the conservative stile According to one
The state Commission on Hospitals and I lealth Care iCHlloapprovcd three recipients ol dedications paid court It) lum ol Haydn's pupils, loh.inn Nepomnk Humtnel,
certificate of need applications from Bridgeport Hospital in 1982: a linear With a change In the social climate ami the the mx late Masses ot Ins teacher reflect the taste
development ot a large middle-class audience
accelerator, whose high energy X-ray and electron beams dest roy cancer cells in founded on the new mereantile and industrial live elegant style would have more value than a
wealth, composers I'ecame less dependent on teamed oi more serious work " (Due to a mis-
the treatment of patients * ith cancer: a/ullhot/j CAT-Scanner, a computerized tindcrstitoiling, the Mass in It llat ol 1W was
direct sulcsidv Profits tiiim publication iurther
diagnostic tool that produces X-ray pictures of thin sections of the entire human strengthened their independence Patronage, assumed to have been written lor Marie Therese,
wife ul I ntperoi Finneis'II. hence the name
body. and a new . sruie-of-the-ari. cardiovascular laboratnn. and a spa ial radio- even in its modem lunn, mMiuitinnalizcil by
| Independence in the student
l'We procedures lab for the diagnoses of cardiovascular disease and peripheral governments and loundanons
Tlic- works on Handel is Haydn's Fehnury
Mane Mermeneglld expressed her atleetinn
h'l Haviln silei Died service in many touching
" "Accordingly, handicraft in the
vascula r diseases.
icat plienomenun For Mozart the delightful
wavs She comiluscrate’ll with the sufferings workshops was right trom the start
Historically, patients undergoing surgery spend a fair amount of time in the Epistle" Sonata. K 244. constituted little condition With accustomed thoughtfulness she not an end in itself, but laboratory
hospital lor pre-operative testing and post-operative recuperation. In an at¬ more than the lulhllmem ot an obligation con¬ sought to soften the blow ot hts hnilher luhiinn's
nected with htsduties as a cathedral mtLsieian death iu Ihtis by bringing the news to him per¬ experiment preparatory to industrial
tempt to realistically assess and better meet the needs of patients us well as to ICivdn s Thcti'sii'nim‘**e ami the Poulenc Oman sonally A year later, learning that Haydn’s
improve operating room utilization. Dr. Claude Duval, chairman of the depart- pension was insulin, lent lor his living expenses, production If the initial products ot
ships between their composers and l wo princess she appealeil to her hushand Prince Nicolaus
menl of Anesthesiology, in conjunction with assistant administrator Erica Piter, patrons wrote to l lnviln fmmciliately. expressing hts the Bauhaus looked like individual
When I layiln teiunted from his second inp
began work on modify mg ourexisting one-day surgery center project. On April
to England til DOs. he had a new ntastei
craft products, this was a necessary
20. the facility expanded its operation w uh a dedicated team of nurses in a new Nuolans II Estcrliizv, grandson ot the prince tut
w himi he had created so many masterpieces
f ile princess paid Haydn many visits at hts
house in t lumpendorf. where he lived as a scml-
detour (or the groping student whom
area constructed by plant operations. Is. !ween 17d2 and 17U« Haydn was no longer mvaltii I let solicitude also assured a stc-.idy we avoided to prod with a foregone
Willing to accept the servant master relationship supply ol special wine from the princely cellars
ii”hli»lu the Year which had prevailed In the past Pintccss Marie conclusion."
11 We salvaged the best ot
Dennis Wasson. \l I) . an attending surgeon, served as president of the Bridge¬
port Hospital attcndingsiaffm 1981 and was re-elected in 1982 to serve as
experimental education and added to
president of the 478 active and courtesy physicians. At the annual meeting of the Mcrmcncgild helped to smooth over the dissimt I lavdn’s Creulton in the great hall of the old
it a carefully constructed program of
medical stall in 1983- Anthony Musto, \t i) . an attending physician in Ophthal¬ lar expectations ot her llaughtv husband and Ills I Iritversity- ot Vienna shows Iter presenting Itc-r information-based design that
famous Kupelhnt'Otcr llavdn knew how to play shawl to Haydn as protection against the chill -
mology, was named president of the Bridgeport Hospital attending staff for 1983 thtiliploni.it as well and file two men soon a beautiful expression ol her tender concern for produced noncommercial products
tlic genius who honored her with mi many
and Dr. Wasson was named Chief of Staff and chairman of the attending stall'
masterpieces that worked It was a different school
executive committee. Howard l Taubin. vt D. an attending physician in the Pnni c Nicolaus II had a pan u ol.ir interest The Princess Edmund dc Poltgnac |184S-
l')4 t), IrU a neatly legendary existence, immersed
with different people with different
section of Gastroenterology, was chairman of the executive committee and
Chief ofStaffin 1982, Some of the other personnel changes during the vear fished hts pat amours in houses ol their osvn,
in all the lending literary, artistic and musical
currents which had Pans as their center She was
goals in a different time Our aim
include the naming of Robert M. Daly. M o, as chairman of the newly created
where (tit the wotdsof oil English observer I 'they
share hts tavnurs and diminish hts faculties " The
I'oni Wltmarclta Singer, eighteenth child of Isaac was to produce designers who had
Merritt Singer (of sewing machine famel When
department of Psychiatry. and the appointment of Wesley D Simmons to the princess resigned herself to these indignities she was two years of age, the family moved to the will, the ability, and the ethical
newly created post, vice president of finance. base to change American production
Two new sections of the department of Surgery were established during 1982. for the better.
Glenn W Sandberg, xi D . was named ehiel'ofthe new section ofCardiothoracic 11 was somewhat concerned (hat this
■Surgery and Stuart A. Levinson. Ml). was named chief of the new section of
231. might be a middle-of-the-road
Vascular Surgery.

236

the thought or image intended • Typography

to be communicated by the achievements
Author. And the whole duty of design
beautiful typography is not to
Department ul Pharmacy

substitute for the beauty or

• Letters
interest of the thing thought
communication
and intended to be conveyed
230. by the symbol, a beauty or
alphabet
interest of its own, but, on the
one hand, to win access for • words
that communication by the invention
clearness and beauty of the writing
vehicle, and on the other hand, expression
to take advantage of every
pause or stage in that
communication to interpose
some characteristic & restful
beauty in its own art.

233. 232.
51
Visual hierarchy 237.
Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics
from The Book of the Dead of
Tuthmosis III.

By definition, visual hierarchy means a group of

visual elements arranged according to emphasis.
This emphasis is achieved through contrasts which
stress the relative importance and separation or
connection of typographic elements. A careful
study of visual hierarchy makes possible a greater
understanding of the order of typographic
communications.

Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics (Fig. 237) and a

Dada collage (Fig. 238) have very different visual
hierarchies. The hieroglyphic writing displays a
precise visual pattern. These signs, of even texture
and size, are arranged systematically according
to their role in the language system to which they
belong. By contrast, the Dada collage reveals a
kinetic and lively hierarchy of typographic form.
The Dada composition projects a random order
and a casual posture.

The study of visual hierarchy is the study of the ONNOo gplanpouk

relationships of each part to the other parts
and to the whole. It emphasizes the relationship
of each typographic element to the expressed konmpout per,koul
content of the page. Two notable terms significant
to this investigation are counterpart and counter¬
point. A typographic counterpart is one of two
elements that fits and completes another (Figs.
239 and 240). A typographic counterpoint is a
JJ*EE£e EEeg rfrr'.tef^

contrasting but parallel element. Unlike counter¬

part relationships, counterpoint relationships do
not complete the whole; rather, they function as
a rhythmic support, bringing unity and integra¬
oapAerrre EE F
tion between parts (Fig. 241).

tttfffed padAN OU

MTnou tn oUm f
238
Dada collage poem by Raoul
Hausmann.

52
 239.
Typographic counterpart: the
shape of the letter f is reflected
in the shape of the letter j.
Integration and equilibrium are
achieved. (Designer: Lark
Pfleegor)

239.

240.

240.
In this diagram, similar visual
properties are found in the
photographic image and the
letters. The principle of typo¬
graphic counterpart—the in¬
tegration and visual flow
between parts— is demon¬
strated. (Designer: Ivy Li)
241.
In these arrangements, the
dominant elements (addition
and multiplication signs) in¬
fluence the shape and struc¬
ture of the other forms,
creating counterpoint relation¬
ships within the imposed hier¬
archy. The addition sign
establishes horizontal and ver¬
tical alignments. The diagonal
configuration of the multipli¬
cation sign is reflected in the
text. (Designer: Lark Pfleegor)

53
Through the process of elaboration (Fig. 242),
typographic hierarchies proceed from single units
to complex structures. In the organization of a
publication format, graphic elements (Fig. 243)
join together to form larger structures. These struc¬
tures are integrated consistently from the smallest
details to the totality of the double-page spreads.

Similar to the attention given to verb tense in writ¬

ten language, visual hierarchy is achieved through
parallel construction. This is the typographic in¬
dication of likeness or analogy between linked
parts. Typographic design makes use of parallel
structures, maintaining contrast, vitality, and struc¬
tural integration (Figs. 244 and 245).

Economy Development md Iho Slate House TJiis assures on early shill ol tf»e

Otfrce le« phase mrrtdthes art* Agriculture Natural Resources and tourism Water

242. 243. 243

Thedesignerbegan with a digit Elements from architectural
and a period and created new plans— as single forms and
configurations through addi¬ repeated patterns —are used
tive and subtractive processes. to give movement, unity, and
(Designer: Amy Ruark) a sense of hierarchy to the
page compositions. (Design¬
ers: Rob Carter, Meredith
Davis, and Robert Meganck)

54
 244.
Parallel construction is
achieved through the repeti¬
tion of form and pattern. A
hierarchy of sizes becomes
rhythmic through the modular
construction of letterforms.
(Designer: Wolfgang Weingart)
245.
The repetition of the letter A
in two different point sizes
creates a hierarchical structure
in this provocative concept.
(Designer. Paul Rand)

244.

245.
55
 247

Often, hierarchy in a typographic arrangement is and pictorial form are accentuated visually, yet the
based on the relationships of those typographic integrity of the original letter and object is retained.
units that can be designated as questioning forms The letter 4 and the violin are incomplete, yet each
and those designated as answering forms (Fig. retains its essence.
246). Visual hierarchy is more clearly understood
with this juxtaposition of opposites in mind. The Another factor, typographic joinery, enhances this
typographic unit assigned the questioning role in¬ essence. Typographic joinery is the visual linking
vites or calls for an answer. and connecting of elements in a typographic
composition through structural relationships and
The most prominent visual element of a typo¬ form repetition. The assembly of separate typo¬
graphic hierarchy is often a questioning form. graphic elements to form a precisely connected
Consider the role of both typographic form and sign is seen in the logotype for the American ■aft*5

pictorial form: do individual components of a Broadcasting Corporation (Fig. 250). The pro¬
composition suggest a question or an answer? The nounced geometry and emphasis given to the cir¬
questioning component expresses dissonance (un¬ cular forms exemplify visual accentuation through
relieved tension), while the answering component the use of repetition The shape of the circle is 246.
expresses consonance (relieved tension). common to every part of this mark. The three letter- The word sassafras calls for
forms and their circular container are blended to a response and the phrase
A visual hierarchy of typographic elements is partly become one sign. a flavoring agent provides the
governed by visual punctuation. As a writer uses reply. (Designer: Ivy Li)
standard punctuation marks to separate words A visual configuration is seen at different distances 247
and clarify meaning, a designer introduces visual (far, middle, close). Its hierarchical order is in¬ In these typographic exercises,
punctuation (space intervals, rules, or pictorial fluenced greatly by this shift in the viewing ex¬ rules and space intervals are
elements) to separate, connect, and emphasize perience. Attention to visual hierarchy and its used as visual punctuation.
words or lines. Visual punctuation stresses a perceptual framework is central to those graphic (Designers: Bryan Leister and
rhythmic organization (Figs. 247 and 248) that media (signage, posters, and exhibitions) where Rebecca Lantz)
clarifies the reader/viewer's understanding of the the viewing experience is in constant flux (Fig. 251).
content and structure of a typographic arrange¬
ment. If visual punctuation helps to clarify the Typography's hierarchical order of elaboration and
meaning of the typographic message, visual ac¬ joinery derives from the basic process of pattern
centuation is the stressing of particular qualities forming found in nature, in verbal and written
important to the typographic structure of that language, the arts, and computer technology. This
message. Flere the concern is with relative em¬ is aptly described by Gyorgy Doczi, speaking of
phasis: the properties of a typographic arrange¬ his research on proportional harmonies in art and
ment or sign that make it dominant or subordinate design: "The rhythms of writing are created by the
in a visual hierarchy. same pattern-forming process of sharing that
creates rhythms of dance, music, and speech
The expression of the visual properties (round Movements shared make dance; patterns shared
and straight, thick and thin, geometric and organic) make music and speech."
of typographic signs becomes manifest through
visual accentuation. The bold and compelling mark In summary, the shared patterns of typography
combining the letter A and the scroll of a violin find expression through visual dynamics, which
(Fig. 249) is an example of visual accentuation enable it to function as both a message carrier and
through the use of contrast. The geometric prop¬ a rhythmic, visual structure. The typographic mes¬
erties of the letter A are revealed in opposition to sage, with all its limitless thought and diversity of
the organic properties of the musical instrument. form, is shaped by this subtle and meaningful hier¬
In this example, selective details in both the letter archical language.

56
 250.

ABC abc abc abc As typographic joinery be¬

comes more developed, the
unity of a mark is enhanced
dramatically. (ABC logo,
Designer: Paul Rand)

248.
248.
In this poster, a complex sys¬
tem of rules separate, connect,
and emphasize the names of
composers and conductors,
and other information about
numerous events. In the top
area of the poster, rules per¬
form a different function; they
combine to create a rhythmic
visual sign for music.
(Designer: Frank Armstrong)

249.
Visual accentuation is demon¬
strated by this symbol. Striking
visual contrast is achieved
through the opposition of geo¬
metric and organic form.
(Designer: Nick Schrenk)
249.

251.
In this signage for NASA, view¬
Shipping f\JASA ing context determines the
visual hierarchy. For example,

Receiving the size and position of the

arrow in the interior direction¬
al signage is quite different
from its size and position on

It 9a
Mockup and
*
6 Miles
the roadside signage. (Design¬
er: Danne and Blackburn)

Integration
Laboratory
Visitor
Center

57
Typographic space 252.
Spatial elements are balanced between the edge of the com¬

in relationship to one another position and adjacent ele¬

through the principle of com¬ ments. These basic forces

pensation. Each element affect typographic organiza¬

corresponds to one or more tion and are a means to

additional elements suggest¬ dynamic asymmetrical com¬

ing a balanced tension. Smaller position. (Designer: Jean

elements are attracted to Brueggenjohann)

larger ones. Tension also exists

"Speech proceeds in time and writing proceeds

in space." Applying Karl Gerstner's statement to
typographic design, typographic space is the
rhythmic and dimensional field in which typo¬
graphic communication exists. This space consists
of positive form and void (the spatial ground); it
establishes a cohesive typographic arrangement.
Unity is achieved through the principle of visual
compensation; that is, the spatial balance and
integration of typographic elements. For Amos
Chang, discussing the relationship between com¬
pensation and visual dynamics, "this process of
growth from deficiency to compensation brings
inherent movement to physical form... we may
borrow an important rule of balance from the
anatomy of a zoological being, man in particular
... man's body is in a state of balance when his
arms and legs are in a position to be moved effec¬
tively to compensate for position changes of
the body."

Visual compensation is expressed through implied

movement and a pronounced equilibrium. A fully
integrated typographic space is one in which all
contrasting elements compensate each other
(Figs. 252-54). In Figure 255, typographic dis¬
sonance and consonance are compensated by the
contrast of visual dynamics. The letterform con¬
struction gv suggests expansion and dissonance,
while # suggests contraction and consonance. This
is another example of the question-and-answer
relationships discussed earlier. In Figure 256,
M e s s
AA
i ah
movement is perceived as dynamic, yet the duality
of consonance and dissonance is in a state of visual Handel normally cororosed at lightning speed. Ii

balance and unity.

253.
wore ul Mfsuah remained in England ami passed
Pictorial and typographic Into th< possession oI Mi Frederick Ouselev, who
gave II IQ Si. Mlcha<l‘.i Collide, TcnWv Well*
This a*ure was uaeil lor Ihe Dublin pnmrlcic in
1742 anal for all the London revivals ol Mr.iu.ih.
forms combine to produce a Handel coraiamly tinkered with llulc
dctallt In the ufatunua whenever lie decider! on

balanced equilibrium. The

placement of the two pointed
arches balances the three
rounded arches, and the ruled I’M and l»J)l
Die changing vetetons ol Meiamh leh rheir
record ol the changing .shape of musical elements,
line moving into the margin tl all.' contains the names ol lingers who parti¬
cipated tn Handels performances at Covenr
Garden and at the Foundling Hospital These
corresponds to the letter¬ surviving word books printed lor the audience.

spaced word, Messiah.

58
 254.
This dynamic poster combines elements is precise and ex¬
both large three-dimensional pressive. Compensation is
letterforms and a complex ar¬ achieved through the articulate
rangement of two-dimensional placement of all elements, with
elements. From the arrange¬ particular attention given to
ment emerges a spatial whole¬ the surrounding void. (De¬
ness: the overlapping of signer: Frank Armstrong)

256.
The contrast between geo¬
metric and gestural letterforms
is dissonant. Unity is achieved
by the carefully planned shape
correspondences and form-
to-void relationships.

255.
(Designer: Lark Pfleegor)

59
257. 258
(Designer: Jennifer Mugford In this asymmetrically balanced

Wieland) composition, the edge of the

type column corresponds to
the central axis of the circle.
(Designer. Sergio de Jesus)

Structurally, typographic space is defined by form

and void relationships that determine a composi¬
tion's underlying spatial order. This substructure
is developed and enhanced through optical adjust¬
ment (Figures 257-61). Often inconspicuous,
optical adjustment is the precise visual alignment
of typographic elements in space. The designer's
understanding and use of optical adjustment is
necessary for visual clarity.

Visual compensation and optical adjustment with¬

in the typographic space link printed elements and
the spatial ground. This structural integration is not
an end in itself; its order, simple or elaborate, acts
as a stimulus, controlling the visual dynamics of
message transmission and response.

Nathan Knobler's observation in The Visual Dia¬

logue that "psychologists tell us the need to under¬
stand, to find meaning in the world about us, is
coupled with a need for stimulation and involve¬
ment" applies to design. To communicate with
clarity and exactitude, the designer must be aware
of the need to stimulate and involve the viewer. In
typographic problem solving, the designer creates
complex, highly interactive spatial environments
that establish coherence between the viewing ex¬
perience and typographic form, between the ver¬
bal statement and written language.
167 East 69th Street
New York

259.
Typographic elements are
aligned with the horizontal and
vertical edges of the geometric
configuration.

60
260.
In this contents page, align¬
ments— including an optical
adjustment of the left point of
the photograph —bring unity
to the space. (Designer:
DebraThompson)

261.
In this catalog cover, richly
textured elements are precisely
adjusted to each other, com¬
bining both symmetrical and
asymmetrical alignments.
(Designer: Wolfgang Weingart)

61
 ABA form
A

262.

Visual relationships exist within an observable

framework of repetition and contrast. In typo¬
graphic communication, this framework provides
a method for interpreting visual form. It is through
the principles of repetition and contrast that the
typographic designer creates visual order.

Musical structure follows the same pattern of

repetition and contrast, defined as the three-part
form of statement-departure-return (ABA). The
unifying components (the two As) function as
repetition, while the middle component (the B)
functions as contrast. Arnold Schoenberg ob¬
served that "the principal function of form is to
advance our understanding. It is the organization
of a piece which helps the listener to keep the idea
264. in mind, to follow its development, its growth, its
elaboration, its fate." The same is true in typo¬
graphic communication, where the ABA form, a
A B A B
visual relationship expressing the connection of
The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is
typographic elements, is clearly apparent in
or interest of the thing
to communicate to the imagination, without loss by
the way. the thought or image intended to be
thought and intended to principles of elaboration, compensation, and
be conveyed by the
communicated by the Author And the whole duty symbol, a beauty or joinery. ABA form provides a working plan for the
of beautiful typography is not to substitute for the interest of its own. but.
beauty or interest of the thing thought and intended on the one hand, to win typographic designer; it defines both the large-
to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest access for that
of its own. but, on the one hand, to win access for communication by the scale structures and the details. Speaking on this
that communication by the clearness and beauty of clearness and beauty of
the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advan¬ the vehicle, and on the organization in music, Joseph Machlis stated, "the
tage of every pause or stage in that communication
to interpose some characteristic & restful beauty in forms...are not fixed molds into which the com¬
its own art We thus have a reason for the clearness
and beauty of the text as a whole, for the especial poser pours his material. What gives a piece of
beauty of the first or introductory page and of the
title, and for the especial beauty of the headings of music its aliveness is the fact that it adapts a gen¬
chapters, capital or initial letters, and so on. and an
opening for the illustrator as we shall see by and by eral plan to its own requirements." Similarly, typo¬
Further, in the case of Poetry. v erse, in my opinion,
appeals by its form to the eye. as well as to the ear. graphic design must be an organic unity in which
a given visual order (ABA form) is sensitively
manipulated to enhance content.
265

A B A
The whole duty of Typography, as of Old Style Of all the achievements of the human mind, the Garamond selected from the confused mass of picture-
Calligraphy, Is to communicate to the birth of the alphabet is the most momentous, ideographs, phonograms, and their like, which con
imagination, without loss by the way, the "Letters, like men, have now an ancestry, and the stituted the first methods of representing human
thought or image intended to be ancestry of words, as of men. is often a very noble speech, we have no certain means of knowing. But
possession, making them capable of great things": whatever the source, the development did come;
indeed, it has been said that the invention of writing and we must deal with it. To present briefly thr¬
is more important that all the victories ever won or eady history of the alphabet requires that much
constitutions devised by man. The history of wriring
is, in a way, the history of the human race, since
in it are bound up, severally and together, the
development of thought, of expression, of art, of
intercommunication, and of mechanical invention
When and to whom in the dim past the idea came

266.
62
 B

263.

ABA form the reassuring visual accent achieved by

repetition (A + A) and contrast (B)
Bass
Repetition
the process of repeating a typographic element Thomas Coleman
(Fig. 262) Anthony Beadle

Contrast
to set a typographic element in opposition Flute
(Fig. 263)
Elinor Preble
ABA variations can be conjunctive and stress connections and
associations (Fig. 264) A
Oboe
ABA variations can be disjunctive and stress
Peggy Pearson
variety and change (Fig. 265)
Raymond Toubman
ABA form a structural order governed by principles of
proportion and rhythm
Clarinet
Proportion
William Wrzesien
the relation in magnitude, quantity,
Andre Lizotte
or degree of one typographic element
to another (A A B A A B A A)

Rhythm
the movement marked by recurrence
of strong and weak pulsations (Fig. 266)

ABA form the functional linking SYMPHONY

between individual typographic elements
and the whole through positioning HALL
and demands of the message (Fig. 267)

Bassoon

Francis Nizzari
Ronald Haroutunian

A
French Horn

Oaneka Oaujub
Jean Rife

267
63
268.

Bast
Thomas Coleman
Anthony Beadle

Flute
Elinor Preble
ABA form establishes contrast and recurrence
Oboe of typographic tone and visual texture (Fig 268)
Peggy Pearson
Raymond Toubman

Clarinet
William Wrzesien ABA form the comparison between similar
Carol Lieberman,
typographic components and their repetition and
Vidor Romanul

Karon Van Sanl

accentuation (Fig. 269)
Sharan Lcventhal
Judith Eissenberg

ABA accentuation aBa Aba

O N Y

AbA abA
HALL

Bassoon
ABA compensation the process of relating one graphic
Ronald Haroulunian component to another, according to the principle
French Horn of visual compensation (Fig. 270)
EndeJ Kalam Pamela Paikin
Katherine Murdock lean Rife
Man- Ruth Ray
Virginia Haines
ABA form Diversity within unity
Violoncello
Bruce Ct>p pock
Joan Esch
Corinne Flavin
Olivia Toubman

A B A

A B A

A B A
ABA elaboration aba
abac
(Fig. 271)
 A Of all the achievements of the human mind,
the birth of the alphabet is the most momentous.

g Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh li Jj Kk LI Mm
Nn Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Ww Xx Yy Zz

"Letters, like men, have now an ancestry', and the

A ancestry of words, as of men, is often a very noble possession,
making them capable of great things."

270

269.
The viewer of typographic communication per¬
ceives form relationships as being either in oppo¬
B
sition or correspondence. This principle suggests
that a fully integrated typographic composition
depends upon the successful blending of elements
of contrast and repetition. The viewer seeks a
variety that stimulates both eye and mind, while
Ann Arbor film Festival
structuring the communications experience. This
is the dual basis of ABA form. 23 FEB Saturday
As we stated earlier, the viewer responds not only a b a
to elements of contrast and repetition, but also to
the particular way in which they are combined
A B A
through principles of compensation, elaboration,
and joinery. This organic unity can enhance typo¬ arc hound up. severally and together, the
development of thought, of expression, of art. of

graphic form, expand its meaning, and help clarify a intercommunication, and of mechanical invent
Vlien and to whom in the dim past the idea came
that man's speech could he better represented
its purpose. fewer symbols (to denote certain unvarying soun-
selected from the contused mass of picture
ideographs, phonograms, and their like, which
constituted the first methods of representing Ini

ABA form is comprised of both simple and com¬

plex patterns that give order and emphasis to the (>l all the achievements of the human mind, the
birth ol the alphabet is the most momentous
"letters, like men. have now an ancestry , and the
visual linking of typographic elements. These are ancestry of words, its of men. is often a very no
possession, making them capable of great things
not fixed systems but are a way of understanding indeed, it has been said that the invention of wrilin
is more important that all the victories ever

the interrelationships of typographic form. constitutions devised by man, The history of writi
is, in a way. the history of the human race, since
are bound up, severally and together, the

b development of thought, of expression, of art. of

intercommunication, and of mechanical mve
Villen and to whom in the dim past the idea ca
that man's speech could be better represented hv
fewer symbols (to denote certain unvarying
selected from the confused mass of picture
Ideographs, phonograms, and their like, which
constituted the first methods of represent
speech, we have no certain means of knowing,
whatever the source, the development did
and we must deal with it To present briefly the
early history of the alphabet requires that

a thousand years B.C. the purely pictorial character

was preserved by its Egyptian users until the end
Edw Maundc Thompson asserts that "we may
without exaggeration, carry back the invention of
Egyptian writing to six or seven thousand years
B (' " Most of the material available goes back not
farther than the First Dynasty ( 3300 B.C ),
Possibly the earliest method of recording the
payment of taxes indicates, too, the earliest sta
the process of learning to write. The farmer

The whole duty of Typography, as of

Calligraphy, Is to communicate to the

Imagination, without loss by the way.

the thought or Image Intended to be

communicated by the Author.

271.
65
The typographic grid

273.

272. 274
A diagram of a thirty-two-unit The variation from left- to In this booklet format, typo¬
grid, including a flow line, right-hand page results in an graphic form and pictorial
placed one unit from the top accentuated rhythm.The un¬ images are juxtaposed accord¬
edge. The alignment of col¬ occupied units function not ing to a predetermined grid.
umns along this flow line is simply as leftover space, but (Designer: Danne and
constant, in contrast to the as part of the geometry of Blackburn, for NASA)
column depths, which vary. the page.

274

66
 273.
A three-column grid enables
the designer to combine one-,
two-, and three-column
elements into a balanced ar¬
rangement. Note the horizontal
flow line. (Designer: Danne
and Blackburn, for NASA)

275.

275.
While ABA form is characterized by the repetition The layout in Figure 277displays various typo¬ The grid can be subdivided, as
and contrast of typographic elements, in the typo¬ graphic configurations within a grid organization. for the one-third-column-wide
graphic grid there is a purposeful regularity in the These grid relationships are deliberately arranged photograph, or extended, as
division of space. ABA structures govern the rela¬ so as to be neither static nor unstable. A wide for the two-column-wide
tionship of parts one to another; the grid deter¬ range of dynamic and subtle possibilities are photograph. (Designer: Danne
mines their ordered locations on the printed page. demonstrated. Grid constraints are not restric¬ and Blackburn, for NASA)
tions; rather, they are stimuli for an organic spatial
A clear example of spatial division based on a grid unity.
is found in the repetition of columns and their in¬
tervals (Fig. 272). The column width is dominant, Typographic grids act as a common denominator
the spatial interval subordinate. The depth, cluster¬ into which any detailed scheme or program can be
ing, and number of columns also create a desirable placed. They are composed of coordinates that
tension between form and void. A grid makes it determine the proportional relationships of ele¬
possible for a system of relationships to be estab¬ ments to the page, bringing order to the distribu¬
lished among many visual components: typog¬ tion of printed information.
raphy, pictorial images, and spatial intervals (Fig. 277.
273). Grids describe horizontal, vertical, and diag¬ Typographic and photographic
onal divisions of space which, whether dominant components are characterized
or subordinate, should be carefully planned. by a rhythmic tension. The
division of space achieves bal¬
Typographic grids control the visual organization of ance and visual impact but
the page through grid modulation, the develop¬ never at the expense of the
ment of spatial divisions determined by a grid unit functional clarity of the text.
or module (Fig. 274). This organization is achieved (Designer: John Kane)
through an orderly combination of related parts
that support and enclose printed matter. Estab¬
lishing primary and secondary divisions of space
defines limits and boundaries.

Grids allow for the distribution of typographic

elements into a clearly intelligible order. Within the 276.
internal structure created, headlines, text, and This exploratory composition
captions are integrated (Fig. 275). The area oc¬ exhibits the modular relation¬
typography
cupied by each element corresponds to a specific ships among elements.
area within the grid. Figure 275 shows the flexibil¬ (Designer Debra Thompson)
11/ illI the infHeivtumin '>{ human
ity that is possible when the basic module is trans¬ TV trhije linn- of
mill,I the hlrth of the olfthuhet L< the unw

formed into others of larger or smaller size. monte,Horn ■ l etter* like men. ImIiv
of l.t’Ha/iupIn, n to
<lit iimi stn mill the imtestn o/ ironts.

men. h often „ i try a, Me pot sriur-w

A grid ratio is a mathematical relationship between countfrtotm dv

x ■ /;
two or more grid measurements. These ratios are the " hole duty «IJ Typography Calligraphy

perceived visually. The ratio X:2X (one unit to two

units) indicates the relative size of grid dimensions
(Fig. 276). This stepped progression of X:2X
establishes an underlying modular system among
the parts.

67
 The typographic message

ping pong
ping pong ping
pong ping pong
ping pong

The typographic message is verbal, visual, and designers associated with these movements saw 278.
vocal. While typography is read and interpreted typography as a powerful means of conveying "pmg pong" (Poet Eugen
verbally, it may also be viewed and interpreted visu¬ information relating to the realities of industrialized Gomringer)
ally, heard and interpreted audibly. It is a dynamic society (Figs. 280-82; also see Figures 129-35). 281
communication medium. In this sense, early They disdained what typography had become: a Title lettering for De Stijl.
twentieth-century typography became a revolu¬ decorative art form far removed from the realities (Designer: Theo van Doesburg)
tionary form of communication, bringing new of the time. The architect Otto Wagner further
expressive power to the written word. emphasized that "all modern forms must be in
Consider the concrete poem "ping pong" (Fig. harmony with the new requirements of our time.
278). The geometric structure of this poem is Nothing that is not practical can be beautiful."
composed of a repetition of the words ping and Written in 1920, the second de Stijl manifesto
pong. As these words are repeated, they signify clearly demonstrated the concern for a new, ex¬
the sound of a bouncing ping-pong ball, and the pressive typography (Fig. 283). With dramatic
circular letters p, o, and g reflect the shape of the changes taking place in the form and content of
ball. The full impact of this poem is achieved when typography, the typographic message became a
it is read aloud. By hearing the sounds and viewing multifaceted and expressive form of communica¬
the typographic forms, the typographic message tion. Typography needs to be read, seen, heard,
is strengthened. felt, and experienced.

Significant departures from the use of conven¬

tional typographic forms occurred in Europe at the Direktion r. hausmann

beginning of the twentieth century. During this Staglilz zimmermann

slrasse 34
activist period, experimentation in all the visual
and performing arts was affected by potent social
and philosophical changes, industrial and techno¬
logical developments, and new attitudes about
aesthetics and modern civilization. Typographic 50 Pfg. — 0<Q(JQ<

design was pulled into this artistic revolution as ■oCT5

poets and visual artists realized that both meaning nj
-Q
X’z:
O
and form could be intensified in typographic LO 279.
communications. CO Les mots en l/berte futuristes.
CO
co (Designer Filippo Marinetti)
CO
The Futurist manifesto, written by the Italian poet 09
Filippo Marinetti in 1909, profoundly influenced o> CO
thinking in Europe and Russia. Futurism praised
technology, violence, danger, movement, and
speed. Futurist typography, known as "free typog¬
raphy," demonstrated these ideas in a highly ex¬
pressive manner (Fig. 279 and see Figure 125). J«hr 1 des Wellfriedens. Avis dada
Hirsdi kupfer SdiwUdiei Wird Ueitlschrau.’ * f'llllilKtM Die neue Zeit beginnt
The chill of a scream was expressed in bold type, Uann mutt es iinierzeichnen. F'esdie jutiKc Dame ’■
ziger Figur (Ur Hermann Loeb. VV'eun beuKdilau.l m in , i mit dem Todesjahr
and quick impressions were intensified through 1 er,e ul'erwi«K™ ll'f KurSfUckHiMIKv \W ;„ H des Oberdada
unlerzmdinm wahrschmlwh. dad cs
italics. Letters and words raced across the paqe abendblallmitbrau sendUhdn^
meint, daB es mrtel.dt ware ,inK ci ,1
'
! " n L '-ul Tieorge
in dynamic motion. daB Wilson glaubi. Deutschland mllsse uderze^hnen^well

Mitwirkende Baader,
Hausmann, Huelsenbeck,
ICIub d*d». Abr.lu,Prcttlrcihcil.soweit die gu,„ SatoTSKSl h Tristan Tzara.
Among the movements affected by Futurism were
Dadaism in France, Switzerland, and Germany; de 280.
Stijl in Holland; and Constructivism in Russia. 282.
Cover of the first issue of Der
Each of these historical movements has had a Constructivist cover design
Dada. (Editor: Raoul
penetrating effect upon typography. Artists and for Veshch, Gegenstand,
Hausmann)
Objet. (Designer: El Lissitzky)

68
m
 284.
Solidarity logotype. (Designer:
Jerzy Janiszewski)

As a dynamic representation of verbal language,

THE WORD IS DEAD.. typography must communicate. This functional
THE WORD IS IMPOTENT role is fulfilled when the receiver of a typographic
asthmatic and sentimental poetry message clearly and accurately understands what
the "me" and "it" is in the mind of the transmitter. This objective,
which is still in common use however, is not always accomplished. With a pro¬
everywhere... liferation of typographic messages littering the
is influenced by an individualism fearful of space environment, most are missed or ignored. The
the dregs of an exhausted era messages that are noted, possessing effective
qualities relating to form and content, are appro¬
psychological analysis priate to the needs of both message transmitter
and clumsy rhetoric and message receiver.
have KILLED THE MEANING OF THE WORD
The impact of an effective typographic message
the word must be reconstructed cannot be easily measured. Some may assume that
to follow the SOUND as well as since printed and broadcast messages are ephem¬
the IDEA eral, they have little impact upon their audience.
if in the old poetry This assumption is false. Because typographic
by the dominance of relative and ephemera are rhetorical, they often have a long-
subjective feelings range effect upon a message receiver, influencing
the intrinsic meaning of the word is destroyed change within the context of social, political, and
we want by all possible means economic events. The symbol of solidarity ex¬
syntax pressed by Polish workers (Fig. 284), the social
prosody statements made with graffiti in urban environ¬
typography ments, and the typography on billboards aimed at
arithmetic passing motorists all operate as purposeful mes¬
orthography sages directed toward a predetermined audience
to give new meaning to the word and new force within a specific context.
to expression
Effective typographic messages result from the
the duality between prose and poetry can no longer combination of logic and intuitive judgment. Only
be maintained the neophyte approaches this process in a strictly
the duality between form and content can no longer intuitive manner; a purely logical or mechanical
be maintained procedure undermines human expression. Keep¬
Thus for the modern writer form will have a directly ing these two extremes in balance requires the use
spiritual meaning of a functional verbal-visual vocabulary capable
it will not describe events of addressing a broad spectrum of typographic
it will not describe at all communication
butENSCRIBE
it will recreate in the word the common meaning of
events
a constructive unity of form and content...

Leiden, Holland, April 1920.

Theo van Doesburg

Piet Mondrian
Anthony Kok 233

De Stijl manifesto of 1917.

70
287.

to melt to splinter

Verbal/visual equations 285.

Language, in any of its many forms, is a self- Signs exist at various levels of
contained system of interactive signs that com¬ abstraction. A form is a sign,
municate ideas. Just as elocution and diction however, only when it carries
enhance and clarify the meaning of our spoken
words, typographic signs can be manipulated by
a message. As the mind is cued
by forms familiar to experi¬
leave
a designer to achieve more lucid and expressive ence, information is conveyed.

typographic communication.
in ter val
286.
Simple syntactic manipula¬
Signs operate in two dimensions: syntactic and tions are controlled by such

semantic. When the mind is concerned with the factors as repetition, size

form of a sign, it is involved with typographic syn¬

tax. When it associates a particular meaning with
a sign, it is operating in the semantic dimension.
change, position change, or
weight change. These enable
words to mimic verbal mean¬
diet
ing visually.

All objects in the environment can potentially func¬

tion as signs, representing any number of con¬
cepts. A smog-filled city signifying pollution, a
287.
These elaborations of the letter
E express a variety of concepts.
ststutter
beached whale representing extinction, and con¬ (Designers: Carol Anthony,
fetti implying celebration (see Figure 181), each
functions as a sign relating a specific concept.
Linda Dronenburg, and
Rebecca Sponga.)
drop
Signs may exist at various levels of abstraction.
A simple example will illustrate this point. Let us
consider something as elemental as a red dot. It is 286.
a sign only if it carries a particular meaning. It can
represent any number of things: balloon, ball, or
Japanese flag. The red dot becomes a cherry, for
example, as the mind is cued by forms more
familiar to its experience (Fig. 285).

The particular syntactic qualities associated with

typographic signs determine a specific meaning. A
series of repeated letters, for example, may signify
motion or speed, while a small letter in a large
void may signify isolation. These qualities, derived
from the operating principles of visual hierarchy
and ABA form, function as cues, permitting the
mind to form concepts. Simple syntactic manipu¬
lations, such as the repetition of letters, or the
weight change of certain letters, enable words
visually to mimic verbal meaning (Fig. 286). In
another example, the letter E has been visually
altered, relating it to the meaning of specific de¬
scriptive words (Fig. 287).

71
 o 288.
Typographic signs combine to
I— form a more complex sign,
LU. ^LU
I I ICQUJ
suggesting a decorated Christ¬

o^o mas tree. (Designer Donna

Funk)

oggo^jo
olo^g^o^o
O^S^OUO^U^O

In language, signs are joined together to create refers to objective meaning, the factual world of
messages. Words as verbal signs, grouped to¬ collective awareness and experience. For example,
gether in a linear fashion, attain their value vis-a-vis a denotative interpretation of a yellow 0 would
other words through opposition and contrast. be: "This is a yellow letter 0" or "This is a yellow
Words can also evoke meaning through mental circle." Connotative interpretations of the yellow
association. These associative relations are seman¬ 0 might be: "This is the sun, a slice of lemon, or a
tically derived. Since typography is both visual and golden ring " Connotative observations are often
verbal, it operates in a linear fashion, with words conditioned, for they relate to overtones and are
following each other in a specific sequence, or in a drawn from prior personal experience.
nonlinear manner, with elements existing in many
syntactic combinations. For example, in the visual Typographic signs are both verbal and visual. The
poem "0 Christmas Tree," the choice of the type¬ associations formed between the verbal and visual
face, Futura Light, is very important. The capital attributes are verbal/visual equivalencies, which
letter 0 is a perfect circle, signifying ornaments; are found in a variety of configurations. These
the linear strokes of other letterforms suggest the reveal the associative nature of signs composing
texture of evergreen needles (Fig. 288). This typo¬ the typographic message and help us to further
graphic message is derived from the mental understand its multifaceted attributes. Figures
associations formed by contrasting typographic 289-301 illustrate the nature of some of these
signs. verbal/visual equations.

Two terms important to the understanding of signs

are denotation and connotation. When consider¬
ing the meaning of typographic signs, denotation

289.
Visual substitution: The visual
sign of an ear is substituted
for the letters E, A, and R.
(Designer: Lou Dorfsman)

72
291.
292.
Simultaneity: The numeral 8
functions as the letter g in this
logotype used for a group ex¬
Visual transformation. A
mother, father, and child are
suggested through the visual
Famihes
hibition of paintings by the
transformation of the letters
early twentieth-century Amer¬
/ and i. (Designer. Herb
ican art group,The Eight.
Lubalin)

290.
Visual substitution: The visual
sign of a compass is substi¬
tuted for the letter A and an
inverted cone is substituted
for the letter V. (Designer:
Harold Burch)

293.
Visual exaggeration: the ir¬
regular syntactic treatment of
typographic signs exaggerates
the process of taking things
apart and putting things to¬
gether. (Designer: Steff
Geissbuhler)

73
 October 31, November 1,2,31974 tickets at Record Service
the American premiere at the Depot in Urbana translated by Sue Huseman Moretto 704 South Sixth Champaign
November 7,8,9,10
of the play by Marcel Achard directed by Jose Moretto and at the Depot 223 North Broadway
at 8:00 pm, Friday and Saturday also at 10:30 pm
on nights of performance

o J

s J
 295.
Form combination: Visual and
verbal signs are combined into
a single typographic state¬
ment, creating trademarks that
suggest the nature of various
industries: an electrical con¬
tractor, a maker of plastic fibers
for carpets and draperies, and
a lithographic printer.
(Designer: Don Weller)

296.

Form combination: Verbal

signs are combined with visual
signs (cables). The resulting
forms suggest the qualities of 296

cable transmission. (Design¬

ers: Jerry L Kuyper and Sheila
de Bretteville)
297.

Parallel form: The Olivetti logo¬

type and electronic calculator
have similar visual characteris¬ CABLE
tics which parallel each other.
(Logotype design Walter
Ballmer)
298

Verbal/visual correspondence.
The syntactic qualities of this
typographic sign correspond
to the graffiti found in an urban
environment. (Designer: Jeff
Barnes)
299.
Verbal/visual correspondence:
Olivetti
The visual characteristics of
this typographic sign corre¬
spond to the form of a zipper.
This is achieved by a repetition
of letters and a horizontal
shift within the word.
(Designer. Richard Rumble)

294.
Visual exaggeration: The repe¬
tition and playful treatment of
typographic forms effectively
reinforces the content of the
drama Fool's Play, for which
this poster was designed.
ZiiililiillllIPPPER
299.
(Designer: David Colley)

75
 american library association

Gandhi. Garb© and Poe

to

go

1i 300.
t
Verbal/visual correspondence:
The visual qualities of the type¬
faces chosen for the signs
Gandhi, Garbo, and Poe make
300.
direct reference to time and
culture. The message is further
strengthened by the sounds
associated with the words.
(Designer. David Colley)
301.
Verbal/visual correspondence:
The visual repetition of this
word — unified by the shared
letters u and n—express the
concept of unity. (Designer:
Steff Geissbuhler)

76
 Function and expression
Functionalism is a design term that has commonly
been used to describe the utilitarian and pragmatic
qualities inherent in designed objects. During the
twentieth century, functionalism has generally
been equated with purposeful, unornamented
simplicity; however, functionalism is a subjective
term that varies according to the needs of a user.

For example, if comfort in the design of a chair is

defined as a soothing softness, an upholstered,
automatic recliner, complete with footrest and
vibrator, would exemplify a comfortable, func¬
tional chair.

In contrast to the automatic recliner is the red/

blue chair, designed by Gerrit Rietveld in 1918,
which is a central artifact of the de Stijl movement.
This movement sought a restrained expression of
universal harmony, and the creation of a new
philosophy for living (Fig. 302). At first glance, the
red/blue chair's hard, flat surfaces would seem to
be very uncomfortable. This common reaction,
however, is uninformed. Rietveld intended for his
chair to promote alert mental activity through
firm support. The seat and backrest planes are
attached at only one edge; therefore, the naturally
pliable wood adjusts to the user's weight. In this
regard, the chair functions according to Rietveld's
intentions. In an interior environment, Rietveld's
red/blue chair has the presence and visual har¬
mony of a piece of sculpture. The needs for a func¬
tional object (seating) and for aesthetic experience
are fulfilled by this one piece.

In typography, function is the purposeful com¬

munication of information to a specific audience.
Although the range of possible typographic-design
solutions is infinite, the appropriateness of a solu¬
tion always depends upon the purpose for which
it was intended. Varying degrees of formal reduc¬
tion or elaboration can be effective when solving
specific typographic-design problems.

302.
Red/blue chair, 1918.
(Designer: Gerrit Rietveld)

77
 305. 304

An announcement for a retro¬ A vocabulary of functional

spective exhibition of record typography is used in an ex¬

album design has been influ¬ pressive and experimental

enced by Russian Constructiv¬ manner to communicate the

ism. A playful integration of content of the typographic

horizontal and vertical typo¬ journal Typografische

graphic elements contrasts Monatsblatter. (Designer:

with circular forms suggesting Willi Kunz)

records. (Designer; Paula

Scher)

Formal reduction can be used to create optimum

clarity and legibility, presenting complex informa¬
tion, such as news or scientific data, in a clear and
straightforward manner. Orderly presentation
guides the eye from one part to another, without
a loss of interest in content (Figs. 303 and 304).

Another approach accomplishes its purpose

through formal elaboration, creating visual impact.
When appropriate, attention can be given to ex¬
perimental, expressive, and ornamental forms, in
addition to verbal considerations. Ornament serves
a variety of practical needs. Because it is semiotic,
iconographic, and historical, it identifies the ob¬
ject with which it is associated. Ornament can
place an object in time, reveal its purpose, and
clarify its structure (Figs. 305-307). The formal
elaboration of objects in architecture, industrial
design, and the fine arts can significantly influence
typographic development. Figures 71,119, 180,
and 308-10 possess strong ornamental qualities.
306.
Innovative typography can emerge when a de¬
Best Times, a Best Products
Minneapolis _- ia Final
signer fully understands communication needs
employee publication, com¬
municates about corporate Tribune^! L and is able to assimilate a diversity of visual ideas.
activities. Visual richness and Sugar growers reluctant to talk about profits On this subject, Ladislav Sutnar commented that
reader interest are achieved
"an eccentric visual scandal or visual shock of the
through the use of abstract
outrageous and of the unexpected can catch the
forms and color, photography,
attention of the astonished eye. ..it may also de¬
and typographic variety.
light the eye to see a fresh design concept or a
message so orderly presented as to make com¬
prehension fast and easy." A designer can avoid
conventional solutions to typographic problems
303. when innovation is appropriate. A single ap¬
The Minneapolis Tribune is an proach to typographical design, induced by stylistic
example of a functional news¬ convention and predetermined formulas, is a
paper design having legibility routine activity lacking the vitality of meaningful
and clarity. All typographic typographic invention. Sound principles and a
elements conform to a well- trained vision should supersede dependency upon
defined grid, and a specific preconceived formulas. For typography to be truly
visual hierarchy determines the functional, satisfying the needs of an audience,
importance of each story. (De¬ a designer must understand both the verbal and
sign director: Michael Carroll) the visual attributes of a typographic message.

303.
78
 TNI Typografische Monatsblatter
SGM Schweizer Grafische Mitteilungen
RSI Revue Suisse de I'lmprimerie

Nr.
 SBKSgSP
309.
The Best Products corporate
headquarters makes a strong
decorative statement while
providing a functional work
environment. (Architect: Hardy
Holzman Pfeiffer Associates)

307
A diversity of shape, tone, and
texture in this exhibition poster
parallels the range of visual art
on display. (Designer:
Wolfgang Weingart)
310.
The ornament of this late
nineteenth-century French
maquetry cabinet expresses
the spirit of its time.
(Designer: Eugene Gaillard)

308.
Lively geometric form and pat¬
tern characterize this folding
screen. (Designer: Daniel
Friedman)

80
4 Legibility

Typographic legibility is widely misunderstood

and often neglected by designers. Yet it is a subject
that requires careful study, and constant evalua¬
tion. Legibility represents those qualities and
attributes inherent in typography that make type
readable. These attributes make it possible for
a reader to comprehend written forms with the
least amount of difficulty.

Typographers and designers have a responsibility

to communicate as clearly and appropriately as
possible. This responsibility is suggested by Henry
David Thoreau in Walden: "A written word is the
choicest of relics. It is something at once more in¬
timate with us and more universal than any other
work of art."

81
 311.
As the top stroke of the letter

add d d d d a rises to become the ascend¬

er of the d, the intermediate
forms are not easily deciphered
by the reader.

As signs representing sounds in spoken language, vative typography always poses fresh questions,
letters are basic to legible typography. The primary challenges edicts of the past, and redefines the
purpose of a letterform is to convey a recogniz¬ concepts of legibility and functionality.
able meaning to the mind. Therefore, letterforms
must be designed with clarity, each being distinct This chapter approaches legibility as an art of
within the alphabet. The contrast among individual spatial synthesis. As an art, it is not absolute. There¬
characters makes it possible for the reader to de¬ fore, information derived from legibility research
cipher written information without confusion. should be considered only a guideline. The knowl¬
edge designers have of legibility is based upon a
The most legible typefaces are those timeless ex¬ legacy of typographic history and a keen aware¬
amples characterized by three qualities upon which ness of the visible world. This knowledge will
legibility is dependent: contrast, simplicity, and continually evolve, creating new standards for
proportion. These typefaces exemplify beautiful readability and functional typography.
and functional letterforms. A close look at type¬
faces such as Garamond, Baskerville, and Bodoni Distinguishing characteristics of letters
will reveal why their forms are as vital now as when The alphabet consists of twenty-six letters, each
they were first designed. (See the type specimens of which has evolved over the centuries to a unique
in chapter eight.) The use of well-designed type¬ place within this system of signs. This evolution
faces, however, is no guarantee that typography has occurred gradually. It is no accident that the
will be legible. Effective typography depends upon individual shapes of letterforms have developed
such factors as the communications context and out of a need to improve the communication pro¬
the subtle adjustment of letterforms and their cess. As the alphabet has evolved, it has become
spatial relationships, each of which may have an a flexible system of signs in which all letters are
effect upon how easily typography is read. Making distinct, yet all work together harmoniously as vis¬
type legible is a masterful achievement, requiring ible language.
a process of intelligent decision making.
In spite of the innumerable variations of size, pro¬
In the strictest sense, legible typography is a means portion, weight, and elaboration in letterform
of communicating information objectively. How¬ design, the basic structure of each letterform must
ever, typographic designers sometimes bend the remain the same. For example, the capital A always
traditional criteria of legibility for expressive pur¬ consists of two oblique strokes joined at the top
poses. Designers, with their instinctive curiosity, and connected by a horizontal stroke at their mid¬
have experimented with typography, playing with section. Sufficient contrast must exist between the
forms, imposing new meaning, and changing the letters in a font so that they can be easily distin¬
standards of typographic communication. Inno¬ guished (Fig. 311).
312.
Four groupings show the
structural relationships of all
letters in the alphabet. The
il EFHILT divisions are based upon the
dominant strokes of each letter.

acegos COQS
bdfhjmnpqrtu BDGJPRU
kvwxyz AKMNVWXYZ

82
 313.
The upper halves of words are
read with ease, while the lower
halves are less legible.

Letters can be clustered into four groups accord-

ing to their contrasting properties. These are
letterforms with strokes that are vertical, curved,
a combination of vertical and curved, or oblique
(Fig. 312). From these groupings, one notices that
I COIDII ITV
letters are not only similar in many ways but that
there are also some important differences. Ob¬
viously, letters with similar characteristics are more LLVJIDILI I I
likely to be confused, while letters with distinct
qualities provide contrast within a word. Letters
within a word are most legible when they are taken,
in equal number, from each group.

A closer look at the alphabet reveals additional

characteristics distinguishing letters. The upper
halves of letters provide more visual cues for letter
recognition than the lower halves (Fig. 313). Like¬
icijiumiy
wise, the right halves of letters are more recogniz¬
able than the left halves (Fig. 314). Dominant
letters within the alphabet that aid in word recog¬
nition are those that have either ascenders or
descenders. Through tests, researchers have con¬
tributed valuable information about the compara¬
tive legibility of each letter in the alphabet. Findings
vary only slightly. Lowercase letters can be rank-
cdo ni
ordered according to their distinctiveness as
314
follows: d k m g h b p wu/jtvzrofnaxyeiq
More letters remain recog¬
c s. This varies, however, with different typefaces.
nizable when only their right
halves are exposed; however,
The most frequently used letters, such as the
there are exceptions (b, p).
vowels ae io u, are among the most illegible, and
cgsx are easily missed in reading. Other letters
that often cause confusion and are mistaken for
one another are f ij/t. For example, the words fail,
tail, and jail each begin with letters of similar shape
and could easily be misread. The eye could pos¬
sibly perceive f as t, or fas/(Fig. 315). The designer
should carefully study the words in display typog¬
raphy to identify such potential problems in
legibility.

315.
fail Words have a tendency to be
misread and confused with
tail each other when composed of
jail letters of similar shape.

83
317.
As with the changing position
of the dancer, subtle changes
in the drawing of the forms
and counterforms significantly
affect perception.

316.

317.
The perception of a letter is based upon the form/
counterform relationship. Counterforms are as
significant to legibility as the shapes of the letters
themselves. This principle relates to all aspects of
DANCER visual phenomena. A dancer manipulates space
with the body, "making shape," defining, and re¬

DANCER defining space (Fig. 316). If the shape of a letter

is changed, so is the way in which that letter is
perceived. Letter shapes are cues that distinguish
one letter in the alphabet from another (Fig. 317).

DANCER Much controversy has surrounded the issue of the

comparative legibility of serif and sans serif type¬
faces. One argument claims that serif text type

DANCER is more readable because the serifs reinforce the

horizontal flow of each line. Serif typefaces also
offer more character definition: for example, the

DANGER serif on the bottom horizontal stroke of a capital

E accentuates the difference between it and a
capital F However, the relative legibility between

G serif and sans serif typefaces is negligible. Reader

familiarity and the control of other legibility factors
(to be discussed later) are far more significant
than the selection of a serif or sans serif typeface.
(See the text-type specimens in chapter eight to

shape
compare the legibility of serif and sans serif type.)

The nature of words

While individual letters as discrete units, affecting
L_J all other spatial and aesthetic considerations, are
the basis for a discussion of legibility, one reads
and perceives words and groups of words and

SHAPE
not just letters. In discussing typographic legibility,
Frederic Goudy observed that "a letter may not be
considered apart from its kinsmen; it is a mere
abstract and arbitrary form far remote from the
original picture or symbol out of which it grew,
318- and has no particular significance until it is em¬
Word recognition is based on ployed to form part of a word"
word structure, a combination
of word shape (defined by the There are two important factors involved in the
contours of the letters) and reading process: word shape and internal pattern.
internal word pattern. The Words are identified by their distinctive word
word set in lowercase letters shapes, strings of letters that are instantaneously
is more distinct than the word perceived, permitting the reader to grasp content
set in all capitals, because its easily (Fig. 318). Counterforms create internal
irregular word shape makes it word patterns that provide cues for word recog¬
more recognizable. nition. When these internal spaces are altered suf¬
ficiently, the perceptual clarity of a word may also

84
 O R D W
R D W O
D W O R
R O W D
WORD
O W R D
319.

319.
be altered. The weight of letters is vital to word Typographic texture and tone are affected by the Letters can be grouped in a
recognition and influences an adequate internal spacing of letters, words, and lines. When the myriad of combinations. Those
pattern. The combination of word shape and in¬ texture and the spatial intervals between typo¬ which are perceived as having
ternal pattern creates a word structure, an all- graphic elements are consistent, the result is an meaning are words with which
inclusive term describing the unique composition easily readable text. Texture is also affected by qual¬ we have become familiar over
of each word (Fig. 319).
ities unique to the design of specific typefaces. time. They form a distinct and
Sometimes designers arrange type for specific familiar shape.
Capital and lowercase letters spatial effects, sensitively balancing norms of
If a text is set entirely in capital letters, it suffers legibility with graphic impact. (See the text-type
a loss of legibility and the reader is placed at a sig¬ specimens in chapter eight.)
nificant disadvantage. Type set in this manner
severely retards reading — more so than any other Too much or too little space between letters and Reading is disrupted by
legibility factor. Figure 318 demonstrates that a words destroys the normal texture intended by the inappropriate wordspacing.
word set in all capital letters is characterized by a typeface designer. As you read this sentence, notice
straight horizontal alignment, creating an even
that the narrow letter and word spacing causes words
word outline with letters of similar shape and size. to merge together visually. Likewise, the
A reader is not provided with the necessary visual very wide I e 11 e r s p a c i n g of this
cues that make words recognizable. sentence also disrupts the read¬
ing process.
TEXT SET IN ALL CAPITAL LETTERS ALSO
USES A SIGNIFICANTLY GREATER AMOUNT There is often a danger of misfit letter combina¬
OF SPACE THAN TEXT SET IN LOWERCASE tions, which, in earlier typesetting systems, such
LETTERS OF THE SAME SIZE. AS MUCH AS 35 as linotype, could not be easily corrected. (If the
PERCENT MORE SPACE CAN BE CONSUMED type size is small and evenly textured, this is a
WHEN USING ALL CAPITAL LETTERS. minor problem.) With phototypesetting and digital
typesetting, these details can be corrected easily.
On the other hand, text set in lowercase letters The kerning of specific letter combinations can be
forms words that are distinct, based upon their ir¬ programmed into the typesetting system. As type
regular word shape and internal pattern. A variety is set, appropriate letterspacing appears automat¬
of letter shapes, ascenders, and descenders pro¬ ically (Fig. 320).
vides rich contrasts that assure satisfactory per¬
ception. Once a specific word shape is perceived,
it is stored in the reader's memory until the eye
confronts it again while reading. A reader can be¬
come confused if a word takes on an appearance
that differs from the originally learned word shape.

Interletter and interword spacing

320.
The spacing of letterforms has a significant im¬
Misfit letter combinations and
pact on legibility. Most readers are unaware of the
irregular spacing can be a
typographic designer's attention to this detail.
Minute spatial relationships are controlled to create
not only readable but beautiful and harmonious
typographic communication. It takes great skill to
SPACING problem, particularly for dis¬
play type. Optical adjustments
should be made to achieve
spatial consistency between
specify spaces between letters and words, deter¬
elements.
mining proper spatial relationships. Letters must
flow rhythmically and gracefully into words, and
words into lines.
SPACING
85
EdwardoJohnston,oaocalligrapher, AaronrBurns,rarcontemporary
advocatedoaowordospaceoequaloto typographer,rsuggestsrwordrspacing
aolowercaseoo. equalrtorarlowercaserr.
321.

Space between letters and words should be pro¬ placed side by side, they may appear to be differ¬ An appropriate line
portional to the width of letters. This proportion ent sizes, because their x-heights vary radically. length is essential for
is often open to personal judgment (Fig. 321). This is important to keep in mind when selecting achieving a pleasant
With experience and practice comes an under¬ typefaces and sizes. reading rhythm, allow¬
standing of the spacing that is suitable to a partic¬ ing a reader to relax and
ular design project. An interesting comparison is the relationship be¬ concentrate on the
tween Univers 55 and Baskerville. Univers 55 has content of the words.
Type size, line length, and interline spacing a very large x-height, with short ascenders and Overly short or long
Critical to spatial harmony and legibility is an descenders. It appears much larger than Basker¬ lines will tire a reader.
understanding of the triadic relationship of type ville set in the same size, which has a smaller Excess energy is ex¬
size, line length, and interline spacing. When prop¬ x-height and large ascenders and descenders. pended when reading
erly employed, these variables can improve the (See text column specimens in chapter eight.) long lines, and it is dif¬
legibility of even poorly designed letterforms or ficult to find the next
enhance the legibility of those forms considered Type sizes larger than 12-point may require more line. A short column
highly legible. fixation pauses, making reading uncomfortable measure requires the
and inefficient. A fixation pause occurs when the eye to change lines too
It is difficult to generalize about which sizes of type eye stops on a line of type during reading, actu¬ often, and there is an
should be used, how long lines should be, or how ally perceiving the meaning of groups of words. inadequate supply of
much space should be inserted between lines. When there are fewer fixation pauses, there is horizontal perceptual
These decisions are based upon comparative judg¬ greater reading efficiency and comprehension. cues.
ments. The guidelines discussed in this section can When text type is smaller than 9-point, internal 323
never replace the type designer's sensitively trained patterns can break down, destroying legibility. The
eye for typographic detail. The normal reading dis¬ reading audience is also a major consideration.
tance for most printed matter is from twelve to For example, children learning to read need large
fourteen inches, a fact to be kept in mind when type sizes in simple formats, as do adults with
making decisions about type size, since it affects poor eyesight.
the way in which a specific type size is perceived.
An appropriate line length is essential for achiev¬
Text type that is too small or too large makes ing a pleasant reading rhythm, allowing a reader
reading difficult. Small type reduces visibility by to relax and concentrate on the content of the
destroying counterforms, which affect word words. Overly short or long lines will tire a reader.
recognition, while large type can force a reader to Excess energy is expended when reading long
perceive type in sections rather than as a whole. lines, and it is difficult to find the next line. A short
According to legibility research, the most legible column measure requires the eye to change lines
sizes of text type at normal reading distances range too often, and there is an inadequate supply of
from 9- to 12-point. This range results from the horizontal perceptual cues. Compare the legibility
wide variation of x-height in different typefaces, of this paragraph with the legibility of Figures
that is, when typefaces of the same point size are 322 and 323.

An appropriate line length is essential for achieving a pleasant reading rhythm, allowing a reader to
relax and concentrate on the content of the words. Overly short or long lines will tire a reader. Excess
energy is expended when reading long lines, and it is difficult to find the next line. A short column mea¬
sure requires the eye to change lines too often, and there is an inadequate supply of horizontal per¬
ceptual cues.
322.

86
 Interline_ Interline
spacing_ _spacing
intervals
324. intervals

Weight
Certainly, every typographic problem has its own
When considering the legibility of a typeface, the
legibility requirements. The following data can serve thickness (weight) of the strokes should be ex¬
as a point of departure in determining how to
amined. A typeface that is too light or too heavy
create legible typography. Line length is dependent has diminished legibility. Light typefaces cannot be
upon both the size of type and the amount of easily distinguished from their background, while
space between lines. When working with the op¬ a typeface that is too heavy has a tendency to lose Typefaces of median weight
timum sizes of 9-, 10-, 11-, and 12-point text type, its internal pattern of counterforms. are most legible.
a maximum of ten to twelve words (or sixty to
seventy characters) per line would be acceptable. Weight can be used advantageously to pro¬
This would equal a line length of approximately 18 vide contrast and clarity between typographic
to 24 picas. An optimum line length for the aver¬ page elements such as titles, headlines,
age 10-point type is 19 picas.
and subheads. A heavier or lighter weight can
emphasize one piece of information over
The amount of interline spacing is dependent upon another, thereby making information more
several factors. Generally, lines with no added comprehensible.
space between them are read more slowly than
lines with added space. Proper interline spacing Extreme thick mid tliin strokes within letters
carries the eye naturally from one line to the next. of a |i«irf icular typeface make reading' more
When there is inadequate space between lines, the difficult, preventing smooth transitions from
eye takes in other lines as well. If lines are too one word or group of words to the next. Thin
widely spaced, a reader may have trouble locating strokes are less visible, creating confusion with
the next line. As column measure increases, the letters of similar shape. When a typeface with
interline spacing should also increase to maintain extreme contrasts between thick and thin
a proper ratio of column length to interline spacing. strokes is used in a text setting, a dazzle or
s|im*kh‘ effect is erenteil. Tin* render begins to
Typefaces with larger x-heights need more inter¬ have difficulty distinguishing the words, and In text type weight change
line spacing than those with smaller x-heights. legibility decreases significantly. significantly affects legibility.
Also, when working with display types, the fre¬
quency with which ascenders and descenders Character Width
occur makes a difference. They can optically lessen The shape and size of the page or column can infloence the selection of char*
the amount of white space between lines. Optical acter width. For example, a condensed typeface might be selected for a narrow
adjustments in display types should be made when page or column, achieving proportional harmony and an adequate number of
spaces between lines appear inconsistent because characters and words to the line.
of ascenders and descenders (Fig. 324). Gener¬
ally, the maximum line length for text type with a The width of letters is also an important
small x-height — used without interline spacing — legibility factor. Generally, condensed type
is about sixty-five characters. When text type with is more difficult to read. A narrower letter
a large x-height is used without interline spacing, changes the form/counterform relation¬
legibility is diminished when line length exceeds ship, causing letters to have an extreme ver- in text type, legibility is affected
about fifty-two characters. tical posture that can alter eye movement when condensed or expanded
and reading patterns, diminishing legibility, typefaces are used
Research has shown that for the optimum sizes of
text type (9-, 10-, 11-, and 12-point), one to four Italics
points of interline spacing can be effectively added Similar to other situations where typeforms devi¬
between lines to increase legibility. Remember, this ate from a reader's expectations, italics impede
is not to say that type set outside these optimum reading. An extreme italic slant can slow the read¬
specifications will be illegible, for critical judgment ing process and is disliked by many readers. How¬
can ensure legible typography without inhibiting ever, italic type can be very effective when used
fresh approaches. as a means of providing emphasis.

87
 Color combinations
When reading large amounts of text, people pre¬
Black type White type fer black type on white backgrounds, and they are
used to seeing this relationship. Large amounts of
on a white on a black text are most legible as black on white, rather than
the reverse. However, extreme black and white
background. background. contrast can contribute to dazzle or sparkle. For
example, reading a large amount of text on glossy
bright-white paper is more difficult than reading
the same text printed on uncoated paper. Type and
its background can take various forms —from ink
on paper to light on a cathode-ray tube. In all
cases, the relationship between type and back¬
ground is important to legibility.

If an appropriate type size and weight are chosen,

the selection of a color combination for type and
its ground is possible without a disturbing loss of
legibility. Combinations of black, white, and color
Black type
are often used for both type and ground (Fig. 325).
on a colored
Justified and unjustified typography
Traditionally, it was common practice to set type in
background.
a justified alignment. This was done for reasons of
efficiency; in addition, it was more familiar and
was considered to be more refined. In the 1920s,
designers began to question this typographic con¬
vention and experiment with alternative text-setting
styles. Unjustified and asymmetrical typography
began to find widespread acceptance. Among ex¬
perimental typographic designers was Herbert
Bayer, who said, "I have long believed that our
conventional way of writing and setting type could
be improved for easier reading. In my first typo¬
graphic works in the early twenties, I started to
Colored type abandon the flush-left-and-right system for short
lines of text and have introduced the flush-left
on a white system, leaving a ragged-right outline."

background. There are appropriate reasons for setting either

justified or unjustified typography, but type set
flush left and ragged right promotes greater legi¬
bility. If properly used, flush-left, ragged-right
typography provides visual points of reference
that guide the eye smoothly down the page from
line to line. Because each line is either shorter or
longer than the next, the eye is cued from one to
another. In a justified setting, all lines are of equal
length. Lacking are visual cues that promote easy
reading.

88
 Compare the legibility of
the justified and unjustified
columns.

With the use of unjustified typography, wordspac¬ choppy paragraphs. Spaces between such para¬
ing is even, creating a smooth rhythm and a con¬ graphs could be very disturbing, consuming too
sistent texture. The indiscriminate placement of much space. Indentations and additional linespace
additional space between words in order to justify are also used to establish order within complex
lines causes awkward gaps or "rivers" in para¬ tabular matter, such as financial charts and scien¬
graphs, which are disruptive to reading. Hyphena¬ tific data.
tions at the end of lines should be used whenever
possible to keep wordspacing consistent. Legibility and the grid
In discussing the grid, Josef Muller-Brockmann
When setting ragged-right text, care should be stated, "Information presented with clear and
taken not to rag the type too much. Uncontrolled logically set out titles, subtitles, texts, illustrations,
line breaks of erratic rhythm can create awkward and captions will not only be read more quickly and
spaces that inhibit reading. In ragged-right type, easily, but the information will also be better under¬
care should be given to the selection of interline stood and retained in memory." As a valuable
spacing, for it influences legibility and appearance. framework for structuring typographic and pic¬
Spatial consistency and rhythmic line breaks in¬ torial elements, the grid produces a cohesiveness
fluence typographical decisions. that can improve legibility and the communication
of ideas.
The breaking of lines can be determined by the
author's meaning rather than by appearance. This In a rapidly changing information environment,
method, sometimes referred to as "thought-unit" designers must constantly reassess the nature of
typography, arranges lines into discrete parts re¬ typographic legibility. As technology changes, so
lated to the meaning of the text. Ragged-right do communication techniques and methods. To¬
.lines may be of any length, with line breaks that day, legibility research must proceed beyond the
are logical and focus on the intended message of realm of printed communications into the world
the writer (Fig. 326). of electronics, for words that once appeared pri¬
marily on paper are now found on the cathode-ray
Paragraphs and indentations tube. Legibility concerns extend into all media,
An important goal for a designer is to distinguish including videographics, television broadcasting,
typographically one thought from another, clarify computer graphics, film, and laser graphics. Al¬
content, and increase reader comprehension. though the information found in this chapter re¬
Clear separation of paragraphs in a body of text is lates mainly to printed communications, many of
one way to accomplish this goal. the principles and factors concerning typographic
legibility apply to other media.
It is common practice in the design of books,
magazines, and newspapers to indent each para¬
graph, usually with a moderate indentation of one
to three ems. It is also typographic practice not to
indent the first paragraph in an article, chapter, or
advertisement so that the square corner of the
first column can be maintained.

-Paragraphs can also be separated by inserting ad¬

ditional space between them. This space should be
proportional to the amount of interline spacing,
which corresponds to the vertical measurement
of the typographic grid. Paragraphs are often
separated by one line space. This method should
be avoided if the original copy is full of short.

89
 326.
Thought-unit typography
from the Washburn College
Bible. (Designer: Bradbury
Thompson)

1:1 In the beginning 8 And God called the firmament Heaven.

God created the heaven and the earth. And the evening and the morning
2 And the earth was without form, and void; were the second day.
and darkness was upon the face of the deep.
And the Spirit of God 9 And God said,
moved upon the face of the waters. Let the waters under the heaven
be gathered together unto one place,
3 And God said, and let the dry land appear:
Let there be light: and it was so.
and there was light. io And God called the dry land Earth;
4 And God saw the light, that it was good: and the gathering together of the waters
and God divided the light from the darkness. called he Seas:
5 And God called the light Day, and God saw that it was good,
and the darkness he called Night. n And God said,
And the evening and the morning Let the earth bring forth grass,
were the first day. the herb yielding seed,
and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind,
6 And God said, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth:
Let there be a firmament and it was so.
in the midst of the waters, 12 And the earth brought forth grass,
and let it divide the waters from the waters. and herb yielding seed after his kind,
7 And God made the firmament, and the tree yielding fruit,
and divided the waters whose seed was in itself, after his kind:
which were under the firmament and God saw that it was good.
from the waters
which were above the firmament:
and it was so.

90
 Typographic Technology

The invention of typography has been called the

beginning of the Industrial Revolution. It is the
earliest mechanization of a handicraft: the hand¬
lettering of books. Typographic design has been
closely bound to the evolution of technology, for
the capabilities and limitations of typesetting sys¬
tems have posed constraints upon the design pro¬
cess. At the same time, typesetting has offered
creative challenges as designers have sought to
explore the limitations of the available systems
and to define their aesthetic and communicative
potential.

From hand composition to today's electronically

generated typography, it is important for designers
to comprehend the nature and capabilities of
typographic technologies, for this understanding
provides a basis for a thoughtful blending of de¬
sign and production.

91
 327
Composing stick.

Hand composition
The traditional method of setting foundry type words appeared to be evenly spaced. When addi¬
by hand is similar to the method used by Gutenberg tional space between lines was desired, strips of
when he invented movable type in 1450. For lead were inserted between the lines until the type
centuries, hand composition was accomplished column was the proper depth. By adding lead, the
by assembling individual pieces of type (see Fig¬ exact proportion and size of the column could be
ure 202) into lines. A typographer would hold a formed, assuring readability through consistent
composing stick (Fig. 327) in one hand while the spacing.
other hand placed type selected from a type case
(Fig. 328) into the stick.Type was set letter by Once type was set, it was "locked up" in a heavy
letter, line by line, until the desired setting was rectangular steel frame called a chase (Fig. 329). 328
achieved. When it was necessary to justify a line, This was done on a table called a stone. The type Type case.
additional spaces were created in the line by insert¬ was surrounded by wood or metal spacing mate¬
ing metal spacing material between words. Letter¬ rial, called furniture, and the contents of the chase
spacing was achieved by inserting very thin were made secure by tightening steel wedgelike
pieces of copper or brass between letters until devices called quoins. After the type was secured

Chase

Wood furniture

Type

Quoins

329.
A chase containing type
"locked-up" and ready for
printing.

92
 331.
Linotype matrix.
I
¥
¥
Ia

330.
Linotype machine.
in the chase, it was ready to be transferred to a
press for printing, and after printing, the individual
pieces of type were distributed back into the type
case by hand.

Hand composition was tedious and time consum¬

ing. When typesetting became automated as a
result of the invention of Linotype and Monotype
machines, hand composition was used only for
setting small amounts of type or for display type.
Currently, hand composition is obsolete as a prac¬
tical means of setting type, but as an art form
there has been a revival. Private presses produce
limited-edition books and a variety of experimental
materials by hand. Many of our typographic con¬
ventions and traditions have their origins in the
rich heritage of handset metal type.

Linotype
One of the most profound developments in type¬
setting technology was the invention of the Lino¬
type machine (Fig. 330) by Ottmar Mergenthaler
in 1886. This machine represented the first great
step toward typographic automation. Its name
was coined because it produced a single line of type
to a predetermined length specified by the key¬
board operator.

The operation of the Linotype was based on the

principle of a circulating matrix. Each time a key
was pressed, a single brass matrix (Fig. 331) was
332.
released from an overhead magazine, divided into
A linotype slug.
ninety vertical channels, each containing matrices
for one character. The magazine was the character
storage case for the machine. Once an entire line
had been typed, the matrices moved into an auto¬
matic casting mechanism where the line of type
was cast from molten lead. As each line was being
cast, the operator typed the next line. After the
casting process was complete, cast lines of type
called slugs (Fig. 332) were ejected from the mold,
and the matrices were automatically returned to
their appropriate slot in the magazine for reuse.

The advantages of machine composition as com¬

pared to hand composition were obvious. It was
faster and more accurate; the problem of type
distribution (returning characters to the type case)
was eliminated, for the cast lines of type were

93
simply melted, and the lead was reused. Justifica¬
tion of type was automatic, eliminating the tedious
process of inserting spaces between letters and
words. A standard Linotype could cast lines up to
thirty picas in length.

An important development for linecasting type

was the Teletypesetter. This perforated tape-driven
machine —an attachment to Linotype and Inter¬
type—was introduced in 1928. Tape that was
punched by a machine similar to a standard type¬
writer could be generated from a distant office and
transmitted to the linecaster by wire, which made
the machine invaluable to news services.

Monotype
Another significant achievement leading to fully
automated typesetting was the Monotype ma¬
chine, invented by Tolbert Lanston in 1887. This
machine cast one character at a time rather than
an entire line. It was composed of two parts: a
keyboard and a typecaster (Fig. 333). When an
operator typed at a keyboard, a perforated paper
tape was generated. This coded tape was used to
drive the second part of the system —the type-
caster. Compressed air, blown through the punched
holes of this revolving spool of coded paper, deter¬
mined which characters would be cast by the
typecaster. Actual casting of type occurred when
hot metal was forced into matrices from the matrix
case (Fig. 334). Once the cast characters had
cooled, they were placed into a metal tray called
a galley, where the lines were assembled. Mono¬
type lines could reach a maximum length of about
sixty picas.

Monotype became an efficient way to set type for

several reasons. Corrections could be made by
changing individual letters instead of complete
lines. Therefore, complex typesetting, such as
scientific data and tabular information, was easier.
The Monotype matrix case held many more char¬
acters than a Linotype magazine, and the casting
machine was relatively fast, casting one hundred
fifty characters per minute. Since the system con¬
sisted of two separate machines, an operator could
generate type away from the clatter of the casting 334.
machine. In fact, several operators could keyboard Monotype matrix case.
information for later setting.

94
 Ludlow
Ludlow, a semiautomatic linecaster, is another
machine that found a place in the development of
automated typesetting (Fig. 335). Unlike the Lino¬
type and Monotype, the Ludlow did not have a
keyboard but combined both hand and machine
production. An operator took matrices from a
matrix case similar to a handset type case and
placed them into a special composing stick, one by
one. The stick would automatically justify or center
lines by inserting blank matrices where necessary.
Once a line of matrices was assembled, it was
placed into a casting device where it was auto¬
matically cast into slugs. If a correction was neces¬
sary, matrices were inserted into the stick, cast,
locked up, and printed. Although partially auto¬
mated, this process was time consuming. Distrib¬
uting the matrices back into the type case by hand
added to the production time.

Type produced by the Ludlow machine ranged

from 6- to 144-point. Its major use was to pro¬
duce display type for headlines and other purposes
requiring larger typefaces. As was true in the case
of handset composition, the Ludlow was neither
practical nor efficient for setting large volumes
of type.

335.
Ludlow linecaster.

95
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Photo-optical system. Photo-scanning system

Although some research in the area of phototype¬ or drums (Fig. 337). These negative images are
setting had been done as early as the 1880s, the the "matrices" of phototypesetting systems. They
practicality of this new form of typesetting was are optically projected onto photographic film or
not fully recognized until the close of World War paper. A variety of type sizes can be obtained from
II. Printing technology advanced from letterpress a single master font in most systems. An operator
to the photographic process of offset lithography; enters text and specifications at an editing termi¬
typesetting underwent a similar technological nal. Advanced computer technology is used to
change. control this typesetting process.

Phototypesetting and digital typesetting are cur¬ Photo-scanning systems

rently the primary methods of setting type in the Photo-scanning systems store characters in the
graphic arts. Since the development of Intertype's form of a master font, not unlike those of photo-
Fotosetter and Mergenthaler's Linofilm, the first optical systems (Fig. 338). However, characters
generation of keyboard phototypesetters, intro¬ are not photographically projected onto film or
duced in 1950, numerous other systems have paper; rather, they are scanned electronically and
been developed (Fig. 336). Typesetting speed, broken down into either dots or lines. These digi¬
character definition, and ergonomics (the relation¬ tized characters are then projected onto a cathode-
ship between man and machine) have continued ray tube from which they are optically projected
to improve. Despite varying degrees of electronic onto photographic paper or film. Once the char¬
sophistication among systems, phototypesetting acters have been digitally generated, their appear¬
can be divided into two basic classes: photo-optical ance can easily be altered. Weight, width, and slant
systems and photo-scanning systems. can be changed automatically. Photo-scanning
systems operate at much higher speeds than
Photo-optical systems photo-optical systems.
Photo-optical systems store characters in the
form of a master font on film, discs, grids, strips.

336.
Linofilm machine.

96
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339.
Typical phototypesetting
system.

System components
Typically, a phototypesetting system is composed that produces high-quality type. Some units can
of five parts, which perform input, output, editing, connect with other word-processing terminals,
and storage functions (Fig. 339). enabling input from more than one operator. Other
units have full-page display capabilities. Called
Keyboard and visual display terminal (VDT). Copy area-composition terminals, these units enable
is typed at the keyboard and viewed on the VDT. complete page makeup and presentation on a
Although keyboards vary from one system to visual display terminal.
another, their basic function is to enter and edit
text. While a phototypesetter keyboard is similar Phototypesetting systems, especially those of
to a typewriter's keyboard, additional keys are newspapers and other large publishers, can be
provided to perform special functions. The editing part of complex and extensive networks, with links
capabilities of a terminal save considerable time to word processors and mainframe computers.
and effort. Words, lines, and paragraphs can be Text generated at one location can be transferred
added, deleted, and moved from one area of the to another via telephone modem or satellite.
screen to another with ease. Changes can be made
at the keyboard before type is processed. The advantages of phototypesetting over hot-
metal composition are obvious. Phototypesetters
Storage area. Storage is a very important part of are highly flexible and very fast. The typical photo¬
the editing system of a phototypesetter and may typesetter can set as many as five hundred char¬
or may not be a part of the VDT. Input is stored acters per second, while hot-metal machines may
temporarily in the computer's memory or perma¬ set only five characters per second. Hot-metal
nently on a magnetic disk or on tape. If at a later machines are operated mechanically; phototype¬
date the type needs to be altered, the contents of setters are controlled and operated electronically.
the disk or tape are simply loaded into the com¬ Type generated from a phototypesetting system
puter and changes are made at the keyboard. takes up very little physical space because its final
form is a film or paper proof. In contrast, the space
Computer. This component, which is connected reguired to store lead slugs is enormous. Another
to the VDT, relays signals between the keyboard, major advantage of phototypesetting is that text
the screen, memory, photo-unit, and processor. input uses computerized editing capabilities. This
speeds up the process of entering the text con¬
Photo-unit. The photo-unit is the part of the sys¬ siderably, as corrections are made electronically
tem that actually generates type. A photo-optic at the keyboard.
system, for example, would optically expose an
entire character from a photographic negative onto Typography created by phototypesetting is free
paper or film of the physical restrictions inherent in lead type.
There is flexibility in the spacing of typographic
Processor. After type has been set, the exposed elements through kerning, letterspacing, overlap¬
film or paper is developed in a photographic pro¬ ping, interline spacing, and special effects such as
cessor. This may be a part of the typesetter, or it runarounds (type that runs around another ele¬
may be a separate unit. ment such as a photograph or illustration). A
designer should understand the capabilities and
A machine that combines all the above compo¬ limitations of typesetting technology so that it can
nents into one unit is called a direct-entry photo¬ be controlled and used to a greater advantage.
typesetter. These machines are very popular for
a number of reasons. They are small, affordable,
easy to operate, and capable of handling difficult
typesetting demands. Since input and output are
shared by a single unit, a direct-entry machine can
be used as a word processor and editing terminal

97
 Display photographic typesetting a
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341.
Typical display photographic
typesetter.

A rapid increase in the use of display photographic -

typesetting during the 1960s brought new design
capabilities to the designer in display typography Normal
(Fig. 340). As with keyboard phototypesetters, a
light source projects the image of a letterform
from the film font through a lens system onto
photographic paper or film. There is no keyboard;
each character from the film font is brought into Expanded
position by the operator using hand controls. Be¬
cause the operator is able to see the recently set
characters as they develop photographically,
letterspacing can be precisely controlled (Fig. 341).

The numerous design advantages of display

photographic systems led to their becoming the
dominant method for headline typesetting within
a few years. Instead of being bound by the sizes
of handset composition, the designer could now
specify any enlargement or reduction of the master
font —which has capitals about one inch high —
from twice up to four times down with perfect
Condensed

aaaaaaaaa
sharpness. Unlike metal display fonts, which have
a limited number of characters, display phototype
offers an unlimited supply. Spacing flexibility was
aaaaaaaaaa
a major innovation, for display type could now
overlap, touch, and be set at any interletter¬
spacing interval specified by the designer. The
constraints of blocks of metal yielded to the elas¬
aaaaaaaaaaa
ticity of photographic processes, and innovative
designers rapidly explored new possibilities. The
lens system enables letterform distortion. Char¬
acters can be expanded, condensed, italicized,
aaaaaaaa
and even backslanted (Fig. 342). The tremendous
expense of introducing new metal typefaces, re¬
quiring punches, matrices, and cast letters in each
aaaaaaaa
size, was replaced by one economical film font. As
a result, the introduction of new typefaces and
revivals of earlier styles greatly increased.
aaaaaaaa
Italic 10%

16%

24%
340
Display photographic
typesetter.

98
 Digital typesetting

The digital computer, in combination with the high- A digital-computer system is based on the bicon¬
resolution cathode-ray tube (CRT) and laser, is ditional state of electronic circuitry. An electronic
revolutionizing the communications industry. Be¬ line can exist in only one of two states: it is either
cause digital computers have no mechanical parts on or off. Each on/off state represents one binary
and are entirely composed of electronic compo¬ digit or bit, enabling a computer to operate within
nents, they set and process type at speeds never the laws of the binary-number system. The binary
thought possible. In addition, the text type from system is a base-2 numbering system using only
digital typesetters has now been developed to rival two numbers, 0 and 1. These numbers coincide
the quality of phototype. with the biconditionals: off and on, respectively.
The binary system is the exclusive language of any
Knowledge of digital-computer functions is crit¬ digital computer.
ical to an understanding of digital typesetting. A
digital computer is an electronic device that uses A computer communicates and processes infor¬
electricity to process information. It can perform mation through the use of data structures. These
repetitive logical and arithmetic operations and are bits that have been grouped together into
store the results of those operations in memory. various configurations large enough to store sig¬
A computer system is composed of hardware, nificant information. The smallest bit structure is
software, and firmware. Hardware consists of the a byte, which consists of a group of bits linked
physical components of a computer; software is together, such as the ASCII code (American Stan¬
the program data which controls the operation of dard Code of Information Interchange, an infor¬
the hardware; firmware is software in hardware mation code in which the numbers zero to one
form. hundred twenty-seven represent alphanumeric
characters on the keyboard). These data structures
The computer component that controls all other are binary codes representing characters or num¬
parts, performs logical operations, and stores bers. Translating our alphanumeric characters into
information is the central processing unit (CPU). the binary system enables computers and people
All components that do not belong to the CPU are to communicate.
called peripherals. A typical digital-typesetting
system is composed of a CPU and various periph¬ In digital typesetting, when the operator punches
erals that perform functions necessary to the set¬ a key to enter a letter or issue a command (such
ting of type —for example, editing and storing as line length or paragraph indent), the computer
text, displaying text on a screen, and printing type¬ receives it as a binary code. Once information has
set copy. been entered, it can be stored, edited, and sent to
a peripheral device for typesetting.
A CPU consists of three interdependent compo¬
nents: arithmetic-logic unit (ALU), main memory, A digital-typesetting system encodes typographic
and control unit. These three components work characters digitally on a grid, defining the shape
together to control the operations of the computer. of each letter as a certain number of distinct
The ALU performs both arithmetic and logical points. Every detail of a letter is defined, includ¬
functions such as adding two numbers together ing horizontal strokes, vertical strokes, and curves.
and determining which of two numbers is the The coded characters are stored electronically as
greatest. In the main memory, called the random- digital instructions designating the x and y co¬
access memory (RAM), data is stored and re¬ ordinates of the character on the grid. These in¬
trieved by the control unit. This unit also governs structions are then sent to a CRT, where the
the functions of ALU and RAM. Consisting of character is generated onto the screen.
these three parts, the CPU is the brain of a com¬
puter. It controls all functions, including the gener¬ A CRT is much like a television set. It has a vacuum
ation and setting of type in a digital-typesetting tube with a cathode at one end and a plate of
system. phosphorus and aluminum at the other. When

99
 CD

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345. 346
Digital-scanning typesetter. Digital-laser typesetter.

the CRT receives the digital instructions from the output type is digital, it can be modified automati¬
computer, defining the shape of the characters, cally to reflect a number of typographic variations.
the cathode emits a beam, which scans the tube For example, it can be made heavier, lighter, slant¬
in a series of parallel, back-and-forth sweeps. The ed, condensed, or expanded at the command of
cathode beam is programmed to be either on or the operator.
off, depending upon the design of the letterforms
that have been digitally encoded into the com¬ Digital-laser systems (Fig. 346) also store char¬
puter. When the beam is on, it excites the phos¬ acters digitally, but do not employ a CRT to gener¬
phorus and aluminum plate. The light emitted ate characters. A laser beam scans photographic
by the plate defines each character being typeset. paper as it reads digital information stored in the
The type is then digitally exposed to photograph¬ typesetter. As the paper is scanned, a series of dots
ic paper. forming the characters are exposed to the paper.
The information controlling the laser includes the
The level of resolution in digital letterforms is an im¬ typographic font and spacing, such as hyphena¬
portant consideration. Basically, the more dots or tion, justification, kerning, and letterspacing.
lines used to describe a letterform, the higher the
resolution becomes. Because letters are constructed Because digital typesetting is so fast, it is particu¬
on a grid, the curved lines consist of a series of larly suited to industries requiring the processing
stair-stepped contours (Fig. 343). When more dots of enormous amounts of information, such as
are used to represent a curve, the curve appears news services and publishing companies. How¬
smoother to the eye. Large characters require more ever, smaller offices and type houses are also using
...tmm... dots than do small characters to achieve a refined digital type because of its efficiency.
ir.'f appearance. The quality of a letterform is deter¬

in 111!
mined not only by its original design, but also by its
digital resolution (Fig. 344). The designer of digital
type must consider digital technology and its
Direct-entry digital typesetters (Fig. 347) are
similar to direct-entry phototypesetters, for they
are both self-contained. However, direct-entry
effect upon the resolution of letterforms. digital typesetters are much faster and more versa¬
tile. Because they generate modified characters
■ ■ One major difference between digital type and a wider range of sizes and spatial intervals,
and phototype is the manner in which type is direct-entry digital typesetters bring greater flexi¬
stored. Rather than storing master fonts on bility to the typesetting process (Fig. 348).
photographic disks, drums, grids, or strips, digital
■■■■•■■a master fonts can be stored electronically as bit
patterns on a magnetic disk. Some machines are
capable of storing hundreds of fonts, with each
size stored independently.

Scanning and laser systems

There are two classes of digital typesetters: digital
scanning systems and digital-laser systems. In
digital-scanning systems (Fig. 345), photographic
characters are digitally scanned and recorded
electronically on a magnetic disk or tape. The char¬
Examples of digital letter-
acters are translated into a grid of extremely high
forms, demonstrating decreas¬
resolution and are transmitted as a set of instruc¬
ing resolution, from top to
bottom, as the number of
tions to a CRT Next, the characters are generated
onto the CRT by a series of scan lines. The letter-
elements is reduced.
form images are then projected from the CRT onto
paper, film, or an electrostatic drum. Because the

100
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Typical digital typesetter.

348.
O 0
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form alteration is possible with
digital typesetters.

ABabABabABabABabA
ABabABabABabABabABabAB
ABCabcABCabcABCabcABCab
ABCabcABCabcABCabcABCabcABCab
ABCabcABCabcABCabcABCabcABCabcABCabcl
ABCDabcdABCDabcdABCDabcdABCDabcdABCDabcd
ABCDEabcdeABCDEabcdeABCDEabcdeABCDEabcdeABCDEabc
ABCDEFabcdefABCDEFabcdefABCDEFabcdefABCDEFabcdefABCDEFabcdef
ABCDEFGabcdefgABCDEFGabcdefgABCDEFGabcdefgABCDEFGabcdefgABC
ABCDEFGHabcdefghABCDEFGHbcdefghABCDEFGHabcdefghABCDEFGHabcdefghABCDE
ABCDEFGHIJabcdefghijABCDEFGHIJabcdefghijABCDEFGHIJabcdefghijABCDEFGHIJabcdefghijABCDEFGHIJa

ABCDEFGHI JKLabcdefghijklABCDEFGHIJKLabcdefghijklABCDEFGHIJKLabcdefghijklABCDEFGHIJKLabcdefghijklABCDEFGHIJKLabcdefghijkl

101
Each major typographic process has its own place image into discrete elements. In the most advanced
in the evolution of technology. Increased efficiency, digital-typesetting systems, the discrete elements
control, flexibility, and the design of letterforms are so small that they become indiscernible to the
have been affected by continuous research and naked eye.
innovation. The nature of the typographic image
has been changed as well (Fig. 349). The micro¬ Technology develops rapidly, and designers must
photographs by Mike Cody demonstrate the work to keep abreast of innovations that influence
differences. Letterpress printing of metal type the design process and the typographic image.
impressed the letterform into the fibers of the Designers should view typographers as partners
paper. Phototype, usually printed by offset lithog¬ in the design process, for their specialized knowl¬
raphy, provides a precise image with a compara¬ edge of the typesetting system and its capabilities,
tively smooth contour. As the microphotographic along with an understanding of typographic re¬
enlargement shows, digital type evidences the finements, can help the designer achieve the
stepped contour caused by the digitization of the desired quality of typographic communication.
349.
Microphotographic enlarge¬
ment of letterforms.

Metal type on newsprint. Metal type on coated paper.

Phototype. Digital type.

102
6 Typographic Design Education

The rapid advance of technology and the expand¬

ing role of visual and audiovisual communication
in contemporary society have created new chal¬
lenges for typographic education. Faced with the
complex communications environment and the
changes that are occurring and are anticipated,
how can a designer nurture sensitivity to typo¬
graphic form and communication? An apprecia¬
tion of our typographic heritage, an ability to meet
the standards of contemporary design practice,
and an innovative spirit in facing the challenges of
tomorrow are required.

The following assignments, ranging from basic

theoretical exercises to complex applied projects,
provide an overview of contemporary typographic
design education. Responsible design education
is composed of perceptual and conceptual devel¬
opment, technical training, and an ability to solve
complex design problems. These projects were
selected with emphasis upon building the percep¬
tual and conceptual abilities that provide a founda¬
tion for effective and innovative typographic-design
practice.

103
Generation of a typographical sign
from a gestural mark

P Lyn Middleton

North Carolina
State University

Students were asked to make

gestural question marks (Figs.
350-52), giving consideration

\lii
to the visual-design qualities
of their sketches. Proportion,
stroke weight, negative space,
and details such as the relation¬
ship of the dot to the curved
gesture were evaluated. One
of the student's question marks
was selected and became the
basis for designing a freehand
typographic sign. f
Students generated a variety
of graphic signs, exploring a
range of forms that can func¬
tion as a question mark. Exe¬
cuting the typographic version
develops visual and manual
acuity, and an understanding
of the differences between

r
written and typographic signs.

352

350.
Designer: Alexandre Lock,
351.
Designer: Maxine Mills
352.
Designer: Angela Stewart

104
 Letter/digit configurations
Urban letterform studies

Thomas Detrie

Rob Carter
Guest Lecturer
Winter Session in Basel
Virginia Commonwealth
Rhode Island
University
School of Design

Visual configurations were in¬ using typographic joinery to 353.

vented by combining a letter unify the two distinct forms Designer: Linda Evans
from the English alphabet with into a visual gestalt, and under¬ 354.
a single-digit number (Figs. standing the variety of spatial Designer: Colene Kirwin
353-56). Scale, proportion, relationships that can exist 355.
weight, and shape relation¬ among characters. Designer: Virginia Common¬
ships between two different wealth University Sophomore
signs were explored 356.
Designer: Virginia Common¬
Objectives of this exercise in¬ wealth University Sophomore
clude introducing letterform
drawing and drafting skills.

Letterforms in an old section

of a European town were
studied and documented
through drawing, rubbings,
and found material A black-
and-white letter composition
was developed, depicting
graphic qualities found in the
assigned area (Fig. 357).

On a formal level, composition¬

al issues such as dynamic
asymmetrical composition and
form-counterform relations
are explored. On an interpre¬
tive level, the ambiance of a
historical area is translated into
a typographic configuration.

357.
Designer: J, P. Williams
354. 355. 356.

105
 Inventing sign systems Letterform analysis

Greg Prygrocki
Ben Day
North Carolina
State University Boston University

A modular grid of horizontal, form has been elaborated upon of a letter is analyzed and

=EP-4 vertical, and diagonal units

was established and used to
draw variations of a letterform
(Fig. 360). The sans serif E
has been transformed into ex¬
panded and condensed varia¬
by opening the space between
the vertical stroke and the three
horizontal strokes.

The purpose of this project is

to understand the allowable
manipulated. This project intro¬
duces students to the formal
variety that is possible and to
the process of logo design.

tions. A grid sequence from tolerence for the alteration of

four to twelve vertical units and letterform proportions with¬
from five to ten horizontal units out losing sign legibility. In
was used. In Figure 361, the addition, the internal structure

A set of nine signs were invent¬

ed (Figs. 358-59). Each was
required to be a distinctive
mark, with unique optical char¬
acteristics, yet harmonious
with all the other signs and
clearly recognizable as part of
the set.

The focus of this project is to

make students aware of the
properties that bring unity to
any typographic system. These 358.
include stroke weight and di¬ Designer: Joe Easter
rection, stress, form repetition, 359.
and intersection Designer: Paul Dean

106
 Interpretive compositions

Christopher Ozubko

University of Washington
at Seattle

364.

Each student generated com¬

positions using found typog¬
raphy, attempting to express
specific emotional states (Figs.
362-64).

This introductory problem en¬

ables students to experiment
with type size, weight, and
363.
style; spacing and clustering;
progression, repetition, and
pattern; and texture, move¬
ment, and contrast. The inter¬
pretive potential of formal
typographic qualities relating
to implied content is
emphasized.

362.
Individuality, Designer: Kyle
Wiley
363.
Exuberance, Designer:
Richard di Furia
364.
Celebration, Designer: Laurie
Greischel

107
Repetition Typography and
and pattern making image transformations

Greg Prygrocki
Gordon Salchow
North Carolina
State University University of Cincinnati

An understanding of the struc¬

tural nature of letterforms was
investigated by using form
repetition to create a clearly
definable pattern (Figs. 365
and 366). Through the rota¬
tion and repetition of letter-
forms, the student can acquire
increased sensitivity to letter-
form structure and skill in 367.
alignment.

z
368
A letter has been altered in a
series of steps until it is trans¬
formed into a simple object, an
abstract shape, or another let¬
terform (Figs. 367-69). An
understanding of typographic
sequencing, permutation, and
kinetic properties is developed.
Students can gain an aware¬
ness of form and counterform
relationships and the unity that
can be created in complex
configurations.
365.
Designer: Elizabeth
McPherson

369

367.
Designer: University of
Cincinnati Sophomore
368.

Designer. University of
Cincinnati Sophomore
369
366.
Designer: University of
Designer: Kim Marlatt
Cincinnati Sophomore

108
 Visual organization
and grid structures

Greg Prygrocki

North Carolina
State University

370
Students developed linear
grid structures, then created
a series of plates, organizing
found typographic materials
into spatial compositions
based upon this underlying
structure (Figs, 370 and 371).

This project introduces the grid

structure as a formal design
element. The grid module is the
basic compositional unit, bring¬
ing order to the arrangement.
Students consider contrast,
structure, positive and nega¬
mon or live more pounds they do tour repe
tive space, balance, texture and vo repetitions. Then, after a final five more p
^versed by decreasing the weights and incre
tone, and rhythm as design Pyramiding is usually followed by military
weights behind the neck. Time permitting, the
properties. nfails bending over, lifting the weight off the
icludes leg work, but also tones the upper bo<
Pullups are cited as one of the best exerci
ften attach a five^pound weight to their waj
ets of twelve. For improved swimming
umber of sit-ups whenever possible.
For most of us, that would be a
laintain their conditioning the
xecuted while on patrol. For a
le side of the chair, they dq
Iways varied to exercise
uspended from the e
many in their 2
sually repeated ten time^.<^^^^^^_u.^
uspending the body out ano^^^^^m it. L church have beet
'orks the stomach but also the^^KJack. more applicable
When training for competition, Iffeguards ah Yet for individual
leir bodies won’t fail when they’re needed mo
ffect of raising their fitness level and instilling t gymnast Kurt Thi
tost guards keep a tennis ball in their car’s g! component of life
lany times as possible to build hand and fore

come from such athletic backgrounds as high school sports. Yet no

ast or strong they were before joining a beach patrol, they soon find
ot enough. As a result, they develop exercises for attaining maxi-
that can be performed while they're on the beach. Their perch
latform for shaping up; it’s where they work their stomach, upper-
muscles, then add stretching movements to improve flexibility,
ards' regimen provides a welcome relief to those who strap them-
ry in the name of fitness. Conditioning for these men isn't so much e
feeling of well-being that’s achieved from rigorous training.
i guards' fitness program. Most were guided by their early coaches
es and as much pie as they could eat. The belief then was the more
>wever, lifeguards found that the large amounts of sugar and fat thev
ggish. They've now refined thej^diet into a sensible program keyed
heVvei«g,tG fish and chio^Hor protein. Lunch can be cheese
L -' - And the^^^^^rti high-quality carbohydrates

^fWWHfW^eights primarily used foi

arms and legs to ensure limberness anc
for flve minutes revs up the circula-
^«pfe^«p8fcp|||gyeight work, geared toward providing

bench weights are increased as

^gl|g(j^/ith a commonly used weight of, say
^^Spng five pounds, they do six more. With the

370.
Designer: Craig McLawhorn
371.
Designer: Matt Monk
371.
109
Unity of form
and communication

Christopher Ozubko

University of Washington
at Seattle

373.

After selecting a historical

event as subject, students were
asked to develop a typographic the worlds deepest submarine
message using the visual prop¬
erties of type and space to
amplify content (Figs. 372-75).
This project develops an under¬
standing of the inventive po¬
tential of typographic form.
17
As a message carrier, typog¬
raphy can intensify and expand
content and meaning.

372.
Designer: Steve Cox
373. 1973

Designer: KyleWiley
374.
O'.
Designer: Bill Jolley
375.
V6
Designer: Susan Dewey

32.820ft

ChristianBarnardFirstSuccessful Transplant! 2/3/67

Heart

374.
375.

110
 Typographic variations
through changing parameters

Rob Carter

Virginia Commonwealth
University

a
Richmond Dance Center

Instruction in
and special exercise

41 8 East Mam Street

Richmond, Virginia

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Registration now through September 7 7

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Telephone. 788-8084
CD

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1 Richmond, Virginia
special exercise
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Pam Turner
Gene Hammett
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D ance Myra Wrenn, director Pam Turner, jazz Gene Hammett, ballet

379. 380.

Using descriptive copy from a size, different weight (Fig. archy can be created by 376.
small newspaper advertise¬ 377); different type size and changing typographic param¬ Designer: MichelleTeten
ment, students designed a se¬ weight (Fig. 378); different eters. Students learn that an 377.
ries of typographic messages. size and weight, varied letter¬ infinite number of possible Designer: MichelleTeten
These variations were gen¬ spacing for emphasis (Fig. solutions to each problem is 378.
erated through changing 379); and interpretive manipu¬ available. A typographic de¬ Designer: James Creps
problem parameters in a pro¬ lation of type to reinforce the signer can generate and evalu¬ 379.
gressive series. Parameters for message (Fig. 380). ate these possible solutions for Designer: MichelleTeten
the examples shown here are their communicative 380.
as follows: same type size and The objective is to make stu¬ effectiveness. Designer: Colene Kirwin
weight (Fig. 376); same type dents aware that a visual hier¬

111
Experimental compositions
with found typography

Katherine McCoy

Cranbrook Academy of Art

Using all of the typography . 0446

found on a product label, a

grid-based composition was
produced exploring size rela¬
@ /|\
'orm
tionships, spatial interval, and
weight (Fig. 381). A second
composition was generated
with more dynamic movement
1113

and scale change (Fig. 382). PERCENTAGE OF U S RECOMMENDED DAILY

ALLOWANCE IU S PDAi
PROTEIN 20
VITAUINA4
NUTRITION iNtORMATlON PER ' .'CIJP PORTION ViTAMiN C
PORTIONS PER CONTAINER Ji 4 ^^^B thiamin?
Visual notations were made of . ...
'"'■I,. 5BE SuPPuEDPROM other SOURCES
raSBi «'« ■
^^^B niacin-
INGREUIENTS MILK OlSOOlUM PHOSPHATE AND CALCIUM 30
AMRAC.I ( -.A-, s * A H11 i .*F AS ' AMIN 1 IRON
each, analyzing eye move¬ CONTAINSlESS Than ?■• Of U S RDA OP THESE
nutrients ^^^B
VI i AMIN D ?S
Phosphorus 25
CALORIES TTO
tegSMftfl Protein scrams
ment, massing, and structure CARBOHYDRATE
Hoi I? GRAMS

(Figs. 383 and 384). Tone,

(at <0GRAMS
/itamin n tnnFn
mm ozi3

texture, and shape are substi¬

tuted for the typographic
elements.
--
#MSt
PET
GROCERY
products
division
AN 1C INDUSTRIES
E
COMPANY
This project is designed to en¬ JS,
PET INCORPORATED,
ST LOUIS, MO 63202 —
courage an understanding of
the abstract properties inher¬
381 383.
ent in existing typographic
forms. An exploratory attitude
toward space and visual or¬
ganization is developed.

382
384.

381-384.
Designer: Ryoji Ohashi

112
 Poem and news
combinations

Jan Boterman

Gerrit Rietveld Academy

Amsterdam

Using a standard-size sheet of

paper, folded at one-third its
size, students were challenged
to lay out two contrasting
communications—a poem
and a news item —on the same
subject. Time and sequence
were introduced through the
use of the folded sheet. In Fig¬
ure 385, a line of poetry, "He
that knows that enough is
enough, always has enough," is
combined with a newspaper
headline: Meer Geld ("More
money"). Figure 386 shows a
sound poem of repeating
sounds that translate, "That
small round part is dealt out."
The second item describes the
type of poem structure that is
present in the sound poem.

The keystone of this project is

an editorial and syntactical
problem: combine-two mes¬
sages into a single typographic
expression while maintaining
their uniqueness. Production
was by letterpress. Selection
of paper stock and ink color
appropriate to the message
were important considerations.

386.

385.
Designer: Allan Tan
386.
Designer: Rijk Boerma

113
 Calendar typography
Typographic cubes

R. Roger Remington
Josef Godlewski
Rochester Institute
of Technology Indiana University

A visual presentation combin¬

ing typography, images, and
symbols was created as an ex¬
tension of a self-assessment
study by advanced design stu¬
dents (Figs. 387-89). The stu¬
dents made a formal analysis
of their past experiences and
future goals. This part of the
project stressed research and
information gathering. The col¬
lected materials were evalu¬
ated for their communicative
effectiveness in a complex
design.

Transforming diverse informa¬

tion into a three-dimensional
cube poses a complex design
problem. Each side of the cube
functions as part of a totality;
Calendar pages were designed
the four contiguous sides are
using typographic elements to
graphically and communica¬
tively integrated. organize the space and direct
eye movement on the page
(Fig. 390). Emphasis was
placed upon experimentation,
creating unity and movement
on each page and developing
a visual elaboration over twelve

387. pages. A grid structure was

established and used to achieve
diversity and order within a
sequence of twelve designs.
Graphic elements were limited
to typography and rules.

This assignment enables stu¬

dents to explore interrelation¬
ships between graphic
elements and the surrounding
388 389. space.

387.

Designer: Beth April Smolev

388.

Designer: Katherine St. James 3go

Designer: Jean
Designer: Bruce Morgan
Brueggenjohann

114
Interpretive typography:
form and content

John DeMao

University of Illinois
at Chicago

Using only typography, stu¬

dents arrived at appropriate
interpretations of the essential
character of a renowned work
of literature (Figs, 391-93),
They were asked to respond to
the story by manipulating let¬
terforms in a figurative and
expressive way.

Distortion and alteration of

letterforms achieve visual dy¬
namics and intensify the mean¬
ing of the title. An awareness of
the potential correspondence
between typographic form and
verbal content is developed.
391.
Designer: Mark Signorio 391.
392.
Designer: Cindy Kim
393.
Designer. Karl Knauz

If

392. 393.

115
 Typeface history posters Type specimen book page

Jan Baker
Jean Brueggenjohann
Rhode Island
School of Design Boston University

396
Each student in the class was This project enables students
assigned a typeface to study to establish a visual hierarchy
and use in a poster design, in a poster format, while intro¬
communicating its essential ducing them to the visual
characteristics (Figs. 394 and characteristics of typefaces.
395). Letterforms that reveal 394.
the unique properties of the Designer: Holly Hurwitz
typeface were emphasized . The 395.
typeface name and entire
alphabet were required com¬
Designer: Luci Goodman
Garamond * POINT OAtUNONO, ATT

ponents of the design.

394.

A B C D E F G H I

J K L M N O P Q R S T U
V W X Y Z &

a b c d e f
P
S h i ) k 1
••

yy
m n o p q r
s t u V W X
y2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 o

A specimen book page was Objectives of this project in¬ duction restriction enables the
developed using the typeface
clude: the establishment and students to explore the poten¬
name, complete upper- and use of a simple grid, the clus¬ tial of screen tints.
lowercase alphabets, num¬
tering of elements to create 396
bers, punctuation, and display
typographic densities, and Designer: Joyce Hempstead
letterforms selected to
expressing the nature of the
convey the visual properties
typeface through an overall
of the font (Fig. 396).
patterning. A one-color repro

395

116
 Alphabet letterpress book Symphony posters

Jan Baker David Colley

Rhode Island University of Illinois

School of Design at Champaign-Urbana

An abecedarian primer was Combining display and text

A series of posters was de¬
designed and printed by letter- type into cohesive page lay¬
signed to encourage local high
press (Fig. 397). Each student outs, integrating the left- and
school students to attend sym¬
researched a topic, then de¬ right-hand pages, and creating phony concerts (Fig. 398).
veloped a sequence of twenty- a visual flow in a serial pro¬ Emphasis was placed on writ¬
six pages presenting informa¬ gression are project objectives. ing interpretive copy and se¬
tion about the subject. The Students learn how to trans¬ lecting typefaces appropriate
example shown presents the late their subject research into to that message. Diversity of
historical evolution of each a typographic format. expression to parallel the con¬
letterform in the alphabet; 397.
cert season was an important
other student research includ¬ Designer: Susan Limoncelli consideration. (These posters
ed music, animals, the Amazon,
were printed by offset and do¬
and teaching the alphabet to
nated to the symphony.)
preschool children.

This project introduces the

student to the importance of
the message in typographic

A CALL TO BRAHMS communication. Language

devices including metaphor,
sound repetition, and rhyme
were used to make the content
memorable. The relationship
of form and meaning was ad¬
dressed; the nature of each
Support. Champaign-Urbana Symphony. composer's music was con¬
sidered in the selection of
typeface, size, placement, and
color. In the examples shown,
typographic dissonance in the
Stockhausen poster parallels
the composer's musical dis¬
sonance; word substitution
occurs in the the Brahms post¬
er; and an auditory double
meaning is found in the Bach
poster.
398
Designers: University of Illinois
undergraduate students
398

397.

117
 Type chronology booklet

R. Roger Remington

Rochester Institute
of Technology

A comparative study of ten

typefaces was made by each 91 A A A
student. The information was
organized chronologically in a yea' mat we are gO'og in get no
ove 900 original work and loo^
booklet with four pages devot¬ ever been more depressed by

ed to each typeface. In Figure A A A A

399, the opening spread juxta¬
poses descriptive text and a
complete font opposite a large
letterform. The following ABCDEFGHIJKLMN S/ A
spread contains a historical
OPQRSTUYWXYZ
application of the type oppo¬
site a contemporary applica¬
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuv
tion created by the student. wxyzl234567890
This project develops research
skills, an understanding of
typographic history, and an
ability to work with different
typefaces. Large amounts of
complex data are organized; a
consistent format is developed, RTWhaego
diversity is created within this -nooks doing is whal I i r y lo do
me i and me we Eflcn 'oi us
format.

399.
Designer: Heinz Klinkon

118
 Thematic exhibition posters

Alston Purvis
and Jean Brueggenjohann

Boston University

stone
An interpretation of

engravings pattern
in seventeenth century New England

Among the patterns that dotted the seventeenth century landscape

Settlers lo the New World tn the seventeenth century brought with
them Ihe memory ol an English rilostyle rich with a complex way ol
were clusters ol tombstones which gave the colonists a unique
the land and Ihco ownership ol it and an ornate, geometric style that
pervaded their clothing, lumitute and art known as Monncnsm In ihe
opportunity to contemplate life and death in symbol. guest lo create on improved and "new1 England out ol Ihe wilderness
before them, colonists imposed this lamliar order and pattern on an
aspects ol everyday lite. Such patterns when seen together, compared

sought lo control Ihe land, reproduce Ihe English landscape and pul this

attorn in Household Artifacts

with obiecis improved by Ihe artilico o

Pattern In the Rhylhms ol Daily Life

tnih century family s labor was exhausting and repetitive
. colonists viewed work favorably os n reflected that they
with the cycle ol Ihe seasons and Ihe heavens themselves

An extensive research project In this advanced self-initiated

investigated the traditions of project, the student made use
design in early New England. of principles of grid organiza¬
The results were presented in tion to bring unity to each post¬
a series of exhibition posters er. Since the artifacts shown
(Fig. 400). Emphasis was varied widely in design and
placed upon the integration of format, major compositional
images and type into cohesive axes (composed of a horizontal
compositions. flow line one-third from the top
and a central vertical division)
were used as a structural theme
unifying the series.

400.
Designer: Suzanne Perry

119
 Graphic itinerary

Ben Day

Virginia Commonwealth
University

Student teams researched an

epoch of European cultural
history, then formulated an
itinerary for a journey through
Europe to major sites. A visual
and verbal timeline was de¬
signed, outlining the journey
for a potential traveler. Each
timeline begins with a map of
Europe and ends with a poster
composition of the final desti¬
nation. Figure 401 shows a
segment of a tour of early cul¬
tures; in Figure 402 the final
destination on a tour of early
twentieth-century architec¬
ture is seen.

Background and pictorial re¬

search, image selection, and
organization of complex data
on a grid are addressed in this
project. Functional communi¬
cative considerations and ex¬
pressive graphic interpretation
are emphasized.

401.
Designer: Lark Pfleegor
402.
Designer: Michael Fanizza
402.

120
7 Case Studies
in Typographic Design

Many of the educational projects in the preceding

chapter represent theoretical and exploratory in¬
vestigations. They are structured to teach typo¬
graphic history, theory, spatial concepts, form,
and meaning. The goal of typographic education
is to prepare young designers for the complexity
of applied problem solving. The case studies pre¬
sented in this chapter describe specific typographic
design problems encountered in professional prac¬
tice. The nature of each problem is analyzed, and
the rationale for the solution is discussed.

These six studies cover a wide range of typo¬

graphic design: a visual identification system, an
exhibition catalog, a newspaper redesign, permu¬
tations of a title page, motion-picture titles, and a
periodical. Each of the examples presents a differ¬
ent aspect of the broad scope of typography in
our contemporary communications environment,
and each fulfills a human communicative need
with functional clarity and sensitivity.

121
The NASA visual identity system

A new logotype and graphic standards for the

National Aeronautics and A I AJ* AA
National Aeronautics and Space Administration Space AdminiSIralion | \jf \3r \
Goddard Spaoa RKjM Carter
were created by the design firm Danne and Black¬ GreenDell Maryland
20771

burn Inc., of New York City. A graphic-standards

manual was developed to instruct individuals Verintlan Queatlum

throughout the NASA organization on the proper Jer. 10, 197*1

Blwltan Hsoahk, VuvJ.

application of the unified visual-communications Iff Nslpa ry sreep dljraue
Woaudh, fyakpeig Joepf
Keodeup HeougdplnJ, Adlol
system. The continued evolution and implementa¬
Gaer Mya. Paolat
tion of this design system has been the responsi¬ Slav uopeytdeus heoor tpe vonfretuv ca annri et detrip foB zopvyalod
conifer ah vouagt. Tepan afev conoelon et oevirperu hez orelc afe
bility of NASA graphics coordinator Robert ajertt et levioran Mabfre eydir Juiadicag aloren ecertloe aveadlax y
ealllen. Avqueriop, ande Weagerion. et Caliob der groeceo ab
soutelol avertu ef frevfcnel ane; edetouy afV algerb Coareouge avan
Schulman. By designating an individual at each perdloc Icorleal devir egetouy egh et grovodlc severh.

Ableor, edlob gamion troubedor alhdlm avftre eadgreny novis callanor

NASA location (usually the section head of the opebinh ttaozan farnclc brouse dabeece asior vbibbly goffet. Degy
deruoaphelne, ahepever terf ttaob nodering acioflc druvgetyer frevpell
conefer hubblnq queBert et onry theog hez ovig egrinter tha tranlc
graphics department) with responsibility for im¬ conferhesterlng Intlpld auaglng dee. Ruje Juddlne gonre eatre efeble
vbubler ebreeper tredplon dreeblng doir tryfe alt dodcender. Youd

plementation and maintenance of the graphics calegre iat aloraa crtoine afger tun poen Id cal olelaater degrorloc
8ewgret neque illorem poartern ourn offave aurblor vitae sequa
derbloua venislor tld etuem amorger. Ecce, non felley brotgera aurn

system, Schulman was able to develop a network aleerld agaurn tl otranus aporelor aaaemered tho optabll quanyity.

Calllrn tha moblerlng dreanler noblieaae ceaslop frondBera hed clrt

of professionals who are closely involved in NASA grig hanclenaic Julafertinc ahakller to omnia sunt dolor prald
variatur cuaa proptera egenium dreaber large quae amice doingato.

visual communications on a daily basis. Bridgert etiae Hanc, duos vellt fronver imperded prefacteac dogyou
cregerlng et fieque tuitor rebuatible danba. Ibae aaeperring nobeerl
zoiert am umbantvlle rnaglet.

Subertley,

The first element in a visual-identity system is the

Verintlan Questlua
visual identifier: a sign, symbol, or uniquely de¬ Grendean

signed word called a logotype. It is used in a con¬

sistent, repetitive manner to establish and maintain 406
a unified image and immediate identification. The
NASA logotype is the dominant element in the
visual-communications system (Fig. 403). In it the
agency initials are reduced to their most elemental and space flight. The sum of these design devices
forms. The resulting simplicity enables the logo¬ is visual cohesiveness and expressiveness. Al¬
type to be reduced to small sizes and to be readily though the stylization is very pronounced, reada¬
identified from afar on signs, aircraft, and vehicles. bility and legibility are maintained.
The angled junctions of strokes in the capital N
and the apexes of the As are replaced by curved A key to the effectiveness of the NASA system is
forms. This reduces the contrast between the letter- the consistent use of the agency name and the
forms, making the N and As more harmonious identification of NASA centers. Subtle visual re¬
with the 5. The strokes are all of one width, evok¬
lationships are important. The name is set in Hel¬
ing qualities of unity and technical precision. The
vetica Light, which has letterforms compatible to
crossbars from the two A forms are deleted, giving
the logotype but has definite weight contrast (Fig.
them a vertical thrust which suggests rocketry
404). The stroke weight of the logotype, the

122
 IWNSA
National Aeronautics and
fWNSA
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration Space Administration
John F Kennedy Space Center

x- height of the lowercase letters, and the spatial

interval between the bottom of the logotype and
the topmost lowercase letters are virtually identi¬
cal in measure. This repetition of spatial interval
links the logotype and identifying name together.
fVJASATech Briefs
National
Aeronautics and
Space
When the name of a NASA center is added to the Administration

logotype, contrast is achieved through the use of

Helvetica Medium (Fig. 405). Note that the inter¬
val between the agency name and the center name
is a one-line space. However, this is measured to
the x-height of the lowercase letters of the center
name (not the top of the capitals) to achieve op¬
tical, rather than mathematical, evenness of the
spatial intervals.

Two colors are designated for use in NASA graph¬

ics: a warm, lively red and a medium shade of
warm gray. The consistent use of color is another
unifying element in the visual-communications
system. Careful guidelines govern the use of color
and ban incorrect graphic treatments, such as out¬
lining the logo, superimposing a pattern or texture
over the logo, running it uphill, adding perspective
shadows, or placing it in a circle, square, or plaque.
Formulation of these regulations is critical to the
success of the visual-identification program. With¬
out clear and concise guidelines detailing all
typographic treatments for visual identification,
personnel throughout NASA's worldwide system
might deviate, resulting in a dilution of the sys¬
tem's effectiveness.

Publications are the largest visual-communications

area. The NASA Graphic Standards Manual speci¬
fies criteria for routine printed material. For ex¬
ample, stationery has a logotype of 5/6-inch
capital height with 10/12 Helvetica Light and 407
Medium upper- and lowercase typography (Fig.
406). Secondary typography is always set in 7/8
Helvetica Light upper- and lowercase typography.
The left margin of the typography establishes the
typing margin. Line spaces are used instead of
paragraph indents. This combines typography and
typewriting into a unified presentation.

The NASA logotype is often used as a "stem word"

in conjunction with Helvetica type to form pub¬
lication titles (Fig. 407). This technique is limited
to ongoing periodicals and requires approval of

123
 408.
NASA

Mission Operation Report

RCA-A/DELTA
Communications Technology Satellite
CTS

Before After

409.

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration NASA «•
4-
Logistics Division 415
Management Systems Division 412
Medical Division 426
Office of the Director 401

Langley
Personnel Management 423

4
Budget Division 432
Civil Rights Staff 465

Research Center
Executive Officer 455

the NASA graphics coordinator to ensure appro¬ Environmental applications include signage, vehicle
priate treatment. In some organizations, the identification, and aircraft. The NASA system in¬
graphic-standards manuals rigidly specify grid volves simple, functional signs employing flush-left,
structures and text-type sizes for all publications. ragged-right Helvetica (Fig. 409). In accordance
At NASA, the manual provides general guidance with governmental regulations, vehicle identifica¬
to allow a measure of flexibility in the design of tion consists of four elements: government-use
publications. The logotype and accompanying identification, logotype, agency identification, and
typographic elements must be used consistently installation identification (Fig. 410). Careful design
to create a strong, integrated family of publica¬ specifications are also detailed for NASA aircraft
tions. The level of graphic improvement and con¬ (Fig. 411). A white fuselage top, a blue stripe
sistent identification achieved by the NASA around the aircraft perimeter, a gray fuselage under¬
program is evidenced by the redesign of a mission side, and a red NASA logo on the tail are consistent
operation report (Fig. 408) and in the application design elements. This basic scheme adapts well
of the system to routine printing materials. While to a wide range of aircraft. However, the propor¬
Helvetica is designated as the primary typeface, tions of the stripes vary widely when applied to
the manual recommends Futura, Garamond, and
aircraft sizes and shapes from small single-engine
Times Roman as possible alternatives in special
aircraft to the Boeing 747 photographed carry¬
cases where the character of one of these faces
ing the space shuttle Enterprise (Fig. 412). Space¬
might be more appropriate. The NASA Graphic
craft marking, of necessity, is different on each
Standards Manual presents grid systems for use
vehicle. Flight engineers and scientists designated
in publication design (See Figures 273-75).
only a few areas on each spacecraft for graphics.

124
 411

412.

As shown on the Enterprise, the NASA logo, 410

American flag, "United States," and vehicle name
are carefully placed to conform with technical re¬
quirements and to be harmonious with the overall
form and shape of the spacecraft. The NASA logo
is in gray to avoid visual conflict with the red
stripes of the flag. The logotype and Helvetica
Medium typeface ensure continuity with all other
NASA graphics.

The NASA visual-identification system has proven

strong and resilient. It is both consistent and easily f\JASA
National Aeronautics and
identifiable, yet the system has allowed for a wide Space Administration
Lewis Research Center
variety of applications over the years.

125
An exhibition catalog for Fluxus Etc.

413
For a major exhibition presenting work from two
decades by the Fluxus group of artists, designers
Katherine McCoy, Lori Barnett, Lyn Silarski, and
Ken Windsor were commissioned to design a four-
hundred-page exhibition catalog. The Fluxus ex¬
perimental art group was founded in 1962 by
George Maciunas. International in scope and
nurtured by the early twentieth -century art move¬
ments, Fluxus issued several manifestos, published
inexpensive editions of artist's works, musical
scores, and documentation of events. It provided
a focus for experimentation that challenged ac¬
cepted notions about art and the art experience.

The catalog provides a record of hundreds of

works from the exhibition. In addition, it serves as
a permanent documentation of the Fluxus move¬
ment. The challenge facing the design team was
to organize a large quantity of diverse information
into a legible and coherent format, while capturing
the vitality and spirit of the Fluxus movement. The
catalog is divided into five sections: a history of
Fluxus, including philosophy, attitudes, influences,
and purposes; a portfolio of over five hundred
Fluxus Editions and related works; a presentation |

Cranbrook Academy of Ari Museum

of Fluxus periodicals and documents; an illustrated 4
record of Fluxus performance events; and a I
chronology of Fluxus performances.

Clearly, a format design was needed that could

unify the breadth of information and imagery, while Thr Gilbert and Lila
allowing design flexibility. A format was developed [SilM •rmanCol IivIhhi
for nine-by-ten-inch pages, using primary and
secondary divisions of space. Each page has four
vertical columns, with a secondary division of eight
columns. Horizontal structure is achieved with Manifesto .
a "floating" modular spatial division, which ac¬
commodates a diversity of content, form, and
scale. Fluxus was greatly involved with process;
' octettectuoj ; profusion*/ & com merer*Aero/
therefore, the design process of this catalog has Culture, PURGE the morU of dead
art , imitation . artificial art, abstract or)
illoiiomstic art, mathematical art, -
PUE6E THE MOtLD OF 'EuPoPAMISM ' !
been revealed by printing the grid structure for
the pages in a subtle, screened tint. Thus, the con¬
. lt.eUCiLVTIOUA.RY FLooP
struction lines for the pages are visible and become AMD TIDE I IM
no APT,
ak i ,
promote homo art, anti - art . promote
NO Ml ART REALITY to be
design elements. Unity is achieved through the greet pod Fj all peoples, not onL
"riltci, Jiletfantei amt proftetiona/s.

repetition of a vertical black band down the left-

hand side of each page. Key information appears
on this band. A ruled line transverses the top of ^US—
Social
the cad re i of cultural.
L pal, ticol revolutionaries
into uni fad front tr action.

414.
415.

126
 each page, with the page number placed in the top
left-hand corner. Consistent use of condensed
sans serif type lends further unity.

The front and back covers signify the content and

mood of the publication. The front cover repro¬
duces a 1963 photograph by George Maciunas,
depicting a front door with a figure peering through
the mail slot (Fig. 413). The image communicates
on several levels. It invites the reader to enter the
world of Fluxus. The weathered, knobless door
with a latch hanging below the mail slot without
apparent purpose evokes a Dada-like visual irony,
and the person peering from within is an ambigu¬
ous image, defying a specific interpretation.The
stepped red box (containing the title) and the black
band on the right establish the typographic format
and graphic theme within. The back cover ex¬
presses a parallel but contrasting visual theme
(Fig. 414).

The complete history of Fluxus is presented

through contributions by artists and poets from
around the world. Manifestos (Fig. 415) and philo¬
sophic observations (Fig. 416) by members of the
group are reproduced as full-page statements. The
poetic energy and visual texture of the originals
are preserved.

The section-divider pages are solid black, in con¬

trast to the lighter tone and texture of the book
(Figs. 417 and 418). Stepped contour shapes pro¬
vide spaces for each section's title typography.
419.

The section entitled “Fluxus Editions and Related

Works" presents an illustrated checklist of five
hundred thirty items (Fig. 419). Unity within com¬
plexity is achieved by the repetition of similar
graphic elements. The designers placed the catalog
numbers in small white rectangles along the left-
hand black bands. In the first grid column, typog¬
raphy identifies the artist, title, date, and dimensions
of the work. Media and descriptive copy are placed
y&c&me sct/iy/
in the second column. Rules are used to divide

416.

127
 421.
each page clearly into zones separating the works.
The reader quickly understands the system and
can connect the typography and images without This chronology of FImxuj porformonco mint bo viewed n « working document. It it in no wey
comploto. nor should tho informotion in it bo considorod ot occuroto. Some of tho events lit tod
difficulty. did not occur. Frequently program] wort changed at the last minute, performers were unable to
attend or other problem] came op. What wo have done it to gather at much information at
possible that wet eveileble to ut, and organize it into a form that can be added to. corrected,
deleted and debated.

This format continues into the sections presenting

periodicals, documents, and performances, where
KLEWEK SOMMERFEST
illustrations include posters, invitations, and other Galene Parnass. Wuppertal f Horsaal des Stadtiscften Museums. Wiesbaden
Revised Program
artifacts relating to the events (Fig. 420). A play¬ Acres John Cage'
Art ITT
Pirtormen for the '4 concerts, as teied « Htpp&xng S fhue. mriuded
Dick Higguu Anson Knowles. Nam June Park. Emmett W&ams Arthur Koepcke. '<■
Wert Pvrlormvn Robert fdtou. George Maounas
ful typographic vitality, expressive of the nature of George Meounas
Beniamin Panerson
fmfiihrung. Neo dada tn New York
Duo

the performances, characterizes these materials. Beniamm Patterson

George Maounas
Variation fur Komrabass
Hommage to Adnano Olivetti
Terry Riley Ear Muse
Dick Higgins Constellation No. 7

The final section is a typographic presentation of Jed Curtis

Horsaal oes Sfadnscher. Museums. Wiesbaden

a "working document," a chronology of the Fluxus JUNE 16, 1962
UlO-DADA II OER MUSIK
Announced program
Kotuerrm 1, Kiawer Koropoanonen USA
movement (Fig. 421). The reader must turn the Kammerspiele, OussekJorf
Program
Artmt Nut
John Cage 3T '57 9864-
book to read the information. The primary division Artist
1 Nam June Park
W»rk
Qnc-for Volin Solo
Performer*
N J Pa*
Plubp Corner Wavier Tangketten
Philip Corner Flu«
of space splits each page into two long columns 2 George Brecht
3. Nam June Pa*
Woid Event
Sonata Quas Una Famass NJ Pa*
Ph4p Corner
Philip Corner
Form nr ]
Form re 14
4 Nam June Pa*
upon which the programs are listed, separated by lead muse 'Do n yourself
- Antwonen an la Mome Young -
Terry Riley
T. Jennings
Kornen & 2 Ptsrusten un Tonband
Kloner Stiicke
geleten von C. Caspar;
heavy rules. Three columns divide each program 5 Composition Anonymc Sim Jtaneous perlormances
Sylvano Busolti Pa* piece 6?
Jed Curtis
Gnlilh Rose
Klawei Stiicke
2 Ennead
C Caspan
into areas for artists, work, and performers. As Jed Cuius
Dick Higgins
Saint Anthony's Blues
Oanger Musi Slruclute
Jed Curbs
J. Ekmm
Dick Higgins
la Mome Young
ConsreSanon ra I
■S6B* fur Henry fiym

in the catalog material, use of a bolder typeface Toshi Isdtiyanagi

Jackson Maclow
Violin Piece
poem
J G fmsch
W Kuchgasser
la Mome Young
George Brecht
Klaner Stiicke fur David Tudor nr 2
find Ktavier Stiicke 1961

gives appropriate emphasis to titles. Geoige Macmnas pano piece

No 0 Geotge Macmnas
Geoige Brecht Drer Kiawe Stiicke 1962

No 17 H v Alcmann
Nam June Pa* aus Bagatelles amencames N .1 Pa* K E Wekn
fr Reddemann f Rrewski

In determining the typographic schema and for¬ Tomas Schmn

Bar/mg
plus rhe flows group
Bonk
mat of this book, the designers have been sensitive
to the nature of the exhibition and the attitudes 8eniamin Panerson Paprec Mus* ANermann
Scfmfitdet
and philosophies of the Fluxus art movement. The Weselina
Schriidei u a. etc
Benprmn Patterson Disturbance from lemons' A Ealkenstbrler SEPTEMBER t. 1962 8 00 PM
exploratory innnovations of the Fluxus group Dieter Schnebel
Beniamm Patteison FlUXUS IITERIATIOIAIE FESTSP1EIE kEUESTEH MUSIK
Visible Composition lor Conductor H Reddemam Twsaal des Stadtschon Museums. Wiesbaden
made appropriate the design team's decision to Woll VosteH
La Monte Young
XlffNEX' decoD/age
for flynt 566 " dam ol death
W VosteB Announced program
Mweri m ?. Ktavier Komposumnen Japan
create a book that displays its grid organization. In 6 Nam June Pa* smile gently - or etude platompue NO 5
J G Fmsch
Toshi Icluyanagi
Wert
Mus* fur Klaviei nr ) bo nr 7
addition, the flexibility of the modular spatial divi¬ Ywkraki Matsudaua
Sfnmchi Matsushita
Insuuklionen fur Klaviei
Maaiken
sions clearly separates each work from others on JULY 3.1862
SIEAK PREVIEW: FLUXUS
Yoko Ono
Keguo Sale
Cm Stiicke urn den Himmel ai Sehen
Calligraphy
Performed m various locations around Pans
the page. It allows page arrangements and grid Organise par la Galeoe legttimo IRoben Filbou)
Yuji Takahashi
Torn Takemitsu
Eksieso
Wavier Entlecnung und ijbergang
In conjunction with the opening 1 Ben Palter son's ejlubmon ai the Galene Girordon Parrs
manipulations to reflect the diversified content. Anar Wnk Pert or me ri
Yasuneo Tone
Geoige Ynasa
Wavier Ton Mn Tonband
Protection Esemplastt I, II und III
George Brecht Comb Muse
George Brecht Onp Muse
Joseplt Byrd Piece Inr Richard Ma*Md
Jotm Cage Muse lor Marrying Maiden

FLUXUS ■<> • Walter de Maria

Walter de Maria
Bouts
Signs plus rhe fkma group
LA CEDILIE V Robert ftlkou le Voyage do la Galene legitime
OU1SOURIT ‘i
Robert Fifliou
Oek Higgins
An Auction
Requiem lor March 11 184B
SEPTEMBER ?. 196? 2 JO PM
FLUXUS IITERIATIONALE FESTSWHf KEUESTER MUSIK

HART TOTAL Dek Higguts Symphony No. 3

Horsaal des Sfa'dtrschen Museums, Wiesbaden
Announced program
- • POEse Ock Higgins
Toshi Ichryanagi
Constellation No 4
Muse lor Ptanu No /
^ACTION Toshi Icftiyanagi Stanras
Artta
K H Stockhausan
^Woifc
Klaviersttick IV
Allan Kaprow Siockroom
G bgetr Tioa Bagatelles
Takehoa kosugi Meto l
G.M Koenig 2 Klavner Sllicke
Charles Mac Oermed Dance not lot Dancers
Homed Boelimer Kbngnudf
George Macrunas Soto lor Lips and Microphone
Jackson Maclow Konrad Boehmer Potential
Lctiers lor Ins Numbers lor Silence
Jan Monhonson Courame
Orchard ManliekJ ‘asmral Symphony
Lars J Werlc Gnfler flit Piamsr
Richard Moriielc Nighl Must
Simone Morns Michael von Biel Em Buch fur Oroi
Dance Constructions
Benpmm Patterson Oieiei Schnebel Reactions Iftir emen msirumentaltsicn
Paper Piece
S pubkkumi
Bwfsmm Panerson Variations lor Contrabass Dieter Shnebei Visible Mus* fur 1 Oirigemen
Yesunao Tone Costume:
und 1 Instrurnemaloien
la Monte Young Composition I960, /4
Thu Takemitsu Water Must I960
P»rfomwr»:
K.f Welm
plus the Plums group

128
 The redesign of the Minneapolis Tribune

422.

Although a form of newspaper appeared by 1609 use on Tribune vehicles, stationery, section head¬
in Augsburg, Germany, the newspaper as we know ings, and so on, evokes a web of paper coming off 1867

it is a product of the Industrial Revolution. The in¬

vention of the telegraph in the mid-nineteenth
century enabled information to be transmitted
a cylinder press (Fig. 424). It also mirrors the
curved form of an open newspaper being held by Erikttw
a reader (Fig. 425).
over long distances instantaneously; the invention 1921
of the Linotype in 1886 increased typesetting Mindful that computerized typography and elec¬
productivity sevenfold. For nearly a century, news¬ tronic page composition were on the horizon,
papers have provided readers with information Ariss used the "graphic engineering" of a grid
from around the world within hours after events structure to bring consistent, logical reorganization
have occurred. to every page. This grid has six 12y2-pica-wide
columns with one-pica gutters (Fig. 426). Each
Until the 1970s, most newspapers were content page is divided vertically into 167 units, which
to leave design matters to editors and makeup are 9y2 points deep (the depth of the Tribune's 1969
people as a matter of expediency. The 1951 front text type). By sizing all elements correctly and
page from the Minneapolis Morning Tribune (Fig.
422) demonstrates that, in spite of the tremendous
placing them precisely on the grid, the staff for¬
mats every page within the parameters of the
TObtrne
technological advances and design innovations of design system (Fig. 427). _ 1971
the twentieth century, most newspapers had
changed little from their nineteenth-century ante¬
cedents. Writing about newspapers, designer
Page layout is based on the "flush-left principle."
Pages are built from the upper-left-hand corner,
Tribune
Philip Ritzenberg observed that ".. .virtually the and each element (headlines, photographs, text) 423.
entire industry clings to archaic graphic forms. is placed on the page from the upper-left-hand
While newspaper journalism continues to change corner of the space it occupies. One unit of space
and grow, the average newspaper itself still re¬ (914 points) is used to separate related elements
sembles a bulletin board hung with shreds of on the page, and two units of space (19 points) are
information, disorder passing for spontaneity,
22.0°
stridency passing for immediacy...." A newspaper
must combine design and legibility with effective
reportage if it is to maintain its position in a visually-
oriented culture of instantaneous electronic
communications.

Since the mid-1970s, major newspapers have

turned to graphic designers for assistance in up¬
grading the organization and readability of their
pages. The redesign of the Minneapolis Tribune,
which was at the forefront of this design revolu¬
tion, was accomplished under the direction of
graphic designer Frank Ariss. The paper's continu¬
ing graphic evolution has been in the hands of
Michael Carroll.

The Minneapolis Tribune logotype as it evolved

over a century reflects efforts to improve it, while
keeping it consistent with the traditional design
(Fig. 423). In one fell swoop, Ariss catapulted the 425.
Tribune into the present. His symbol design for Construction schema for symbol.

129
used to separate unrelated elements. As a result, Wrmeapois
a group of related elements, such as a headline,
photograph with caption, and news article are
Tfibune Grid
Units 9 112 Page Section Date Inches
combined into a unit on the page. This separation
of editorial material by spatial intervals creates a
clean, attractive, and readable page. The flush-left
principle functions well with our custom of read¬
ing left to right. The Tribune's computerized type¬
setters are programmed to set headline type in a
flush-left mode.

The traditional clutter of newspaper design is

caused in part by the potpourri of type sizes and
styles used for headlines and the variety of type
and column widths. The Tribune created visual
order by using one text type (Bedford Roman with
bold) and one headline type (Helvetica with bold).
Helvetica Bold headlines are used for hard news
stories, and the regular weight is used for features.
Twelve sizes of each (from 12 to 80 point) give
editors wide latitude in planning the visual hier¬
archy and relative importance of stories and fea¬
tures on each page.

The computer typesetters are coded to set all

headlines in conformity with the grid. For example,
in a headline composed of two lines of 30-point
type, the typesetter adds 6y2 points of interline
space. The headline is 66y2 points deep, filling
se.ven of the 9y2-point grid units. Precise specifica¬
tions have been developed for picture captions,
jump headlines (where a story continues onto
another page), bylines, and other recurring typo¬
graphic matter.

The Tribune uses an abundance of photographs,

charts, maps, and illustrations to support and ex¬
pand editorial content. Careful consideration is
given to the graphic qualities of pictorial elements
to achieve consistency throughout the newspaper.

426.

130
 Each special-feature section is purposefully de¬
Minneapolis Monday 1A Final signed to have a visual character and personality

insure M*y 5,1975

Numbar 346
3 Sections
1 5C Singl. Coer
appropriate to its content. Michael Carroll com¬
ments that the "Special sections look special —
different from the news section." The difference
Sugar growers reluctant to talk about profits does not, however, break with the major design
principles: Helvetica headline type, spacing inter¬
vals, and modular grid design. Special-section
covers are simpler and more pictorial (Fig. 428).
Carroll used the term floating grid to describe the
greater spatial freedom in placing the typography
and images on these pages.
Minh Private
reported colleges to
freed cost more
Duong Van (Big)
dered Saigon to t
lie bait aci oi hi* tw<

Saigon Radio aald tin 18othrr for¬

mat goearmnem offioali being re- tending Macaleiter College
laad Included Vice Prexldtr.l Ngu¬ Paul will go up M percent and for
yen Van Huym and Premier Vu Van North Centra! Bible College In Min¬
neapolis It will rtie 18 percent
Fall of South Vietnam Tie Increase* do not affect all stu¬
dent! equally, however. GusUvus
made lie formal, uncondilional lur- Adolphus College In St Peter has a
render o< Saigon lo lie Commun Guaranteed Cost Plan in which Couple injured in motorcycle accident
HU. giving tham victory after a 35-
year iear againjt Japan. France, tie not U.S. fault, Ky says freshmen can have their coats frown
for four years. And Macalesler will Policeman and ambulance attendant mlrt later ad lo DarM and Charyf
United States and South Vietnam charge iu new students J3.000 in Roberta Sunday aflat fhatr motorcycle collided whh a oar at Broadway
tuition while reluming students will and Ulyaaaa Sta. N£. Mr. and Mrs. Roberta, both », 4100 Nokomto A».
Nguyen Van Titeu. who resigned as S , war# taken lo lie Uhhrerelty ol MlnneeoU Hoephat*. abara Robarta
president Apnl 21, Is in exile on Tai¬ Again. Guam had aurtgary lor a leg fracture end hie wife wee under obeervwtion In eelle-
wan. Thleu was succeeded by Tran Tie United SUlea is the country's Senate be continued on page it
Van Huong, who stepped airde for for tie fall of South
that country'a forme:
vice president. Nguyei
Saigon Radio said Saturday «lonely man." Kysaid.
large numberof dffic need too much force Doctor convicted Tax assessor disputes CIA
"the general headqt
Saigon puppet army
registered with the r
ordered lie rest to another'one^today on ownership of Hughes ship
a/temoon New York Times Servlr Explorer. ...
earning possible windfall profit* Fencing for privacy and beauty
Los Angela*. Calif. reaped by Hughes, compliance with
m Los Angeles federal regulations by hup and oth-

assessor in Li
Angeles County, wnere me snip
has been berthed, said he now re¬
garded it as the personal property
ol Hughes, and therefore taxable
under the property-tax laws at a

between the fa

page 6A

To our readers
Today's Tribune is printed in a nt'
on each page Instead of eight co
newspaper more aitractive and

Marine tells of the last hours in Saigon

The writer o ■mng (Tues.
'U‘ do something to me . following dispatch was the hundred people then
A couple of Minneapolis men in compound. Tie others were a Each page is about o
their late 20s were walking through American — out of South Vietnam DAO (defense attache office)
lie University of Minnesota the bassy Wednesday pound at the airport, which w
other day arguing about the stu. the regional o.
dents—one complaining that they embassy security guardj Id South¬ final evacuation, according Ic
east Asia, he directed the avar
tlon effort at the U.S. embassy
in Saigon. I.M. Pei’s architectural star is rising higher than ever
is of type on each page. There
be no net reduction In 'he
e devoted lo news because of
Aboard the US5 Bl
g people trnm the embassy The ambassador I
A crowd gathered outside Ihe em- cc i to the evacuation
bassy. Wien police imposed a 24- ar I persons from
Monday evening v hour curfew the crowd of Viet- compound, uur original * Tribune s Readers' Rapre-
bombed Tan Son Nhut namese dispersed for Ihe night but tive. Dick Cunningham, or call
firing broke out arou reappeared shortly after daybreak Marine continued on page if 372-44S0.

427. 428.

131
Permutations in a title-page design

The range of potential solutions to a typographic graphic studies. While maintaining the message
problem is seemingly infinite. Variations, permuta¬ priorities determined in the first stage, a variety
tions, and transformations can be developed, ex¬ of visual solutions were executed. Decisions were
ploring changes in both fundamental aspects and made through subtle comparisons of type sizes
subtle details. In this case study, designer Thomas and weights to select those that provided the best
Detrie has developed a sequence of solutions for visual balance and message conveyance. Detrie
a title-page design. Detrie's approach to the design did not place the type upon a predetermined grid;
process is based on his beliefs that "solutions come rather, he allowed the organizational structure to
from within the problem" and "ideas come from evolve from the process of working with the type
working with the material and are not supplied or proofs. Selecting the basic typographic arrange¬
preconceived." ment was an intermediate step in the design pro¬
cess (Fig. 429).
The problem-solving sequence is a three-stage
design process: preliminary exploration, message Next, Detrie developed a series of variations of
investigation, and visualization of solutions. In his this arrangement by investigating the application
preliminary exploration, Detrie considered the of horizontal and vertical lines, positive and nega¬
nature and content of the problem and made tive shapes with positive type, and positive and
sketches to explore possible directions. Typograph¬ negative shapes with positive and reversed type.
ic information (title, subtitle, authors, and pub¬ Figure 429 shows nine permutations with the ap¬
lisher) was assigned priority. Detrie raised the plication of vertical lines to the basic typographic
question, "For the book Basic Typography, what schema. Permutations range from type alone to
is basic to typography that can be signified in a the addition of linear and rectilinear elements to a
visual solution?" His answer established param¬ solid black page with reversed type (Fig. 430). A
eters appropriate to the given problem: a right- graded arrangement of twenty-four of the many
angled system, black on white, printed and un¬ solutions is shown in Figure 431. Observe the
printed areas, and a clear message. These con¬ horizontal and vertical sequencing.
siderations became the criteria for the investigation.
Unlimited solutions are possible in typographic
To investigate the range of typographic possibil¬ design, and selection becomes an integral part of
ities for the clear presentation of the manuscript, the design process. Not every possible solution
actual type was set and used in the initial visuali¬ is appropriate; the designer must continually eval¬
zations for accuracy. A sans serif face was chosen, uate each one against the problem criteria. The
and the message was printed in three sizes and significance of Detrie's investigations lay in the
two weights for use as raw material in these typo¬ workings of the design process.

This project commenced in the

postgraduate program in
graphic design at the Basel
Schoolof Design, Switzerland.
The encouragement and criti¬
cism of Wolfgang Weingart is
gratefully acknowledged.

132
 Ruedi Ruegg/Godi Frohlich
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Typographic film titles

Referring to a movie advertisement that used stop for a moment, then evaporate into deep space
letterforms "painted by light," typographic historian (Fig. 432). The speed and power of this film's fan¬
Beatrice Warde wrote that "after forty centuries tasy superhero are evoked. This effect is accom¬
of the necessarily static Alphabet, I saw what its plished by tracking rear-illuminated typography in
members could do in the fourth dimension of front of an open camera lens. Each frame captures
Time, 'flux,' movement. You may well say that I was a streak of light that starts and stops slightly be¬
electrified." Through advanced animation and fore the light streak recorded on the next frame.
computer-graphics techniques, graphic designers When shown at twenty-four frames per second,
are transforming typographic communication into this series of still images is transformed into a
kinetic sequences that might almost be called "vis¬ dynamic expression of zooming energy.
ual music."
A very different mood is expressed by Greenberg
Richard Greenberg, Director/Designer of in his title designs for the PolyGram Pictures pro¬
R/Greenberg Associates in New York City, has duction Making Love (Fig. 433). Four red dots
emerged as a leading innovator on the frontier of appear on the black screen and begin to move,
cinematic graphic design for film titles, movie pre¬ forming abstract lines. As the sequence continues,
views, special effects, and television commercials. the word LOVE emerges and fills the screen in ele¬
Greenberg considers film titles to be a "visual gant sans serif letterforms having slightly tapered
metaphor" for the movie that follows, setting "the terminals. Then widely letterspaced capitals spell
tone of the movie. You have to take the people out the first word of the title.
who have just arrived at the theater and separate
them from their ordinary reality —walking on the For the Warner Bros, movie Altered States, the
street, waiting in line; you bring them into the title sequence opens with a wide-angle image of
movie. You want to tell them how to react: that it's a researcher in an isolation tank (Fig. 434). Super¬
all right to laugh, that they are going to be scared, imposed over this image, the two words of the title
or that something serious is going on." — transparent, as if they are windows cut from a
black background —overlap each other as they
In the titles for the Warner Bros, film Superman slowly move across the screen. The film credits
— the Movie, bright blue names and the Super¬ are superimposed in white typography in front of
man emblem streak through space like comets. this lively pattern of typographic forms and

432.

136
 counterforms. Behind the title the background
slowly darkens while the camera pulls away from
it, causing the letterforms to become smaller and
smaller. Finally, the complete title. Altered States,
appears in its entirety before the totally black
screen. In the title, set in Avant Garde Demi, the
right stroke of each capital A is deleted. The repe¬
tition of this unusual configuration unifies the two
words and serves to make the title a unique and
memorable signification.

An ominous and mysterious mood is created in

the title sequence for theTwentieth Century-Fox
production Alien (Fig. 435). As the camera tracks
across a barren landscape, the title emerges be¬
fore the void of deep space. One by one, small
white rectangles appear and undergo a metamor¬
phosis, forming a five-letter title letterspaced
across the screen. In a dynamic change of scale
and orientation for the audience, the landscape
transforms into the egg of an alien. The sequence
closes as an internal blast of light rips through the
shell of the egg. The dramatic intensity of this final
scene is strengthened by its contrast with the qui¬
etude of the initial sequence.

In contrast to the otherworldy aura created by the

Alien film titles, Greenberg's film trailer and tele¬
vision promotion for the Universal Studios pro¬
duction Jaws 3-D combines straightforward ocean

making!
I QWE I 'Lrr cclAI/TE

433.

/KREDS1/TES
Directed by Ken Russoll

434

137
footage and typographic animation with docu¬
mentary conviction (Fig 436). The trailer begins
with a black screen. The first stroke of the roman
numeral III fades in, revealing a calm sky and placid
ocean as the voiceover speaks of the terror of the
original Jaws motion picture. Next, another stroke
fades in as the voiceover recalls the excitement of
Jaws II. Then the center stroke fades in, revealing
a distant figure moving through the ocean toward
the viewer. As the viewer becomes aware that the
figure is a shark's fin, the middle stroke of the
roman numeral bursts outward, filling the frame
with the menacing form. As the shark's fin turns,
it becomes the curve of the letter J in the Jaws
3-D logo. The perspective configuration of the
logo becomes a powerful signification of dimen¬
sionality, an appropriate expression of the intense
spatial illusionism of the 3-D cinematography used
in this film.

The time-space orientation of kinetic media en¬

ables the typographic designer to add motion,
scale change, sequence, and metamorphosis to
alphabet communication. As demonstrated by
the work of Richard Greenberg, this opens new
vistas of expressive communication.

435.

138
 The periodical format for Nautical Quarterly

Sensitive typographic treatment of a specific sub¬ ing of the subject and a design program that is flex¬
ject can often be found in publication design. A ible enough to accommodate a range of material.
fine example of the marriage of typography-
titles, text, and captions —to a particular content Typically, a title page for a story article consists of
is displayed in the elegant full-color journal Nautical the title, one or more images, text, borders, and
Quarterly. rules. The article "The Indomitable Wander Bird"
features a bold headline and has the text (top) and
This carefully crafted publication includes visual illustration (below) printed in a subtle screen tint
and written descriptions of yacht racing, regattas, of black (Fig. 437). The stenciled initial capital
boating safety, marine lore, and artifacts. The A and the small figure of a man act in combination
exemplary visuals are primarily photographs, with with the ship to balance the page (Fig. 438) The
a rich texture of teak decks, taut sails, and blue tension created by this juxtaposition is relieved by
skies. The text describes various marine traditions the ample white space at the bottom. The A is blue,
and locations from Gloucester to Sausalito. adding yet another visual accent to this straight¬
forward yet lively title page. The example illustrates
Creative Director Martin Pedersen and his staff as well that a variety of typefaces can be combined
have designed a publication that reflects precise successfully when care is given to their relative
editing and thoughtful art direction. The readers sizes, weights, and placement.
— yachtsmen, skippers, and marine enthusiasts in
general — are treated to articles presented with Pages are characterized by consistent margins,
delicately balanced images and legible typography. which are almost always reinforced by a fine
Assembling multiple-component page spreads is border rule. A repetitive element is the Nautical
a difficult task, requiring a thorough understand¬ Quarterly logotype, centered and reversed, in a

■ ■ : ■ i- M.iru) I ii-.r\ > H'-iffu .*)*.e » hivh and dipped 4 swath of;

A
:-J Witter It hit the y!ft; hooner. and pro wo! her clown for she first i
• 4v' U'l-- Ripples j round the Merit, fumed; to froth, then tort thundering >
••• e. e "-.'nii :*u- o! the ti olden l v,ti i :n" •>!..■< uin-.; lor the S.m '
v >sv waterf ront at eleven knof>. U AH drat drn we srmScd/we couldn't
’ it W'.o t- hi perfect Hus was a dav weal! had«,itvameJ of. hard to believe as.;
w. a :trd ha v. Ki fh* fiysj’.i'rt. O'Ur faces\u-m. rudd1. rtmi we lek the strength,
| the* graceful on the d.eft integrity ut this schooner called fitter Bod □ This j
j b'S-Vv-.H-ak! VO i> more l.hjr, n;st ,i hewtiohiih restored thoroughbred schooner To those •’
l nt us in\tilu-J avrer am:l the i
! of' the man wdi
i when it vv.tsm,
ick - Ha: ecr ij.nk (•
vaching. if

437.
A bold Egyptian headline is
combined with stencil and Old
Style typefaces for graphic
diversity.
438.
L.
This diagram demonstrates
the principle of compensation; 437.
the careful placement and link¬
ing of elements to form an
asymmetrical, balanced
equilibrium.

139
 N A II

439.

441
This layout departs from the
standard format. Graphic con¬
nections to the other pages
are formed by: the text size;
the stencil letterform; inser¬
tion of elements into a rec¬
tangle of typography; and the
surrounding white space.

440.
bar rule at the top of most pages (Fig. 439). Cap¬
tions are set with a narrow column measure and
are often lengthy (Fig. 440). They can run a full
page in depth and function as both caption and text
The organization of a publication involves estab¬
lishing a visual hierarchy for each layout. Typog¬
raphy must fit the number of pages available for
editorial material, and take into account the ar¬
rangement and sequencing of pages. This means
that adjustments must be made in the sizing of
various typographic and pictorial components to
represent content graphically. These adjustments
are made possible by the flexibility within the grid
system, and determine to a large extent the overall
appearance of the magazine. For example, the full
text columns and relatively small photographs in
weekly newsmagazines project a very different
visual ambiance than the large photographs and
generous use of white space found in Nautical
Quarterly. The identity of any periodical is estab¬
lished by planned connections between compo¬
nents. Thus, a publication's format becomes a
familiar one for its readers.

While Pedersen and his staff have developed a

very consistent page format, they are willing to
depart from this system to achieve variety and to
express the content of special subject matter. In
an article about sharks (Fig. 441), the rules and
borders are abandoned for a dramatic cropping
of a full-page bleed illustration. A strong horizontal
movement is extended across the right-hand page
by the typography.

Nautical Quarterly is a journal of typographic uld assume (hat the subject ot sharks has been virtually exhausted, and (hat

distinction. The success of its design can be at¬

tributed to the designer's concern for visual hier¬
archy, attention to the linking and sequencing of
0
and tht .
that si
ch as we need to know about these animals \Ve all know, tor
'swimming noses," with an incredibly well-developed
smell which perr s them (o detect a single molecule ofhlood in the water
u v then home in unerringly on the bleeding victim -
her iish or woundi I '" ‘turner - and Attack with grisly efficiency Everyone
nows that sharks have r.i.-or- sharp teeth and that they circle their intended victims,
tin knifing through th.
lek a swin
before they attack Sharks are also totally unpredictable.
■ day
•Iiai (hcrr itial meal the next We also know
-■harks that a
typographic elements, and careful selection of leal of an
i p moving to Slav alive that they
r. Further
inglv offshore, just
iwaro that all sharks
ire usually large and
typefaces and sizes for overall continuity. creatures so perfectly attuned an
I 100 million years All of the tot
u that they have not
vet ALA i A4

441.

140
8 Type Specimens

The typographic specimens in this chapter were

selected from outstanding type families to provide
examples of major classifications: Old Style,
Transitional, Modern, Egyptian, and Sans Serif.
Old Style is represented by ITC Garamond, a
recent redesign with a large x-height and a weight
range popular in recent decades. By contrast, the
specimens of Baskerville, theTransitional face dis¬
played here, have the letter proportions of tradi¬
tional typography. The strong geometric stress
and thick-and-thin strokes of the Modern category
are demonstrated by Bodoni. Egyptian is repre¬
sented by specimens of a recent type family, ITC
Lubalin Graph, which has slab serifs and the geo¬
metric construction found in much twentieth-
century design. The Univers family, known for the
design cohesion among its members, represents
the Sans Serif category.

More extensive specimens of ITC Garamond and

Univers than of the other families are shown. They
are typical of the two most widely used categories.
Enlarged fonts are included for study and tracing
purposes. Text specimens are shown with one-,
two-, and three-point interline spacing. Eight full
columns of text type are included for comparison
and for layout purposes. Additional display fonts
are shown in approximately 30-point type. These
materials have been carefully selected to provide
a compendium of the essential qualities of typo¬
graphic form.

141
S»ORONTII FINEI
DELPHINATIS.REGII MATHEMA=
TICARVM PROFESSORIS.DE
ARITHMETICA PRACTICA
LIBRI Q.VATVOR.

J^LIBER PRI M VS, D E INTEGRIS:HOC E S T,

ciufdem fpccici,fiue denominationis tradhat numeris.

fLDefniiht,at<p digmtate ipfius kritbmeticce'.Vrocemium.

NTER LI BE RALES M A*
thematicas, qux foke difciplinae vocatur,
Arithmeticarn primum locum fibi vcndi=
caffe: nemo (ana: mentis ignorat.Eftenim D/gm'tas
Arithmetica omniumaliarum difciplinae ailthme“c£‘
rum mater,& nutrix antiquiflimamumes
roru qualitates,vim,& naturam,ac id ge^
nusalia demonftrans, quseabfolutum vis
dentur refpicere numerum. Cuius prim
cipia tanta excellunt fimplicitatc, vt nuL
liusartis videatur indigere fuffragio.-fed cumftisopituIeturartibus.Ad
cuius puritatem illud etiam plurimum facit: quoniam nulla diuinitati
adeoconexa eft difeiplina,quantum Arithmetica. Namvnitas omniu
numeroru radix &origo,in fe,a fe,accircum feipfam vnica vel impart
tibilis permanetrex cuius tamencoaceruatione, omniscofiirgit & crCs
neratur,omnifque tandem ineamrefoluitur numerus. Qjiemadmos
dum cunefta qua: feu difcreta,fiue compofita infpe&entur Vniuerfo, a
fummo rerum conditore in definitum digefta,reda<Rave funt,& demu
refoluenda numcrum.CQuot autem vtilitates cognita, quotve labp Fruftus
rinthos ignota prxbeat Arithmetica: confpicere facile eft.Numeroru arithmetic?,
etenim rationc iiiblata,toIlitur & muficarum modulationu intelligent
tia.gcomctricorum, cxleftiumvc arcanorum Inbtills aufertur ingreft
fio:tollitur& vniuerfa Philofophia , fiuequxdiuina,fcu qua: contend
platur humanaumperfetfta relmquitur legu adminiftratio,vtpote,qu*
A.ii;.
Old Style

442.
Page three, Arithmetics by Although Old Style typefaces trace their develop¬ and italics for a subhead. The spatial intervals be¬
Oronce Fine, printed by Simon ment to the printers of the Italian Renaissance, tween these units have been established with great
de Colines in Paris, 1535. their heritage extends to an earlier time, for Roman care. Fleurons (printer's flowers), paragraph
inscriptional letterforms inspired their capital- marks, a woodcut headpiece, and a large initial
letter design. The Caroline Minuscules from medi¬ bring vibrancy to this elegant example of French
eval manuscripts inspired writing styles during the Renaissance book design.
fifteenth century, and these became the model for
Old Style lowercase letters. ITC Garamond, presented here, was designed by
Tony Stan for the International Typeface Corpora¬
Many Old Style typefaces bear the name of Claude tion. The first four fonts in the family were issued
Garamond, a leading typeface designer and in 1975. ITC Garamond has a large x-height and
punchcutter working in Paris when the book shortened ascenders and descenders. The com¬
Arithmetica was printed (Fig. 442). In the heading plete type family has sixteen fonts, light, book,
material, the designer used bold capitals for the bold, and ultra, each with an italic, and a compan¬
author's name, two sizes of capitals for the title. ion series of eight condensed versions.

143
ITC Garamond Book

144
145
 ITC Garamond Book

72 Point

abcdefghijklmn
opqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJK
LMNOPQRSTU
V WXYZ $12344
146
ITC Garamond Book Italic

147
 ITC Garamond Book
60 Point

abcdefghijklmnopq
rstuvwxyz ABCD
EFGHIJKLMNOPQ
RSTUV WXYZ $123
44567890
48 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstu
vwxyz ABCDEFGHIJK
LMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

148
 60 Point ITC Garamond Book Italic

abcdefghijklmnopq
rstuvwxyzABCDE
FGHIJKLMNOPQR
STUVWXYZS1234
4567890
‘ 48 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstu
vwxyzABCDEFGHIJK
LMNOPORSTUVWXYZ

149
 ITC Garamond Book

36 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUV
WXYZS12344567890
30 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVW
XYZ $12344567890
24 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$12344567890

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$12344567890

150
 ITC Garamond Book Italic

36 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTU
VWXYZ$1234567890
30 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVW
XYZ$12344567890
#
24 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$12344567890
18 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrs tuvivxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$12344567890

151
 ITC Garamond Light

72 Point

abcdefghijklmno
pqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKL
MNOPQRSTUV

152
 ITC Garamond Bold

72 Point

ahcdefgh ijklm
qrstuvwx
yz ABCDEFGH
IJKLMNOPQ
RSTUVWXYZ
$12344567890
153
 ITC Garamond Light

48 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuv
wxyz ABCDEFGHIJKL
MNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$12344567890
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$12344567890

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
112344567890

154
 ITC Garamond Bold

48 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrs
tuv wxyz ABCDEFGH
IJKLMNOPQRSTUVW
XYZ $12344567890
30 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVW
XYZ $12344567890;:!)?&
18 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuv wxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$12344567890

155
ITC Garamond Ultra

72 Point

abcdefghijk1
mnopqrstuv
wxyz ABCDEF
GHIJKLMNO
PQRSTUVW
XYZ $123456 156
48 Point

abcdefghijklmnop
qrst uvwxyz ABCDEF
GHIJKLMNOPQRST
UVWXYZ $1234456
7890
30 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUV
WXYZ$12344567890(.,
18 Point

abcdefgh ijklmnopqrst uvwxyz ABCDEFGHIJKL

MNOPQRSTU VWXYZ $12344567890

157
 ITC Garamond Light Condensed

158
48 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvw
xyz ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRS
TUVWXYZ $12344567890
iT’-M
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$12344567890
18 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$12344567890

159
 ITC Garamond Book Condensed

160
48 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvw
xyz ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQ
RSTUVWXYZ $123445678
90
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$12344567890
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$12344567890

161
 ITC Garamond Bold Condensed

162
 48 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstu
v wxyz ABCDEFGHIJKLMN
OPQRSTUVWXYZ $12344
567890
30 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$12344567890
18 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$12344567890

163
ITC Garamond Ultra Condensed

72 Point

abcdefghijklmnop
qrstuvwxyz ABCD
EFGHIJKLMIMOPQ
RSTl VWXYZ $1234
4567890

164
 48 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuv
wxyz ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP
QRSTUVWXYZ $123445678
90
30 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvnxyz
ABCOEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
S12544567890(.,
18 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$12344567890

165
 abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890 $1234567890(

abcdefghijklm nopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890(. $1234567890(., ’ !) ?&

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to communi - The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to
ITC Garamond Light
cate to the imagination, without loss by the way the thought or communicate to the imagination, without loss by the
image intended to be communicated by the Author. And the way, the thought or image intended to be communicated
whole duty of beautiful typography is not to substitute for the by the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful typog¬
beauty or interest of the thing thought and intended to be con¬ raphy is not to substitute for the beauty or interest of the
veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on the
thing thought and intended to be conveyed by the sym¬
one hand, to win access for that communication by the clearness
bol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on the one hand,
and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advan¬
tage of every pause or stage in that communication to interpose
to win access for that communication by the clearness
some characteristic & restful beauty in its own art. We thus have and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take
a reason for the clearness and beauty of the text as a whole, for advantage of every pause or stage in that communication
the especial beauty of the first or introductory page and of the to interpose some characteristic & restful beauty in its
title, and for the especial beauty of the headings of chapters, own ait. We thus have a reason for the clearness and
capital or initial letters, and so on, and an opening for the illus¬ beauty of the text as a whole, for the especial beauty of
trator as we shall see by and by Further, in the case of Poetry,
the first or introductory page and of the title, and for the
verse, in my opinion, appeals by its form to the eye, as well as to
especial beauty of die headings of chapters, capital or
the ear, and should be placed on the page so that its structure
initial letters, and so on, and an opening for the illustrator
8/9
9/10

The whole duty of Typography as of Calligraphy is to communi - The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to
cate to the imagination, without loss by the way the thought or communicate to the imagination, without loss by the
image intended to be communicated by the Author And the way, the thought or image intended to be communicated
whole duty of beautiful typography is not to substitute for the by the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful typog¬
beauty or interest of the thing thought and intended to be con¬
raphy is not to substitute for the beauty or interest of the
veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on he
thing thought and intended to be conveyed by the sym¬
one hand, to win access for that communication by he clearness
and beauty of he vehicle, and on he oher hand, to take advan¬
bol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on the one hand,
tage of every pause or stage in hat communication to interpose to win access for that communication by the clearness
some characteristic & restful beauty in its own art. We hus have and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take
a reason for he clearness and beauty of he text as a whole, for advantage of every pause or stage in that communication
he especial beauty of he first or introductory page and of he to interpose some characteristic & restful beauty in its
title, and for he especial beauty of he headings of chapters, own art. We thus have a reason for die clearness and
capital or initial letters, and so on, and an opening for he illus¬ beauty of die text as a whole, for the especial beauty of
trator as we shall see by and by Further, in the case of Poetry,
the first or introductory’page and of the title, and for the
verse, in my opinion, appeals by its form to the eye, as well as to
9/11
8/10

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy is to communi¬ The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to
cate to the imagination, without loss by he way, he thought or communicate to the imagination, without loss by die
image intended to be communicated by the Author. And he
way, the thought or image intended to be communicated
whole duty of beautiful typography is not to substitute for the
by the Author. And die whole duty of beautiful typog¬
beauty or interest of he hing thought and intended to be con¬
raphy is not to substitute for the beauty or interest of the
veyed by he symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on he
diing thought and intended to be conveyed by the sym¬
one hand, to win access for hat communication by he clearness
and beauty of the vehicle, and on he oher hand, to take advan¬ bol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on the one hand,
tage of every pause or stage in hat communication to interpose to win access for that communication by the clearness
some characteristic & restful beauty in its own art. We hus have and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take
a reason for the clearness and beauty of he text as a whole, for advantage of every pause or stage in that communication
he especial beauty of he first or introductory page and of the to interpose some characteristic & restful beauty in its
title, and for he especial beauty of he headings of chapters, own art. We thus have a reason for the clearness and
capital or initial letters, and so on, and an opening for the illus-
beauty of the text as a ivhole, for the especial beauty of
8/11
9/12

166
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890 (.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890(.
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
$1234567890(. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890(., ’ :!) ?&

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is The whole duty of Typography as of Cal¬
to communicate to the imagination, without loss ligraphy is to communicate to the imagina¬
by the way the thought or image intended to be
communicated by the Author. And the whole duty
tion, without loss by the way the thought
of beautiful typography is not to substitute for the or image intended to be communicated by
beauty or interest of the tiling thought and intended the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful
to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest typography is not to substitute for the
of its own, but, on the one hand, to win access for beauty or interest of the thing thought and
that communication by the clearness and beauty of
intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a
the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advan¬
tage of every pause or stage in that communication
7
beauty or interest of its own, but, on the
to interpose some characteristic & restful beauty in
7
one hand, to win access for that communi¬
its own art. We thus have a reason for the clearness cation by the clearness and beauty of the
and beauty of the text as a whole, for the especial vehicle, and on the other hand, to take ad -
10/11 12/13

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is The whole duty of Typography as of Cal¬
to communicate to the imagination, without loss ligraphy is to communicate to the imagina¬
by the way, the thought or image intended to be
tion, without loss by the way, the thought
communicated by the Author. And the whole duty
of beautiful typography is not to substitute for the
or image intended to be communicated by
beauty or interest of the thing thought and intended the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful
to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest typography is not to substitute for the
of its own, but, on the one hand, to win access for beauty or interest of the thing thought and
that communication by the clearness and beauty of intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a
the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advan¬ beauty or interest of its own, but, on the
tage of every pause or stage in that communication
one hand, to win access for that communi-
to interpose some characteristic & restful beauty in
its own art. We thus have a reason for the clearness
cation by' the clearness and beauty of the
10/12 12/14

The whole duty of Typography as of Calligraphy, is The whole duty of Typography as of Cal¬
to communicate to the imagination, without loss ligraphy is to communicate to the imagina¬
’ by the way, the thought or image intended to be tion, without loss by the way, the thought
communicated by the Author. And the whole duty
or image intended to be communicated by
of beautiful typography is not to substitute for the
beauty or interest of the thing thought and intended
the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful
• to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest typography is not to substitute for the
of its own, but, on the one hand, to win access for beauty or interest of the thing thought and
that communication by the clearness and beauty of intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a
the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advan¬ beauty or interest of its own, but, on the
tage of every pause or stage in that communication
one hand, to win access for that communi-
to interpose some characteristic & restful beauty in
12/15
10/13

167
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ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
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ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWX YZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890(.,': !) ?&
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ITC Garamond Book The whole duty of Typography as of Calligraphy is to com¬ T he whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy is to
municate to the imagination, without loss by the way the communicate to the imagination, without loss by the
thought or image intended to be communicated by the way, the thought or image intended to be communi¬
Author. And the whole duty of beautiful typography is not to cated by the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful
substitute for the beauty or interest of the thing thought and
typography is not to substitute for the beauty or interest
intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest
of the thing thought and intended to be conveyed by
of its own, but, on the one hand, to win access for that com¬
munication by the clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and
the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on the
on the other hand, to take advantage of every pause or stage one hand, to win access for that communication by the
in that communication to interpose some characteristic & clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other
restful beauty in its own art. We thus have a reason for the hand, to take advantage of every pause or stage in that
clearness and beauty of the text as a whole, for the especial communication to interpose some characteristic &
beauty of the first or introductory page and of the title, and restful beauty in its own art. We thus have a reason for
for the especial beauty of the headings of chapters, capital the clearness and beauty of the text as a whole, for the
or initial letters, and so on, and an opening for the illustrator
especial beauty of the first or introductory page and
as we shall see by and by Further, in the case of Poetry verse,
in my opinion, appeals by its form to the eye, as well as to the
of the title, and for the especial beauty of the headings
8/9 of chapters, capital or initial letters, and so on, and
9/10

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to com¬ The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy is to
municate to the imagination, without loss by the way, the communicate to the imagination, without loss by the
thought or image intended to be communicated by the way the thought or image intended to be communi¬
Author. And the whole duty of beautiful typography is not to
cated by the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful
substitute for the beauty or interest of the thing thought and
typography is not to substitute for the beauty or interest
intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest
of its own, but, on the one hand, to win access for that com¬
of the thing thought and intended to be conveyed by
munication by the clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on the
7

on the other hand, to take advantage of every pause or stage one hand, to win access for that communication by the
in that communication to interpose some characteristic & clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other
restful beauty in its own art. We thus have a reason for the hand, to take advantage of every pause or stage in that
clearness and beauty of the text as a whole, for the especial communication to interpose some characteristic &
beauty of the first or introductory page and of the title, and
restful beauty in its own art. We thus have a reason for
7
for the especial beauty of the headings of chapters, capital
the clearness and beauty of the text as a whole, for the
or initial letters, and so on, and an opening for the illustrator
especial beauty of the first or introductory’ page and
as we shall see by and by. Further, in the case of Poetry, verse,
8/10 9/11

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to com¬ The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to
municate to the imagination, without loss by the way, the communicate to the imagination, without loss by the
thought or image intended to be communicated by the
way, the thought or image intended to be communi¬
Author. And the whole duty of beautiful typography is not to
cated by the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful
substimte for the beauty or interest of the thing thought and
typography is not to substimte for the beauty or interest
7
intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest
of its own, but, on the one hand, to win access for that com¬
of the thing thought and intended to be conveyed by
munication by the clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on the
on the other hand, to take advantage of every pause or stage one hand, to win access for that communication by the
in that communication to interpose some characteristic & clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other
restful beauty in its own art. We thus have a reason for the hand, to take advantage of every pause or stage in that
clearness and beauty of the text as a whole, for the especial communication to interpose some characteristic &
beauty of the first or introductory page and of the title, and restful beauty in its own art. We thus have a reason for
7

for the especial beauty of the headings of chapters, capital

the clearness and beauty of the text as a whole, for
8/11
9/12

168
 abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
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$1234567890(
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
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$1234567890(., ’ : !)?& ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890(., ’ :!) ?&

The whole duty of Typography as of Calligraphy, The whole duty of Typography, as of

is to communicate to the imagination, without
Calligraphy is to communicate to the
loss by the way, the thought or image intended to
be communicated by' the Author. And the whole imagination, without loss by the way the
duty of beautiful typography is not to substitute thought or image intended to be com¬
for the beauty or interest of the tiling thought and municated by the Author. And the whole
intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty duty of beautiful typography is not to
or interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to substitute for the beauty or interest of
win access for that communication by the clear¬
ness and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other
the thing thought and intended to be con¬
hand, to take advantage of every pause or stage in veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest
that communication to interpose some character¬ of its own, but, on the one hand, to win
istic & restful beauty in its own art. We thus have access for that communication by the
a reason for the clearness and beauty of the text clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and
10/11
12/13

The whole duty of Typography as of Calligraphy, The whole duty of Typography, as of

is to communicate to the imagination, without
Calligraphy is to communicate to the
loss by the way, the thought or image intended to
imagination, without loss by the way the
be communicated by the Author. And the whole
. duty of beautiful typography is not to substitute thought or image intended to be com¬
for the beauty or interest of the thing thought and municated by the Author. And the whole
intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty duty of beautiful typography is not to
or interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to substitute for the beauty or interest of
win access for that communication by the clear¬ the thing thought and intended to be con¬
ness and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other
veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest
hand, to take advantage of every pause or stage in
that communication to interpose some character - of its own, but, on the one hand, to win
istic & restful beauty in its own art. We thus have access for that communication by the
10/12 12/14

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, The whole duty of Typography, as of

is to communicate to the imagination, without Calligraphy is to communicate to the
' loss by the way, the thought or image intended to
imagination, without loss by the way, the
be communicated by the Author. And the whole
duty of beautiful typography is not to substitute
thought or image intended to be com¬
for the beauty or interest of the thing thought and municated by the Author. And the whole
. intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty duty of beautiful typography is not to
or interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to substitute for the beauty or interest of
win access for that communication by the clear¬ the thing thought and intended to be con¬
ness and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest
hand, to take advantage of every pause or stage in
of its own, but, on the one hand, to win
that communication to interpose some char-
12/15
10/13

169
 abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890(., $1234567890(.,
abcdefgh ijkltn nopqrstuvwxyz abcdefgh ijklm n opqrstuvuxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890(.!)?& $1234567890(. ;;!) ?&

ITC Garamond Boid The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy,
communicate to the imagination, without loss by the is to communicate to the imagination, without
way, the thought or image intended to be communi¬ loss by the way, the thought or image intended
cated by the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful to be communicated by the Author. And the
typography is not to substitute for the beauty or inter¬
whole duty of beautiful typography is not to
est of the thing thought and intended to be conveyed
substitute for the beauty or interest of the thing
by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on
the one hand, to win access for that communication thought and intended to be convey ed by the
by the clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and on symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on
the other hand, to take advantage of every pause or the one hand, to win access for that communi¬
stage in that communication to interpose some char¬ cation by the clearness and beauty of the vehicle,
acteristic & restful beauty in its own art. We thus have and on the other hand, to take advantage of
a reason for the clearness and beauty of the text as a every pause or stage in that communication to
whole, for the especial beauty of the first or intro¬
interpose some characteristic & restful beauty
ductory page and of the title, and for the especial
in its own art. We thus have a reason for the
beauty of the headings of chapters, capital or initial
letters, and so on, and an opening for the illustrator
clearness and beauty of the text as a whole, for
8/9 the especial beauty of the first or introductory
9/10
The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy7,
communicate to the imagination, without loss by the is to communicate to the imagination, without
way, the thought or image intended to be communi¬ loss by the way, the thought or image intended
cated by the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful
to be communicated by the Author. And the
typography is not to substitute for the beauty or inter¬
whole duty of beautiful typography is not to
est of the thing thought and intended to be conveyed
substitute for the beauty or interest of the thing
by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on
the one hand, to win access for that communication thought and intended to be conveyed by the
by the clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and on the symbol, a beauty or interest of its ow n, but, on
other hand, to take advantage of every pause or stage the one hand, to win access for that communi¬
in that communication to interpose some character¬ cation by the clearness and beauty7 of the vehicle,
istic & restful beauty in its own art. We thus have a and on the other hand, to take advantage of
reason for the clearness and beauty of the text as a every pause or stage in that communication to
whole, for the especial beauty of the first or intro¬
interpose some characteristic & restful beauty7
ductory page and of the title, and for the especial
in its own art. We thus have a reason for the
beauty of the headings of chapters, capital or initial
9/11
8/10

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy,
communicate to the imagination, without loss by the
is to communicate to the imagination, without
way, the thought or image intended to be communi¬
loss by the way, the thought or image intended
cated by the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful
to be communicated by the Author. And the
typography is not to substitute for the beauty or inter¬
whole duty of beautiful typography is not to
est of the thing thought and intended to be conveyed
by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on substitute for the beauty or interest of the thing

the one hand, to win access for that communication thought and intended to be conveyed by the
by the clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and on the symbol, a beauty7 or interest of its own, but, on
other hand, to take advantage of every pause or stage the one hand, to win access for that communi¬
in that communication to interpose some character¬ cation by the clearness and beauty of the vehicle,
istic & restful beauty in its own art. We thus have a and on the other hand, to take advantage of
reason for the clearness and beauty of the text as a
every pause or stage in that communication to
whole, for the especial beauty of the first or intro-
interpose some characteristic & restful beauty
8/11
9/12

170
 abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890(., ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890(./“-;:!)?&
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
AB CDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTU V WXYZ abcdefgh ijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
$1234567890(.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890

The whole duty of Typography, as of Callig¬ The whole duty of Typography, as of

raphy, is to communicate to the imagina¬
Calligraphy, is to communicate to
tion, without loss by the way, the thought
or image intended to be communicated by
the imagination, without loss by the
the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful way, the thought or image intended
typography is not to substitute for the to be communicated by the Author.
beauty or interest of the thing thought and And the whole duty of beautiful
intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a typography is not to substitute for
beauty or interest of its own, but, on the
the beauty or interest of the thing
one hand, to win access for that communi¬
cation by the clearness and beauty of the thought and intended to be con¬
vehicle, and on the other hand, to take ad¬ veyed by the symbol, a beauty or in¬
vantage of every pause or stage in that com- terest of its own, but, on the one
munication to interpose some characteris¬ hand, to win access for that com-
tic 12/13

The whole duty of Typography, as of Callig¬ The whole duty of Typography, as of

raphy, is to communicate to the imagina¬ Calligraphy, is to communicate to
tion, without loss by the way, the thought
the imagination, without loss by the
or image intended to be communicated by
the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful
way, the thought or image intended
typography is not to substitute for the to be communicated by the Author.
beauty or interest of the thing thought and And the whole duty of beautiful
intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a typography is not to substitute for
beauty or interest of its own, but, on the the beauty or interest of the thing
one hand, to win access for that communi¬
thought and intended to be con¬
cation by the clearness and beauty of the
vehicle, and on the other hand, to take ad-
veyed by the symbol, a beauty or in¬
vantage of every pause or stage in that com - terest of its own, hut, on the one
10/12 12/14

The whole duty of Typography, as of Callig¬ The whole duty of Typography, as of

raphy, is to communicate to the imagina¬ Calligraphy, is to communicate to
tion, without loss by the way, the thought
the imagination, without loss by the
or image intended to be communicated by
way, the thought or image intended
the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful
typography is not to substitute for the to be communicated by the Author.
beauty or interest of the thing thought and And the whole duty of beautiful
intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a typography is not to substitute for
beauty or interest of its own, but, on the the beauty or interest of the thing
one hand, to win access for that communi¬
thought and intended to be con¬
cation by the clearness and beauty of the
veyed by the symbol, a beauty or in-
vehicle, and on the other hand, to take ad-
12/15
10/13

171
 VORZUGS-ANGEBOT

lm VERLAG DES BILDUNG3VERBANDES der Deutschen Buchdrucker,

Berlin SW 61, Dreibundstr. 5, erscheint demn&chst:

JAN TSCHICHOLD
Lehrer an der Meisterschule fUr Deutschlands Buchdrucker in MUnchen

DIE NEUE TYPOGRAPHIE

Handbuch far die gesamte Fachwelt
und die drucksachenverbrauchenden Kreise

Das Problem der neuen gestaltenden Typographie hat eine lebhafte INHALT DES BUCHES
Diskussion bei alien Beteiligtenhervorgerufen.Wirglaubendem BedUrf- Warden und Wesen der neuen Typographie
nis, die aufgeworfenen Fragen ausfUhrlich behandelt zu sehen, zu ent- Das neue Weltbild
sprechen, wenn wir jetzt ein Handbuch der NEUEN TYPOGRAPHIE Die alta Typographie (ROckblick und Kritik)
Die neue Kunst
herausbringen. Zur Geschichte der neuen Typographie
Die Grundbegriffe der neuen Typographie
Es kam dem Verfasser, einem ihrer bekanntesten Vertreter, in diesem Photographie und Typographie
Neue Typographie und Normung
Buche zunachst darauf an, den engen Zusammenhang der neuen
Typographie mit dem Gesamtkomplex heutigen Lebens aufzuzei- Typographlsche Hauptformen
Das Typosignet
gen und zu beweisen, daB die neue Typographie ein ebenso notwendi- Der GeschSftsbrief
ger Ausdruck einer neuen Gesinnung ist wie die neue Baukunst und Der Halbbrief
alles Neue, das mit unsererZeitanbricht. Diese geschichtliche Notwen- Briefhtlllen ohne Fenster
Fensterbriefhtlllen
digkeit der neuen Typographie belegt weiterhin eine kritische Dar- Die Postkarte
stellung der alten Typographie. Die Entwicklung der neuen Male- Die Postkarte mit Klappe
Die GeschSftskarte
rel, die fUr alles Neue unserer Zeit geistig bahnbrechend gewesen ist, Die Besuchskarte
wird in einem reich illustrierten Aufsatz des Buches leicht faBlich dar- Werbsachen (Karten, Blatter, Prospekte, Kataloge)
Das Typoplakat
gestellt. Ein kurzer Abschnitt „Zur Geschichte der neuen Typogra¬ Das Bildplakat
phic" leitet zu dem wichtigsten Teile des Buches, den Grundbegriffen Schildformate, Tafeln und Rahmen
der neuen Typographie Uber. Diese werden klar herausgeschSIt, Inserate
Die Zeitschrift
richtige und falsche Beispiele einander gegenUbergestellt. Zwei wei- Die Tageszeitung
tere Artikel behandeln ,,Photographic und Typographic" und Die illustrierte Zeitung
Tabellensatz
,,Neue Typographie und Normung". Das neue Buch

Bibliographic
Der Hauptwert des Buches far den Praktiker besteht in dem zweiten Verzeichnls der Abbildungen
Teil Typographlsche Hauptformen" (siehe das nebenstehende Register
Inhaltsverzeichnis). Esfehlte bisher an einem Werke, das wie dieses Buch
die schon bei einfachen Satzaufgaben auftauchenden gestalterischen
Fragen in gebUhrender AusfGhrlichkeit behandelte. Jeder Teilabschnitt
enthSIt neben allgemelnen typographischen Regeln vor allem die
Abbildungen aller in Betracht kommenden Normblfitter des Deutschen
Normenausschusses, alle andern (z. B. postalischen) Vorschrlften und
zahlreiche Beispiele, Gegenbeispiele und Schemen.

FUr jeden Buchdrucker, insbesondere jeden Akzidenzsetzer, wird ,,Die

typ. tschichold

neue Typographie" ein unentbehrliches Handbuch sein. Von nicht

geringerer Bedeutung ist es far Reklamefachleute, Gebrauchsgraphiker,
Kaufleute, Photographen, Architekten, Ingenieure und Schriftsteller,
also fUr alle, die mit dem Buchdruck in BerUhrung kommen.

Das Buch enthait flber 125 Abbildungen, von

denen etwa ein Viertel zweifarbig gedruckt ist,
und umfaBt gegen 200 Seiten auf gutem Kunst-
druckpapier. Es erscheint lm Format DIN A5 (148X
210 mm) und ist biegsam In Ganzleinen gebunden.

Prels bei Vorbestellung bis 1. Juni 1928: 5.00 RM

durch den Buchhandel nur zum Preise von 6 .50 RM

Bestellschein umstehend
 Sans Serif

443.
Prospectus designed by Jan Sans Serif typefaces have elemental letterforms contrasts of type size and weight, and the im¬
Tschichold for his book. Die stripped of serifs and decorations. Although sans portance of spatial intervals and white space as
NeueTypographie, 1928 serifs first appeared early in the nineteenth cen¬ design elements.
tury their use accelerated during the 1920s. “Form
follows function" became the design dictum, and During the 1950s, Univers and Helvetica were
the functional simplicity of sans serif typefaces both designed as more contemporary versions of
led many designers to look upon them as the ideal Akzidenz Grotesque, a German turn-of-the-
typographic expression of a scientific and tech¬ century sans serif. Compare the text setting and
nological century. the display specimens of Helvetica with their
Univers counterparts. There are subtle differences
In Jan Tschichold's influential book. Die Neue in the drawing of many letterforms. The Univers
Typographie, he advocated a new functional style family (shown here) is renowned for its remark¬
for a rational era. In the prospectus for the book, able graphic unity, which enables the typographic
he used sans serif type as an expression of the age designer to use all twenty-one fonts together as a
(Fig. 443). The page also demonstrates asymmet¬ flexible, integrated typographic system.
rical balancing of elements on a grid system, visual

173
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Univers 45 The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to com¬ The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is
municate to the imagination, without loss by the way, the to communicate to the imagination, without loss by
thought or image intended to be communicated by the the way, the thought or image intended to be com¬
Author. And the whole duty of beautiful typography is not municated by the Author. And the whole duty of
to substitute for the beauty or interest of the thing thought
beautiful typography is not to substitute for the
and intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or
interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win access for
beauty or interest of the thing thought and intended
that communication by the clearness and beauty of the to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest
vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advantage of every of its own, but, on the one hand, to win access for
pause or stage in that communication to interpose some that communication by the clearness and beauty of
characteristic & restful beauty in its own art. We thus have the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advantage
a reason for the clearness and beauty of the text as a of every pause or stage in that communication to
whole, for the especial beauty of the first or introductory interpose some characteristic & restful beauty in its
page and of the title, and for the especial beauty of the own art. We thus have a reason for the clearness
headings of chapters, capital or initial letters, and so on,
and beauty of the text as a whole, for the especial
and an opening for the illustrator as we shall see by and
by. Further, in the case of Poetry, verse, in my opinion, title, and for the especial beauty of the headings of
8/9 9/10

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to com¬ The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is
municate to the imagination, without loss by the way, the to communicate to the imagination, without loss by
thought or image intended to be communicated by the the way, the thought or image intended to be com¬
Author. And the whole duty of beautiful typography is not
municated by the Author. And the whole duty of
to substitute for the beauty or interest of the thing thought
beautiful typography is not to substitute for the
and intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or
interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win access for beauty or interest of the thing thought and intended
that communication by the clearness and beauty of the to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest
vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advantage of every of its own, but, on the one hand, to win access for
pause or stage in that communication to interpose some that communication by the clearness and beauty of
characteristic & restful beauty in its own art. We thus have the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advantage
a reason for the clearness and beauty of the text as a of every pause or stage in that communication to
whole, for the especial beauty of the first or introductory interpose some characteristic & restful beauty in its
page and of the title, and for the especial beauty of the
own art. We thus have a reason for the clearness
and an opening for the illustrator as we shall see by and
and beauty of the text as a whole, for the especial
8/10
9/11

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to com¬ The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is
municate to the imagination, without loss by the way, the to communicate to the imagination, without loss by
thought or image intended to be communicated by the
the way, the thought or image intended to be com¬
Author And the whole duty of beautiful typography is not
municated by the Author. And the whole duty of
to substitute for the beauty or interest of the thing thought
beautiful typography is not to substitute for the
and intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or
interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win access for
beauty or interest of the thing thought and intended
that communication by the clearness and beauty of the to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest
vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advantage of every of its own, but, on the one hand, to win access for
pause or stage in that communication to interpose some that communication by the clearness and beauty of
characteristic & restful beauty in its own art. We thus have the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advantage
a reason for the clearness and beauty of the text as a of every pause or stage in that communication to
whole, for the especial beauty of the first or introductory interpose some characteristic & restful beauty in its
page and of the title, and for the especial beauty of the own art. We thus have a reason for the dearness
8/11
9/12

198
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The whole duty of Typography as of Callig¬

The whole duty of Typography, as of
raphy is to communicate to the imagination,
without loss by the way the thought or image Calligraphy is to communicate to the
intended to be communicated by the Author. imagination, without loss by the way,
And the whole duty of beautiful typography is the thought or image intended to be
not to substitute for the beauty or interest of communicated by the Author And the
the thing thought and intended to be conveyed whole duty of beautiful typography is
by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, not to substitute for the beauty or in¬
but, on the one hand, to win access for that
communication by the clearness and beauty terest of the thing thought and intended
of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take to be conveyed by the symbol, a
advantage of every pause or stage in that com - beauty or interest of its own, but, on
munication to interpose some characteristic the one hand, to win access for that
Er restful beauty in its own art. We thus have a communication by the dearness and
10/11
12/13

The whole duty of Typography, as of Callig¬ The whole duty of Typography, as of

raphy, is to communicate to the imagination, Calligraphy, is to communicate to the
without loss by the way, the thought or image
imagination, without loss by the way,
intended to be communicated by the Author.
. And the whole duty of beautiful typography is the thought or image intended to be
not to substitute for the beauty or interest of communicated by the Author And the
the thing thought and intended to be conveyed whole duty of beautiful typography is
by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, not to substitute for the beauty or in¬
but, on the one hand, to win access for that terest of the thing thought and intended
communication by the clearness and beauty to be conveyed by the symbol, a
of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take
advantage of every pause or stage in that com-
beauty or interest of its own, but, on
munication to interpose some characteristic the one hand, to win access for that
10/12 12/14

The whole duty of Typography, as of Callig¬ The whole duty of Typography, as of

raphy, is to communicate to the imagination, Calligraphy, is to communicate to the
without loss by the way, the thought or image imagination, without loss by the way,
intended to be communicated by the Author.
the thought or image intended to be
And the whole duty of beautiful typography is
communicated by the Author And the
not to substitute for the beauty or interest of
the thing thought and intended to be conveyed whole duty of beautiful typography is
by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, not to substitute for the beauty or in¬
but, on the one hand, to win access for that terest of the thing thought and intended
communication by the clearness and beauty to be conveyed by the symbol, a
of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take beauty or interest of its own, but, on
advantage of every pause or stage in that
12/15
10/13

199
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abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKL MNOPQRS TUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKL MNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
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Univers 55 The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy,
communicate to the imagination, without loss by the is to communicate to the imagination, without loss
way, the thought or image intended to be communi¬ by the way, the thought or image intended to be
cated by the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful communicated by the Author. And the whole duty
typography is not to substitute for the beauty or interest of beautiful typography is not to substitute for
of the thing thought and intended to be conveyed by
the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on the the beauty or interest of the thing thought and in¬
one hand, to win access for that communication by the tended to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or
clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win
hand, to take advantage of every pause or stage in that access for that communication by the clearness
communication to interpose some characteristic & and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand,
restful beauty in its own art. We thus have a reason for to take advantage of every pause or stage in that
the clearness and beauty of the text as a whole, for the communication to interpose some characteristic
especial beauty of the first or introductory page and & restful beauty in its own art. We thus have a
of the title, and for the especial beauty of the headings
of chapters, capital or initial letters, and so on, and an
reason for the clearness and beauty of the text as
opening for the illustrator as we shall see by and by. a whole, for the especial beauty of the first or in-
8/9 troductory page and of the title, and for the es-
9/10

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy,
communicate to the imagination, without loss by the is to communicate to the imagination, without loss
way, the thought or image intended to be communi¬ by the way, the thought or image intended to be
cated by the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful
communicated by the Author. And the whole duty
typography is not to substitute for the beauty or interest
of beautiful typography is not to substitute for
of the thing thought and intended to be conveyed by
the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on the the beauty or interest of the thing thought and in¬
one hand, to win access for that communication by the tended to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or
clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win
hand, to take advantage of every pause or stage in that access for that communication by the clearness
communication to interpose some characteristic & and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand,
restful beauty in its own art. We thus have a reason for to take advantage of every pause or stage in that
the clearness and beauty of the text as a whole, for the communication to interpose some characteristic
especial beauty of the first or introductory page and & restful beauty in its own art. We thus have a
of the title, and for the especial beauty of the headings
reason for the dearness and beauty of the text as
of chapters, capital or initial letters, and so on, and an
9/11
8/10

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy,
communicate to the imagination, without loss by the is to communicate to the imagination, without loss
way, the thought or image intended to be communi¬
by the way, the thought or image intended to be
cated by the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful
communicated by the Author. And the whole duty
typography is not to substitute for the beauty or interest
of beautiful typography is not to substitute for
of the thing thought and intended to be conveyed by
the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on the the beauty or interest of the thing thought and in¬
one hand, to win access for that communication by the tended to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or
clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win
hand, to take advantage of every pause or stage in that access for that communication by the clearness
communication to interpose some characteristic & and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand,
restful beauty in its own art. We thus have a reason for to take advantage of every pause or stage in that
the clearness and beauty of the text as a whole, for the communication to interpose some characteristic
especial beauty of the first or introductory page and & restful beauty in its own art. We thus have a
8/11
9/12

200
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ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
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$ 1234567890 (:! )?&
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABODEFGH/JKL MNOPQRS TUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
$1234567890(.; /)?&
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
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The whole duty of Typography as of Callig¬ The whole duty of Typography, as of

raphy, is to communicate to the imagination,
without loss by the way, the thought or image Calligraphy, is to communicate to the
intended to be communicated by the Author. imagination, without loss by the way,
And the whole duty of beautiful typography the thought or image intended to be
is not to substitute for the beauty or interest communicated by the Author. And the
of the thing thought and intended to be con¬ whole duty of beautiful typography is
veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest of
its own, but, on the one hand, to win access
not to substitute for the beauty or in¬
for that communication by the clearness and terest of the thing thought and in¬
beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand, tended to be conveyed by the symbol,
to take advantage of every pause or stage in a beauty or interest of its own, but, on
that communication to interpose some char- the one hand, to win access for that
acteristic & restful beauty In its own art. We communication by the dearness and
10/11
12/13

The whole duty of Typography, as of Callig¬ The whole duty of Typography, as of

raphy, is to communicate to the imagination,
Calligraphy, is to communicate to the
without loss by the way, the thought or image
intended to be communicated by the Author. imagination, without loss by the way,
And the whole duty of beautiful typography the thought or image intended to be
is not to substitute for the beauty or interest communicated by the Author. And the
of the thing thought and intended to be con¬ whole duty of beautiful typography is
veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest of not to substitute for the beauty or in¬
its own, but, on the one hand, to win access terest of the thing thought and in¬
for that communication by the clearness and
beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand,
tended to be conveyed by the symbol,
to take advantage of every pause or stage in a beauty or interest of its own, but, on
that communication to interpose some char- the one hand', to win access for that
10/12 12/14

The whole duty of Typography, as of Callig¬ The whole duty of Typography, as of

raphy, is to communicate to the imagination, Calligraphy, is to communicate to the
without loss by the way, the thought or image
imagination, without loss by the way,
intended to be communicated by the Author.
And the whole duty of beautiful typography
the thought or image intended to be
is not to substitute for the beauty or interest communicated by the Author. And the
. of the thing thought and intended to be con¬ whole duty of beautiful typography is
veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest of not to substitute for the beauty or in¬
its own, but, on the one hand, to win access terest of the thing thought and in¬
for that communication by the clearness and tended to be conveyed by the symbol,
beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand,
a beauty or interest of its own, but, on
to take advantage of every pause or stage in
12/15
10/13

201
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ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
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Univers 65 The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, The whole duty of Typography, as of Callig¬
is to communicate to the imagination, without raphy, is to communicate to the imagination,
loss by the way, the thought or image intended to without loss by the way, the thought or image
be communicated by the Author. And the whole intended to be communicated by the Author.
duty of beautiful typography is not to substitute
And the whole duty of beautiful typography
for the beauty or interest of the thing thought and
intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty
is not to substitute for the beauty or interest
or interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win of the thing thought and intended to be con¬
access for that communication by the clearness veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest of
and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand, its own, but, on the one hand, to win access
to take advantage of every pause or stage in that for that communication by the clearness and
communication to interpose some characteristic beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand,
& restful beauty in its own art. We thus have a rea¬ to take advantage of every pause or stage in
son for the clearness and beauty of the text as a that communication to interpose some char¬
whole, for the especial beauty of the first or intro¬
ductory page and of the title, and for the especial
acteristic & restful beauty in its own art. We
beauty of the headings of chapters, capital or beauty of the text as a whole, for the especial
8/9 9/10

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, The whole duty of Typography, as of Callig¬
is to communicate to the imagination, without raphy, is to communicate to the imagination,
loss by the way, the thought or image intended to without loss by the way, the thought or image
be communicated by the Author. And the whole
intended to be communicated by the Author.
duty of beautiful typography is not to substitute
for the beauty or interest of the thing thought and
And the whole duty of beautiful typography
intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty is not to substitute for the beauty or interest
or interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win of the thing thought and intended to be con¬
access for that communication by the clearness veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest of
and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand, its own, but, on the one hand, to win access
to take advantage of every pause or stage in that for that communication by the clearness and
communication to interpose some characteristic beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand,
& restful beauty in its own art. We thus have a rea¬ to take advantage of every pause or stage in
son for the clearness and beauty of the text as a
that communication to interpose some char-
whole, for the especial beauty of the first or intro-
acteristic & restful beauty in its own art. We
ductory page and of the title, and for the especial
9/11
8/10

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, The whole duty of Typography, as of Callig¬
is to communicate to the imagination, without raphy, is to communicate to the imagination,
loss by the way, the thought or image intended to
without loss by the way, the thought or image
be communicated by the Author. And the whole
intended to be communicated by the Author.
duty of beautiful typography is not to substitute
And the whole duty of beautiful typography
for the beauty or interest of the thing thought and
intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty
is not to substitute for the beauty or interest
or interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win of the thing thought and intended to be con¬
access for that communication by the clearness veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest of
and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand, its own, but, on the one hand, to win access
to take advantage of every pause or stage in that for that communication by the clearness and
communication to interpose some characteristic beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand,
& restful beauty in its own art. We thus have a rea¬ to take advantage of every pause or stage in
son for the clearness and beauty of the text as a that communication to interpose some char-
8/11
9/12

202
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The whole duty of Typography, as of Cal¬ The whole duty of Typography, as

ligraphy, is to communicate to the im¬
agination, without loss by the way, the
of Calligraphy, is to communicate
thought or image intended to be com¬ to the imagination, without loss by
municated by the Author. And the whole the way, the thought or image in¬
duty of beautiful typography is not to tended to be communicated by the
substitute for the beauty or interest of Author. And the whole duty of
the thing thought and intended to be con¬ beautiful typography is not to sub¬
veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest
of its own, but, on the one hand, to win
stitute for the beauty or interest of
access for that communication by the the thing thought and intended to
clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and be conveyed by the symbol, a
on the other hand, to take advantage of beauty or interest of its own, but,
every pause or stage in that communica- on the one hand, to win access for
10/11
12/13

The whole duty of Typography, as of Cal¬ The whole duty of Typography, as

ligraphy, is to communicate to the im¬ of Calligraphy, is to communicate
agination, without loss by the way, the
thought or image intended to be com¬
to the imagination, without loss by
municated by the Author. And the whole the way, the thought or image in¬
duty of beautiful typography is not to tended to be communicated by the
substitute for the beauty or interest of Author. And the whole duty of
the thing thought and intended to be con¬ beautiful typography is not to sub¬
veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest stitute for the beauty or interest of
of its own, but, on the one hand, to win
the thing thought and intended to
access for that communication by the
clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and
be conveyed by the symbol, a
on the other hand, to take advantage of beauty or interest of its own, but,
10/12 12/14

The whole duty of Typography, as of Cal¬ The whole duty of Typography, as

ligraphy, is to communicate to the im¬ of Calligraphy, is to communicate
agination, without loss by the way, the
to the imagination, without loss by
thought or image intended to be com¬
the way, the thought or image in¬
municated by the Author. And the whole
duty of beautiful typography is not to tended to be communicated by the
substitute for the beauty or interest of Author. And the whole duty of
the thing thought and intended to be con¬ beautiful typography is not to sub¬
veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest stitute for the beauty or interest of
of its own, but, on the one hand, to win the thing thought and intended to
access for that communication by the
be conveyed by the symbol, a
dearness and beauty of the vehicle, and
12/15
10/13

203
 P. VIR G I LI I MARONIS

GEORGICON.
LIBER SECUNDUS.

H Actenus arvorum cultus, et fidera coeli:

Nunc te, Bacche, canam, nec non filveftria tecum
Virgulta, et prolem tarde crefcentis olivae.
Hue, pater o Lenaee; (tuis hie omnia plena
5 Muneribus: tibi pampineo gravidus autumno
Floret ager; fpumat plenis vindemia labris)
Hue, pater o Lenaee, veni; nudataque mufto
Tinge novo mecum direptis crura cothumis.
Principio arboribus varia eft natura creandis :
io Namque aliae, nullis hominum cogentibus, ipfae
Sponte fua veniunt, campofque et flumina late
Curva tenent: ut molle filer, lentaeque geniftae,
Populus, et glauca canentia fronde fali&a.
Pars autem pofito furgunt de femine: ut altae
15 Caftaneae, nemorumque Jovi quae maxima frondet
Aefculus, atque habitae Graiis oracula quercus.
Pullulat ab radice aliis denfiflima filva:
Ut cerafis, ulmifque: etiam Parnaftia laurus
Parva Tub ingenti matris fe fubjicit umbra.
20 Hos natura modos primum dedit: his genus omne
Silvarum, fruticumque viret, nemorumque facrorum.
Sunt alii, quos ipfe via fibi repperit ufus.
Hie plantas tenero abfeindens de corpore matrum
Depofuit
Transitional

444.
Title page for the second book Transitional typefaces appeared during the eigh¬ letterspaced display type, and thoughtfully con¬
of Virgil's Georgies, designed teenth century, a period of typographic evolution. sidered interline and word spacing are present. The
and printed by John Basker- Designers gradually increased the contrast be¬ great Roman poet is presented to the reader with
ville, 1757. tween thick-and-thin strokes, made serifs sharper clarity and dignity in a book that "went forth to
and more horizontal, and increased the vertical astonish all the librarians of Europe."
stress of rounded letterforms. By the century's
end. Old Style typefaces had evolved into the If the words Transitional and Baskerville have
Modern styles with hairline serifs and geometric become interwoven in the lexicon of typography,
proportions: typefaces designed in the middle of it is because the Transitional typefaces produced
this period of change were transitional. by John Baskerville of Birmingham, England have
an unsurpassed beauty and harmony. Many
Simplicity and understated elegance were achieved Transitional typefaces in use today, including the
through the use of John Baskerville's masterful specimens shown, are closely modeled after
Transitional typefaces, seen in the title page of Baskerville's work.
Virgil's Georgies (Fig. 444). Generous margins.

205
 Baskerville

72 Point

abcdefghijklmnop
qrstuvwxyzAB
CDEFGHIJKLM
NOPQRSTUV
WXYZS1234567
890C ?
206
Baskerville Italic

207
Baskerville
18 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVW
XYZ $123456789(

48 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvw
xyz ABCDEFGHIJKLMN
OPQRSTUVWXYZ$12
34567890C,
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTU
VWXYZ $1234567890(.,

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVW
XYZ$1234567890(.,
208
 Baskerville Italic
18 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890(,

48 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvw
xyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNO
PQRSTUVWXYZ$12345
67890(,
36 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUV
WXYZ$1234567890(,’“”-;:!j?&
30 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890(, ”;:!)?&
209
 abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890!)?& $1234567890 :!)?&

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ A BCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTU V WX TZ
S1234567890(.
$1234567890?&

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to com¬ The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to
Baskerville
municate to the imagination, without loss by the way, the thought communicate to the imagination, without loss by the way,
or image intended to be communicated by the Author. And the the thought or image intended to be communicated by
whole duty of beautiful typography is not to substitute for the the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful typography
beauty or interest of the thing thought and intended to be con¬ is not to substitute for the beauty or interest of the thing
veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on the
thought and intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a
one hand, to win access for that communication by the clearness
beauty or interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win
and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advan¬
tage of every pause or stage in that communication to interpose access for that communication by the clearness and beauty
some characteristic & restful beauty in its own art. We thus have of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advantage
a reason for the clearness and beauty of the text as a whole, for of every pause or stage in that communication to inter¬
the especial beauty of the first or introductory page and of the pose some characteristic Sc restful beauty in its own art.
title, and for the especial beauty of the headings of chapters, We thus have a reason for the clearness and beauty of the
capital or initial letters, and so on, and an opening for the illus¬ text as a whole, for the especial beauty of the first or in¬
trator as we shall see by and by. Further, in the case of Poetry,
troductory page and of the title, and for the especial
verse, in my opinion, appeals by its form to the eye, as well as to
ters, and so on, and an opening for the illustrator as we shall
the ear, and should be placed on' the page so that its structure may be
9/10
8/9

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to com¬ The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to
municate to the imagination, without loss by the way, the thought communicate to the imagination, without loss by the way,
or image intended to be communicated by tire Author. And the the thought or image intended to be communicated by
whole duty of beautiful typography is not to substitute for the the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful typography
beauty or interest of the thing thought and intended to be con¬
is not to substitute for the beauty or interest of the thing
veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on the
thought and intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a
one hand, to win access for that communication by the clearness
beauty or interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win
and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advan¬
tage of every pause or stage in that communication to interpose access for that communication by the dearness and beauty
some characteristic Sc restful beauty in its own art. We thus have of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advantage
a reason for the clearness and beauty of the text as a whole, for of every pause or stage in that communication to inter¬
the especial beauty of the first or introductory page and of the pose some characteristic & restful beauty in its own art.
title, and for the especial beauty of the headings of chapters, We thus have a reason for the clearness and beauty of the
capital or initial letters, and so on, and an opening for the illus¬ text as a whole, for the especial beauty of the first or in¬
trator as we shall see by and by. Further, in the case of Poetry,
troductory page and of the title, and for the especial beauty of
verse, in my opinion, appeals by its form to the eye, as well as to the ear,
9/11
8/10

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to com¬ The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to
municate to the imagination, without loss by the way, the thought communicate to the imagination, without loss by the way,
or image intended to be communicated by the Author. And the the thought or image intended to be communicated by
whole duty of beautiful typography is not to substitute for the
the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful typography
beauty or interest of the thing thought and intended to be con¬
is not to substitute for the beauty or interest of the thing
veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on the
thought and intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a
one hand, to win access for that communication by the clearness
beauty or interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win
and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advan¬
tage of every pause or stage in that communication to interpose access for that communication by the clearness and beauty

some characteristic & restful beauty in its own art. We thus have of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advantage
a reason for the clearness and beauty of the text as a whole, for of every pause or stage in that communication to inter¬
the especial beauty of the first or introductory page and of the pose some characteristic & restful beauty in its own art.
title, and for the especial beauty of the headings of chapters, We thus have a reason for the clearness and beauty of the
capital or initial letters, and so on, and an opening for the illustrator as text as a whole, for the especial beauty of the first or introductory
8/11 9/12

210
 abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
abcdef gh i j klmnopqrstu v wxy z
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
$1234567890(.,
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890;:!)?&

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, The whole duty of Typography, as of Cal¬
is to communicate to the imagination, without loss
ligraphy, is to communicate to the imagina¬
by the way, the thought or image intended to be
communicated by the Author. And the whole duty
tion, without loss by the way, the thought or
of beautiful typography is not to substitute for the image intended to be communicated by the
beauty or interest of the thing thought and in¬ Author. And the whole duty of beautiful
tended to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or typography is not to substitute for the beauty
interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win or interest of the thing thought and intended
access for that communication by the clearness and
to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or
beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to
take advantage of every pause or stage in that com¬
interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to
munication to interpose some characteristic & rest¬ win access for that communication by the
ful beauty in its own art. We thus have a reason for clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and on
the clearness and beauty of the text as a whole, for the the other hand, to take advantage of every pause
10/11
12/13

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, The whole duty of Typography, as of Cal¬
is to communicate to the imagination, without loss ligraphy, is to communicate to the imagina¬
by the way, the thought or image intended to be
tion, without loss by the way, the thought or
communicated by the Author. And the whole duty
image intended to be communicated by the
of beautiful typography is not to substitute for the
beauty or interest of the thing thought and in¬ Author. And the whole duty of beautiful
tended to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or typography is not to substitute for the beauty
interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win or interest of the thing thought and intended
access for that communication by the clearness and to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or
beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to
interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to
take advantage of every pause or stage in that com¬
win access for that communication by the
munication to interpose some characteristic & rest-
clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and on the
ful beauty in its own art. We thus have a reason for the
12/14
10/12

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, The whole duty of Typography, as of Cal¬
is to communicate to the imagination, without loss ligraphy, is to communicate to the imagina¬
by the way, the thought or image intended to be
tion, without loss by the way, the thought or
communicated by the Author. And the whole duty
image intended to be communicated by the
of beautiful typography is not to substitute for the
Author. And the whole duty of beautiful
beauty or interest of the thing thought and in¬
tended to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or typography is not to substitute for the beauty
interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win or interest of the thing thought and intended
access for that communication by the clearness and to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or
heauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to
take advantage of every pause or stage in that com-
win access for that communication by the clear-
munication to interpose some characteristic & restful
12/15
10/13

211
2,50

63.
Modern

445.
Page 250 from the Manuale The word modern is a relative term. Often, we use fonts designed by Bodoni. The page reproduced
Tipographico, 1818 it interchangeably with the term contemporary; here in its actual size shows the dazzling contrasts
sometimes it is used to identify movements or and vigorous proportions of modern-style typog¬
periods in the arts representing a radical break raphy (Fig. 445). The thick-and-thin scotch rules
with tradition. In typographic design, Modern (see Figure 226) echo and complement the thick-
identifies typefaces of the late 1700s with flat, and-thin stroke weights.
unbracketed serifs, extreme contrast between
thick-and-thin strokes, and geometric construc¬ Modern-style typefaces dominated nineteenth
tion. The influence of writing and calligraphy was century book typography and have enjoyed con¬
replaced by mathematical measurement and the tinued acceptance during the twentieth century.
use of mechanical instruments to construct Numerous variations —from extreme hairline
letterforms. versions to ultrabolds; from narrow, condensed
fonts to wide, expanded forms — have been de¬
After the death of type designer and printer, signed. Many contemporary fonts bear the names
Giambattista Bodoni, his widow and foreman pub¬ of eighteenth-century designers: Bodoni, Didot,
lished the Manuale Tipographico, displaying speci¬ and Walbaum.
mens of the approximately three hundred type

213
 Bodoni

214
Bodoni Italic

215
Bodoni
18 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
11234567890

48 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTl)
VWXYZ $1234567890

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890

216
Bodoni Italic
18 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuwwwxyz
ABCDEFGHUKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890

48 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuwwwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTU
VWXYZ$1234567890(.r,-;:!)?&
36 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuwwwxyz
ABCDEFGHUKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890(.r ”■;:!)?&
30 Point

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuwivwxyz
ABCDEFGHUKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890 („””;:!)?&

217
 abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890 (.;:!)?& $1234567890 (.;:!)?&

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
A BCDEFGHIJK L MNOPQR STUVWX YZ
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWX YZ
$1234567890;:!)?&
$1234567890;: !)?&

Bodoni The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to communicate The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to com¬
to the imagination, without loss by the way, the thought or image municate to the imagination, without loss by the way, the
intended to be communicated by the Author. And the whole duty of thought or image intended to be communicated by the Author.
beautiful typography is not to substitute for the beauty or interest
And the whole duty of beautiful typography is not to substi¬
of the thing thought and intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a
tute for the beauty or interest of the thing thought and intended
beauty or interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win access for
to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own,
that communication by the clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and
on the other hand, to take advantage of every pause or stage in that but, on the one hand, to win access for that communication by
communication to interpose some characteristic & restful beauty in the clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand,
its own art. We thus have a reason for the clearness and beauty of the to take advantage of every pause or stage in that communication
text as a whole, for the especial beauty of the first or introductory to interpose some characteristic & restful beauty in its own art.
page and of the title, and for the especial beauty of the headings of We thus have a reason for the clearness and beauty of the text
chapters, capital or initial letters, and so on, and an opening for the as a whole, for the especial beauty of the first or introductory
illustrator as we shall see by and by. Further, in the case of Poetry,
page and of the title, and for the especial beauty of the headings
verse, in my opinion, appeals by its form to the eye, as well as to the
of chapters, capital or initial letters, and so on, and an opening
ear, and should be placed on the page so that its structure may be
taken in at a glance and distinctively appreciated, & anything case of Poetry, verse, in my opinion, appeals by its form to the
8/9 9/10

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to communicate The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to com¬
to the imagination, without loss by the way, the thought or image municate to the imagination, without loss by the way, the
intended to be communicated by the Author. And the whole duty of thought or image intended to be communicated by the Author.
beautiful typography is not to substitute for the beauty or interest And the whole duty of beautiful typography is not to substi¬
of the thing thought and intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a tute for the beauty or interest of the thing thought and intended
beauty or interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win access for to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own,
that communication by the clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and but, on the one hand, to win access for that communication bv
on the other hand, to take advantage of every pause or stage in that the clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand,
communication to interpose some characteristic & restful beauty in to take advantage of every pause or stage in that communication
its own art. We thus have a reason for the clearness and beauty of the to interpose some characteristic & restful beauty in its own art.
text as a whole, for the especial beauty of the first or introductory We thus have a reason for the clearness and beauty of the text
page and of the tide, and for the especial beauty of the headings of as a whole, for the especial beauty of the first or introductory
chapters, capital or initial letters, and so on, and an opening for the page and of the title, and for the especial beauty of the headings
illustrator as we shall see by and by. Further, in the case of Poetry, of chapters, capital or initial letters, and so on, and an opening
8/10 9/11

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to communicate The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to com¬
to the imagination, without loss by the way, the thought or image
municate to the imagination, without loss by the way, the
intended to be communicated by the Author. And the whole duty of
thought or image intended to be conununicated by the Author.
beautiful typography is not to substitute for the beauty or interest
of the thing thought and intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a And the whole duty of beautiful typography is not to substi¬
beauty or interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win access for tute for the beauty or interest of the thing thought and intended
that communication by the clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own,
on the other hand, to take advantage of every pause or stage in that
but, on the one hand, to win access for that communication by
communication to interpose some characteristic & restful beauty in
the clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand,
its own art. We thus have a reason for the clearness and beauty of the
text as a whole, for the especial beauty of the first or introductory to take advantage of every pause or stage in that communication
page and of the tide, and for the especial beauty of the headings of to interpose some characteristic & restful beauty in its own art.
chapters, capital or initial letters, and so on, and an opening for the We thus have a reason for the clearness and beauty of the text
illustrator as we shall see by and by. Further, in the case of Poetry,
as a whole, for the especial beauty of the first or introductory
ear, and should be placed on the page so that its structure may be
for the illustrator as we shall see by and by. Further, in the
8/11
9/12

218
abcdef gh ijk lm nopqrstuv w x y z
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890
a bcdefghijk Imnopqrstuvwxyz
A BCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUV WX YZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
$1234567890
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTU V WX YZ
$1234567890(.) ?&

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to The whole duty of Typography, as of Callig¬
communicate to the imagination, without loss by the way,
raphy, is to communicate to the imagination,
the thought or image intended to be communicated by the
Author. And the whole duty of beautiful typography is
without loss by the way, the thought or image
not to substitute for the beauty or interest of the thing intended to be communicated by the Author.
thought and intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a And the whole duty of beautiful typography
beauty or interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win is not to substitute for the beauty or interest of
access for that communication by the clearness and beauty the thing thought and intended to be conveyed
of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advantage
by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own,
of every pause or stage in that communication to inter¬
pose some characteristic & restful beauty in its own art.
but, on the one hand, to win access for that
We thus have a reason for the clearness and beauty of communication by the clearness and beauty of
the text as a whole, for the especial beauty of the first the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take ad¬
or introductory page and of the title, and for the especial vantage of every pause or stage in that com-
10/11
12/13

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to The whole duty of Typography, as of Callig¬
communicate to the imagination, without loss by the way, raphy, is to communicate to the imagination,
the thought or image intended to be communicated by the
without loss by the way, the thought or image
Author. And the whole duty of beautiful typography is
intended to be communicated by the Author.
not to substitute for the beauty or interest of the thing
thought and intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a And the whole duty of beautiful typography
beauty or interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win is not to substitute for the beauty or interest of
access for that communication by the clearness and beauty the thing thought and intended to be conveyed
of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advantage by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own,
of every pause or stage in that communication to inter¬
but, on the one hand, to win access for that
pose some characteristic & restful beauty in its own art.
communication by the clearness and beauty of
We thus have a reason for the clearness and beauty of
the text as a whole, for the especial beauty of the first
the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take ad-
10/12 12/14

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to The whole duty of Typography, as of Callig¬
communicate to the imagination, without loss by the way, raphy, is to communicate to the imagination,
the thought or image intended to be communicated by the without loss by the way, the thought or image
Author. And the whole duty of beautiful typography is
intended to be communicated by the Author.
not to substitute for the beauty or interest of the thing
And the whole duty of beautiful typography
thought and intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a
beauty or interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win
is not to substitute for the beauty or interest of
access for that communication by the clearness and beauty the thing thought and intended to be conveyed
of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advantage by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own,
of every pause or stage in that communication to inter¬ but, on the one hand, to win access for that
pose some characteristic & restful beauty in its own art. communication by the clearness and beauty of
We thus have a reason for the clearness and beauty of
12/15
10/13

219
 NEW LINE BETWEEN

LANDING AT

Hamburgh, Marlborough, Milton, Poughkeepsie, Hyde

Park, Kingston, Hhinebeck, Barrytown,Re<lhook, Bristol, Westcamp
CatskiH, Hudson, Coxsackie, Stuyvesant, Baltimore *A Coeyrnans.

On find after M 0X0*11% October 15 th,

The Superior Low ISe^urc Sum.nr

CAPTAIN WILSON,
Witt ran as a Passage and Freight iloat between
Newburgh and Aibamj, tearing Newburgh

, WEDDAIS 8 FUATS
AT SEVEN O’CLOCK A.M.,
And ALBANY on Tuesdays, Thursdays & Saturdays,
at half-past 0 o’clock A.M.
•fllbany, Oct. 9th, 1840.
Egyptian ITC Lubalin Graph

446.
Broadsheet, 1849. This slab- Egyptian or slab-serif typefaces first appeared in ITC Lubalin Graph is a contemporary Egyptian
serif display type has been the early nineteenth century and enjoyed great typeface designed by Herb Lubalin. It is available
lightly inked, and the textured popularity. Their bold, machinelike qualities offered in five weights: light, book, demi, medium, and
grain of the wooden type is a dynamic expression of the industrial age. During bold. Typographic historians have speculated that
the Industrial Revolution, letterpress printers de¬ the first sans serif typefaces may have been
clearly visible, as in the words
lighted in using bold slab-serif display fonts to give created by removing the serifs from slab-serif
St. Nicolas.
their messages graphic impact (Fig. 446). Rec¬ designs. ITC Lubalin Graph was designed by add¬
tangular serifs, uniform or almost uniform stroke ing serifs to the geometric sans serif type family
weight, and geometric letterform construction Avant Garde Gothic.
give Egyptian typefaces a bold, abstract design
quality. Egyptian styles whose abrupt right-angle
joinery is tempered by curved bracketing include
the Clarendon, Century, and Cheltenham type
families.
 ITC Lubalin Graph Book

72 Point

abcdecfghijkl
mnopqrstuvwx
yzABCDEFGHI
JKLMNOPQRST
UVWXYZ $123
/ \\//
456789QC ;:!)?& 222
 ITC Lubalin Graph Demi

72 Point

abcdefghijkl
mnopqrstuv
wxyz ABCDEF
6HIJKLMNOP
QRSTUVWX
YZ $123456789 223
 ITC Lubalin Graph Book

48 Point

abcdeefghijklmnopq
rstuvwxyzABCDEFGHI
JKLMNOPQRSTUVW
XYZ $1234567890(,'"-;:!)?&
30 Point

abcdeefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890C“-,-:!)?&
18 Point

abcdeefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890C"-;:!)?&

224
 ITC Lubalin Graph Demi

48 Point

abcdefghijklmnop
qrstuvwxyz ABCDEF
GHUKLMNOPQEST
UVWXYZ $1234567890
30 Point

abcdeighijklnmopqistuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPaRSTUVW
XYZ$1234567890(.,
18 Point

abcdelghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890

225
 abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890 (. $1234567890
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQ.RSTUVWXYZ
$1234567890
$1234567890 (.!) ? &

ITC Lubalin Graph The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, The whole duty of Typography as of Callig¬
Book is to communicate to the imagination, without loss raphy, is to communicate to the imagination,
by the way, the thought or image intended to be without loss by the way, the thought or image
communicated by the Author. And the whole duty intended to be communicated by the Author.
of beautiful typography is not to substitute for the
And the whole duty of beautiful typography
beauty or interest of the thing thought and intend¬
ed to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or in¬
is not to substitute for the beauty or interest of
terest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win access the thing thought and intended to be con¬
for that communication by the clearness and veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its
beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to own, but, on the one hand, to win access for
take advantage of every pause or stage in that that communication by the clearness and
communication to interpose some characteristic & beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand,
restful beauty in its own art. We thus have a reason to take advantage of every pause or stage in
for the clearness and beauty of the text as a whole, that communication to interpose some char¬
for the especial beauty of the first or introductory
page and of the title, and for the especial beauty
acteristic & restful beauty in its own art. We
of the headings of chapters, capital or initial let- beauty of the text as a whole, for the especial
8/9 9/10

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, The whole duty of Typography, as of Callig¬
is to communicate to the imagination, without loss raphy, is to communicate to the imagination,
by the way, the thought or image intended to be without loss by the way, the thought or image
communicated by the Author. And the whole duty
intended to be communicated by the Author.
of beautiful typography is not to substitute for the
beauty or interest of the thing thought and intend¬
And the whole duty of beautiful typography
ed to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or in¬ is not to substitute for the beauty or interest of
terest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win access the thing thought and intended to be con¬
for that communication by the clearness and veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its
beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to own, but, on the one hand, to win access for
take advantage of every pause or stage in that that communication by the clearness and
communication to interpose some characteristic 8c beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand,
restful beauty in its own art. We thus have a reason to take advantage of every pause or stage in
for the clearness and beauty of the text as a whole,
that communication to interpose some char¬
page and of the title, and for the especial beauty
acteristic & restful beauty in its own art. We
8/10
9/11

The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, The whole duty of Typography, as of Callig¬
is to communicate to the imagination, without loss
raphy, is to communicate to the imagination,
by the way, the thought or image intended to be
without loss by the way, the thought or image
communicated by the Author. And the whole duty
intended to be communicated by the Author.
of beautiful typography is not to substitute for the
beauty or interest of the thing thought and intend¬
And the whole duty of beautiful typography
ed to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or in¬ is not to substitute for the beauty or interest of
terest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win access the thing thought and intended to be con¬
for that communication by the clearness and veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its
beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to own, but, on the one hand, to win access for
take advantage of every pause or stage in that that communication by the clearness and
communication to interpose some characteristic 8c beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand,
restful beauty in its own art. We thus have a reason to take advantage of every pause or stage in
for the especial beauty of the first or introductory
that communication to interpose some char-
8/11 9/12

226
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ligraphy, is to communicate to the imag¬
ination, without loss by the way, the
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municated by the Author. And the whole by the way the thought or image
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stitute for the beauty or interest of the the Author. And the whole duty of
thing thought and intended to be con¬ beautiful typography is not to sub¬
veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest
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on the other hand, to take advantage of beauty or interest of its own, but,
every pause or stage in that communica- on the one hand, to win access foi
10/11
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The whole duty of Typography, as of Cal¬ The whole duty of Typography, as

ligraphy is to communicate to the imag¬ of Calligraphy, is to communicate
ination, without loss by the way, the to the imagination, without loss
thought or image intended to be com¬
municated by the Author. And the whole
by the way, the thought or image
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stitute for the beauty or interest of the the Author. And the whole duty of
thing thought and intended to be con¬ beautiful typography is not to sub¬
veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest stitute for the beauty or interest of
of its own, but, on the one hand, to win the thing thought and intended to
access for that communication by the
be conveyed by the symbol, a
clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and
on the other hand, to take advantage of beauty or interest of its own, but,
12/14
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The whole duty of Typography, as of Cal¬ The whole duty of Typography, as

ligraphy, is to communicate to the imag¬ of Calligraphy, is to communicate
ination, without loss by the way, the to the imagination, without loss
thought or image intended to be com¬
by the way, the thought or image
municated by the Author. And the whole
duty of beautiful typography is not to sub¬
intended to be communicated by
stitute for the beauty or interest of the the Author. And the whole duty of
thing thought and intended to be con¬ beautiful typography is not to sub¬
veyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest stitute for the beauty or interest of
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12/15
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 Of all the achievements of the human mind, the Of all the achievements of the human mind, the birth
birth of the alphabet is the most momentous. of the alphabet is the most momentous. "Letters, like
“Letters, like men, have now an ancestry, and the men, have now an ancestry, and the ancestry of
ancestry of words, as of men, is often a very noble words, as of men, is often a very noble possession,
possession, making them capable of great tilings”: making them capable of great things": indeed, it has
indeed, it has been said that the invention of writ¬ been said that the invention of writing is more im¬
ing is more important than all the victories ever portant than all the victories ever won or constitutions
won or constitutions devised by man. The history devised by man. The history of writing is, in a way, the
of writing is, in a way, the history of the human history of the human race, since in it are bound
race, since in it are bound up, severally and to¬ up, severally and together, the development of
gether, the development of thought, of expres¬ thought, of expression, of art, of intercommunication,
sion, of art, of intercommunication, and of and of mechanical invention.
mechanical invention.
When and to whom in the dim past the idea When and to whom in the dim past the idea came
came that man’s speech could be better repre¬ that man's speech could be better represented by fewer
sented by fewer symbols (to denote certain symbols (to denote certain unvarying sounds) selected
Text column
unvarying sounds) selected from the confused from the confused mass of picture ideographs, phono¬
specimens
mass of picture ideographs, phonograms, and grams, and their like, which constituted the first meth¬
The text settings shown are
their like, which constituted the first methods ods of representing human speech, we have no certain
presented for comparative of representing human speech, we have no cer¬ means of knowing. But whatever the source, the
analysis of typeface texture, tain means of knowing. But whatever the source, development did come; and we must deal with it.To
tone, and legibility. They can the development did come; and we must deal present briefly the early history of the alphabet re¬
be photostated or photocopied with it. To present briefly the early history of the quires that much collateral matter must be disregarded
for use in layouts. Different alphabet requires that much collateral matter and a great deal that is omitted here must neces¬
column structures with vary¬ must be disregarded and a great deal that is sarily be taken for granted; the writer desires, how¬
ing line length, paragraph in¬
omitted here must necessarily be taken for ever, to present what seems to him to be a logical and
dications, and justification are
granted; the writer desires, however, to present probable story of the alphabet's beginnings.
shown. These factors influence
what seems to him to be c logical and probable
the visual appearance and
readability of the specimens.
story of the alphabet’s beginnings. Although it has not yet been proved conclusively, it
Although it has not yet been proved conclu¬ is quite possible, and altogether probable, that the
sively, it is quite possible, and altogether prob¬ traders of Phoenicia and the Aegean adopted both
able, that the traders of Phoenicia and the Aegean the use of papyrus and Egyptian hieratic writing,
adopted both the use of papyrus and Egyptian from which developed the Phoenician alphabet.
hieratic writing, from which developed the Whether all the earliest writing systems of different
Phoenician alphabet. Whether all the earliest countries sprang from one common stock of picture
writing systems of different countries sprang writing, we shall, perhaps, never surely know; we do
from one common stock of picture writing, we know that the picture writing of Egypt exercised a
shall, perhaps, never surely know; we do know very great influence, and it seems quite safe for us to
that the picture writing of Egypt exercised a assume that crude attempts by those ancient Nile-
very great influence, and it seems quite safe for dwellers to express thought visible or to record facts
us to assume that crude attempts by those ancient by a series of pictures — or by diagrams sufficiently
Nile-dwellers to express thought visible or to pictorial, at least, to connect them with well-known
record facts by a series of pictures - or by dia¬ objects (disregarding the earlier mnemonic stage or
grams sufficiently pictorial, at least, to connect use of memory aids like the quipu or knotted cord,
them with well-known objects (disregarding the of which the rosary is a modern example) —constitute
earlier mnemonic stage or use of memory aids the origin of the abstract and arbitrary signs or sym¬
like the quipu or knotted cord, of which the bols which we call "letters."
rosaty is a modern example) - constitute the
origin of the abstract and arbitrary signs or sym¬ Let us assume, as logically we may, that picture writing
bols which we call “letters.” in which a drawing depicting or suggesting the object
Let us assume, as logically we may, that picture itself came first; next must have come the ideograph,
writing in which a drawing depicting or suggest¬ the sign suggesting the name of the object repre¬
ing the object itself came first; next must have sented instead of representing the thing itself; & next
come the ideograph, the sign suggesting the name the phonogram, or sign that suggests a sound only.
of the object represented instead of representing
the thing itself; & next the phonogram, or sign In the first class just named belong the wedge-shaped,
that suggests a sound only or cuneiform, characters inscribed in the clay tablets,
In the first class just named belong the wedge - cylinders, and monuments of Assyria, Babylonia, &

10/12 ITC Garamond Book 10/12 Future Medium

238
 Of aU the achievements of the human mind, the birth of the alphabet
Of all the achievements of the human mind,
is the most momentous. “Letters, Idee men, have now an ancestry, and
the birth of the alphabet is the most momen¬
the ancestry of words, as of men, is often a very noble possession, making
tous. “Letters, like men, have now an an¬
them capable of great things”: indeed, it has been said that the inven¬
cestry, and the ancestry of words, as of men,
tion of writing is more important than all the victories ever won or
is often a very noble possession, making
constitutions devised by man. The history of writing is, m a way, the his¬
them capable of great things”: indeed, it has
tory of the human race, since in it are bound up, severally and together,
been said that the invention of writing is
the development of thought, of expression, of art, of intercommunica¬ more important than all the victories ever
tion, and of mechanical invention.
won or constitutions devised by man. The
When and to whom in the dim past the idea came that mans history of writing is, in a way, the history'
speech could be better represented by fewer symbols (to denote certain of the human race, since in it are bound up,
unvarying sounds) selected from the confused mass of picture ideo¬ severally and together, the development of
graphs, phonograms, and their like, which constituted the first methods thought, of expression, of art, of intercom¬
of representing human speech, we have no certain means of knowing. munication, and of mechanical invention.
But whatever the source, the development did come; and we must deal When and to whom in the dim past
with it. To present briefly the early history of the alphabet requires that the idea came that man’s speech could be
much collateral matter must be disregarded and a great deal that is better represented by fewer symbols (to
omitted here must necessarily be taken for granted; the writer desires, denote certain unvarying sounds) selected
however, to present what seems to him to be a logical and probable story from the confused mass of picture ideo¬
of the alphabet’s beginnings.
graphs, phonograms, and their like, which
Although it has not yet been proved conclusively, it is quite pos¬ constituted the first methods of repre¬
sible, and altogether probable, that the traders of Phoenicia and the senting human speech, we have no certain
Aegean adopted both the use of papyrus and Egyptian hieratic writing, means of knowing. But whatever the
from which developed the Phoenician alphabet. Whether all the earliest source, the development did come; and
writing systems of different countries sprang from one common stock of we must deal with it. To present briefly the
picture writing, we shall, perhaps, never surely know; we do know that early history of the alphabet requires that
the picture writing of Egypt exercised a very great influence, and it much collateral matter must be disregarded
seems quite safe for us to assume that crude attempts by those ancient and a great deal that is omitted here must
Nile-dwellers to express thought visible or to record facts by a series of necessarily be taken for granted; the writer
pictures—or by diagrams sufficiently pictorial, at least, to connect them desires, however, to present what seems to
with well-known objects (disregarding the earlier mnemonic stage or use him to be a logical and probable story of
of memory aids like the quipu or knotted cord, of which the rosary is a the alphabet’s beginnings.
modem example)—constitute the origin of the abstract and arbitrary Although it has not yet been proved
signs or symbols which we call “letters.” conclusively it is quite possible, and alto¬
Let us assume, as logically we may, that picture writing in which a gether probable, that the traders of Phoe¬
drawing depicting or suggesting the object itself came first; next must nicia and the Aegean adopted both the use
have come the ideograph, the sign suggesting the name of the object of papyrus and Egyptian hieratic writing,
represented instead of representing the thing itself; & next the phono¬ from which developed the Phoenician al¬
gram, or sign that suggests a sound only. phabet. Whether all the earliest writing
In the first class just named belong the wedge-shaped, or cunei¬ systems of different countries sprang from
form, characters inscribed in the clay tablets, cylinders, and monuments one common stock of picture writing,
of Assyria, Babylonia, & other Near Eastern countries—characters the we shall, perhaps, never surely know;
very existence of which was overlooked or forgotten for some sixteen we do know that the picture writing of
hundred years. They were almost purely pictorial—were drawings only, Egypt exercised a very great influence,
really not writing at all, and, as far as we now know, have little direct and it seems quite safe for us to assume
bearing on the derivation of our present alphabet. that crude attempts by those ancient Nile-
To this first class also belong the hieroglyphs of Egypt, highly elabo¬ dwellers to express thought visible or to
rated types of picture writing which changed so little over a long period record facts by a series of pictures - or by
that “it is like a language which has never forgotten the derivation of its diagrams sufficiently pictorial, at least,
words, or corrupted their etymological forms, however much it may have to connect them with well-known objects
altered its meaning.” Developed at least five thousand years B.C., the (disregarding the earlier mnemonic stage
purely pictorial character was preserved by its Egyptian users until the or use of memory aids like the quipu or
end. Sir Edw. Maunde Thompson asserts that “we may without exagger¬ knotted cord, of which the rosary is a
ation... carry back the invention of Egyptian writing to six or seven modern example) - constitute the origin
thousand years B.C.” Most of the material available goes back not farther of the abstract and arbitrary signs or sym¬
than the First Dynasty (3300 B.C.). bols which we call “letters.”
Possibly the earliest method of recording the payment of taxes in¬ Let us assume, as logically we may that
dicates, too, the earliest stage in the process of learning to write. The picture writing in which a drawing depict -

10/12 Bodoni 10/12 ITC Garamond Book

239
Of all the achievements of the human mind, the Of all the achievements of the human
birth of the alphabet is the most momentous. “Let¬ mind, the birth of the alphabet is the
ters, like men, have now an ancestry, and the an¬ most momentous. "Letters, like men,
cestry of words, as of men, is often a very noble have now an ancestry, and the ancestry
possession, making them capable of great of words, as of men, is often a very
things”: indeed, it has been said that the inven¬ noble possession, making them capable
tion of writing is more important than all the vic¬ of great things": indeed, it has been said
tories ever won or constitutions devised by man. that the invention of writing is more im¬
The history of writing is, in a way, the history of portant than all the victories ever won
the human race, since in it are bound up, sever¬ or constitutions devised by man. The
ally and together, the development of thought, of history of writing is, in a way, the history
expression, of art, of intercommunication, and of of the human race, since in it are bound
mechanical invention. up, severally and together, the develop¬
ment of thought, of expression, of art,
When and to whom in the dim past the idea came of intercommunication, and of mechan¬
that man’s speech could be better represented ical invention.
by fewer symbols (to denote certain unvarying
sounds) selected from the confused mass of pic¬ When and to whom in the dim past the
ture ideographs, phonograms, and their like, idea came that man's speech could be
which constituted the first methods of represent¬ better represented by fewer symbols (to
ing human speech, we have no certain means of denote certain unvarying sounds) se¬
knowing. But whatever the source, the develop¬ lected from the confused mass of picture
ment did come; and we must deal with it. To pre¬ ideographs, phonograms, and their like,
sent briefly the early history of the alphabet which constituted the first methods of
requires that much collateral matter must be dis¬ representing human speech, we have no
regarded and a great deal that is omitted here certain means of knowing. But whatever
must necessarily be taken for granted; the writer the source, the development did come;
desires, however, to present what seems to him and we must deal with it. To present
to be a logical and probable story of the alpha¬ briefly the early history of the alphabet
bet’s beginnings. requires that much collateral matter
must be disregarded and a great deal
Although it has not yet been proved conclusively, that is omitted here must necessarily be
it is quite possible, and altogether probable, that taken for granted; the writer desires,
the traders of Phoenicia and the Aegean adopted however, to present what seems to him
both the use of papyrus and Egyptian hieratic to be a logical and probable story of the
writing, from which developed the Phoenician alphabet's beginnings.
alphabet. Whether all the earliest writing systems
of different countries sprang from one common Although it has not yet been proved con¬
stock of picture writing, we shall, perhaps, never clusively, it is quite possible, and altogeth¬
surely know; we do know that the picture writing er probable, that the traders of Phoenicia
of Egypt exercised a very great influence, and it and the Aegean adopted both the use of
seems quite safe for us to assume that crude papyrus and Egyptian hieratic writing,
attempts by those ancient Nile-dwellers to ex¬ from which developed the Phoenician
press thought visible or to record facts by a series alphabet. Whether all the earliest writing
of pictures-or by diagrams sufficiently pictorial, systems of different countries sprang
at least, to connect them with well-known objects from one common stock of picture writ¬
(disregarding the earlier mnemonic stage or use ing, we shall, perhaps, never surely
of memory aids like the quipu or knotted cord, of know; we do know that the picture writ¬
which the rosary is a modern example)-consti¬ ing of Egypt exercised a very great in¬
tute the origin of the abstract and arbitrary signs fluence, and it seems quite safe for us to
or symbols which we call “letters.” assume that crude attempts by those
ancient Nile-dwellers to express thought
Let us assume, as logically we may, that picture visible or to record facts by a series of
writing in which a drawing depicting or suggest¬ pictures —or by diagrams sufficiently
ing the object itself came first; next must have pictorial, at least, to connect them with
come the ideograph, the sign suggesting the well-known objects (disregarding the
name of the object represented instead of repre¬ earlier mnemonic stage or use of mem¬
senting the thing itself; & next the phonogram, or ory aids like the quipu or knotted cord,

10/12 Helvetica 10/12 Univers 55

240
 Of all the achievements of the human mind, the birth of the Of all the achievements of the human
alphabet is the most momentous. “Letters, like men, have now mind, the birth of the alphabet is the
an ancestry, and the ancestry of words, as of men, is often a very most momentous. "Letters, like men,
noble possession, making them capable of great things”: indeed, have now an ancestry; and the ances¬
it has been said that the invention of writing is more important try of words, as of men, is often a very
than all the victories ever won or constitutions devised by man. noble possession, making them ca¬
The history of writing is, in a way, the history of the human race, pable of great things": indeed, it has
since in it are bound up, severally and together, the develop¬ been said that the invention of writing
ment ol thought, of expression, of art, of intercommunication, is more important than all the victories
and of mechanical invention.
ever won or constitutions devised by
When and to whom in the dim past the idea came that man’s man. The history of writing is, in a way,
speech could be better represented by fewer symbols (to denote the history of the human race, since in
cei tain unvarying sounds) selected from the confused mass of it are bound up, severally and together,
picture ideographs, phonograms, and their like, which consti¬ the development of thought, of expres¬
tuted the first methods of representing human speech, we have sion, of art, of intercommunication, and
no certain means of knowing. But whatever the source, the of mechanical invention.
development did come; and we must deal with it. To present
When and to whom in the dim past
briefly the early history of the alphabet requires that much col¬
the idea came that man's speech could
lateral matter must be disregarded and a great deal that is omitted
be better represented by fewer sym¬
here must necessarily be taken for granted; the writer desires,
bols (to denote certain unvarying
however, to present what seems to him to be a logical and prob¬
sounds) selected from the confused
able story of the alphabet’s beginnings.
mass of picture ideographs, phono¬
Although it has not yet been proved conclusively, it is quite grams, and their like, which constituted
possible, and altogether probable, that the traders of Phoenicia the first methods of representing hu¬
and the Aegean adopted both the use of papyrus and Egyptian man speech, we have no certain
hieratic writing, from which developed the Phoenician alphabet. means of knowing. But whatever the
Whether all the earliest writing systems of different countries source, the development did come;
sprang from one common stock of picture writing, we shall, and we must deal with it. To present
perhaps, never surely know; we do know that the picture writ¬ briefly the early history of the alphabet
ing of Egypt exercised a very great influence, and it seems quite requires that much collateral matter
safe for us to assume that crude attempts by those ancient Nile- must be disregarded and a great deal
dwellers to express thought visible or to record facts by a series that is omitted here must necessarily be
of pictures — or by diagrams sufficiently pictorial, at least, to taken for granted; the writer desires,
connect them with well-known objects (disregarding the earlier however, to present what seems to him
mnemonic stage or use of memory aids like the quipu or knotted to be a logical and probable story of
cord, of which the rosary is a modern example) — constitute the the alphabet's beginnings.
origin of the abstract and arbitrary signs or symbols which we Although it has not yet been proved
call “letters.” conclusively, it is quite possible, and al¬
Let us assume, as logically we may, that picture writing in together probable, that the traders of
which a drawing depicting or suggesting the object itself came Phoenicia and the Aegean adopted
first; next must have come the ideograph, the sign suggesting both the use of papyrus and Egyptian
the name of the object represented instead of representing the hieratic writing, from which developed
thing itself; & next the phonogram, or sign that suggests a the Phoenician alphabet. Whether all
sound only. the earliest writing systems of different
In the first class just named belong the wedge-shaped, or countries sprang from one common
cuneiform, characters inscribed in the clay tablets, cylinders, stock of picture writing, we shall, per¬
and monuments of Assyria, Babylonia, & other Near Eastern haps, never surely know; we do know
countries — characters the very existence of which was overlooked that the picture writing of Egypt exer¬
or forgotten for some sixteen hundred years. They were almost cised a very great influence, and it
purely pictorial — were drawings only, really not writing at all, seems quite safe for us to assume that
and, as far as we now know, have little direct bearing on the crude attempts by those ancient Nile-
derivation of our present alphabet. dwellers to express thought visible or to
To this first class also belong the hieroglyphs of Egypt, record facts by a series of pictures — or
highly elaborated types of picture writing which changed so by diagrams sufficiently pictorial, at
little over a long period that “it is like a language which has never least, to connect them with well-known
forgotten the derivation of its words, or corrupted their etymo¬ objects (disregarding the earlier mne¬
logical forms, however much it may have altered its meaning.” monic stage or use of memory aids like
Developed at least five thousand years B.C., the purely pictorial the quipu or knotted cord, of which the

10/12 Baskerville 10/12 ITC Lubalin Graph Book

241
 A. A. Abbreviation for Authors Alteration, used to Cathode-ray tube (CRT). An electronic tube with
flag a mistake or correction by the author. a phosphorescent surface that produces a glow¬
ABA form. Design principle of form interrelation¬ ing image when activated by an electronic beam.
ships, involving repetition and contrast. Central processing unit (CPU). Computer com¬
Accents. Small marks over, under, or through a ponent that controls all other parts, performs
letterform, indicating specific pronunciation or logical operations, and stores information.
changes in stress. Character. Symbol, sign, or mark in a language
Agate. Vertical unit used to measure space in system.
newspaper columns, originally five-and-one-half- Character count. Calculation of the total num¬
point type. Fourteen agate lines equal approxi¬ ber of characters in manuscript copy that is to
mately one inch. be typeset.
Alignment. Precise arrangement of letterforms Chase. Heavy metal frame into which metal type
upon an imaginary horizontal or vertical line. is locked for proofing or printing.
Alphabet length. Horizontal measure of the Cicero. European typographic unit of measure,
lowercase alphabet in a type font, used to approxi¬ approximately equal to the American pica.
mate the horizontal measure of type set in that font. Cold type. Type which is set by means other than
Glossary Ampersand. Typographic character (&) repre¬ casting molten metal. A term most frequently used
senting the word and. to indicate strike-on composition rather than
Area composition. The organization of typo¬ photo or digital typesetting.
graphic and other graphic elements into their final Colophon. Inscription, frequently placed at the
positions by electronic means (keyboard, graphics end of a book, that contains facts about its
tablets and electronic pens, etc.), eliminating the production.
need for hand assembly or paste-up. Command. Code that is keyboarded and entered
Ascender. Stroke on a lowercase letter that rises into a computer's memory, that will instruct a
above the meanline. typesetter, editing terminal, or other peripheral as
ASGII code. Abbreviation for American Standard to the specific typographic functions to be
Code of Information Interchange. The numbers 0 performed.
through 127 represent the alphanumeric char¬ Comp. See Comprehensive layout.
acters and functions on the keyboard. Compensation. In visual organization, the
counterbalancing of elements.
Backslant. Letterforms having a diagonal slant Composing stick. Adjustable hand-held metal
to the left. tray, used to hold handset type as it is being
Baseline. An imaginary horizontal line upon which composed.
the base of each capital letter rests. Composition. Alternate term for typesetting.
Binary code. Number system using only two Compositor. Person who sets type.
digits: zero and one. Comprehensive layout. An accurate representa¬
Bit. Smallest unit of information in a computer, tion of typography and other graphic elements to
consisting of only one digit, zero or one. be printed. Also called comp.
Body size. Depth of a piece of metal type, usually Computer. Electronic device that performs pre¬
measured in points. defined (programmed) high-speed mathematical
Body type. Text material, usually set in sizes from or logical calculations.
six to twelve point. Also called text type. Condensed. Letterforms whose horizontal width
Boldface. Type with thicker, heavier strokes has been compressed.
than the regular font. Indicated as BF in type Consonance. In design, harmonious interaction
specifications. between elements.
Byte. Unit of computer information. A byte con¬ Copyfitting. Calculating the area that will be
sists of eight or more bits. occupied by a given manuscript when set in a
specified size and style of type.
C. and l.c. Used in marking copy, to instruct the Counter. Space enclosed by the strokes of a
typesetter to use capitals and lowercase. letterform.
C. and s.c. Used in marking copy, to instruct the Counterform. "Negative" spatial areas defined
typesetter to use capitals and small capitals. and shaped by letterforms, including both interior
Cap height. Height of the capital letters, mea¬ counters and spaces between characters.
sured from the baseline to the capline. CPI. Characters per inch.
Capitals. Letters larger than —and often differing CPU. See Central processing unit.
from —the corresponding lowercase letters. Also CRT. See Cathode-ray tube.
called uppercase. Cursive. Typestyles that imitate handwriting,
Capline. Imaginary horizontal line defined by the often with letters that do not connect.
height of the capital letters. Cutoff rules. Rules used to separate pages into
Caps. See Capitals. various units, such as advertisements or news
Caption. Title, explanation, or description stories.
accompanying an illustration or photograph.
Casting off. Determining the length of manu¬ Daisy wheel. Strike-on printing wheel contain¬
script copy, enabling a calculation of the area that ing relief characters on spokes, radiating from a
type will occupy when set in a given size and style. central disk. As the wheel spins, a hammer im-

243
 pacts the characters against an inked ribbon. Folio. Page number.
Data. Information, particularly information upon Font. Character set of a given size and style in¬
which a computer program is based. cluding upper and lowercase letters, numerals,
Data bank. Mass storage of large quantities of and punctuation marks.
information, indexed for rapid retrieval. Format. The overall typographic and spatial
Data processing. The storing and handling of schema established for a publication or any other
information by a computer. application.
Data transmission. Rapid electronic transfer of Formatting. In digital typesetting and photo¬
coded data via telephone or other communication typesetting, the process of issuing specific com¬
links. mands that establish the typographic format.
Dazzle. Visual effect caused by extreme contrast Foundry type. Metal type used in hand
in the strokes of letterforms. composition.
Descender. Stroke on a lowercase letterform Furniture. Rectangular pieces of wood, metal,
that falls below the baseline. or plastic used to fil) in excess space when locking
Digital computer. A device that translates data up a form for letterpress printing.
into a discrete number system to facilitate elec¬
tronic processing. Galley. A three-sided, shallow metal tray used to
Disk. Thin, flat, circular plate with a magnetic hold metal type forms before printing.
surface upon which data may be stored. Also, a Galley proof. Originally, a type proof pulled from
circular grid containing the master font in some metal type assembled in a galley. Frequently used
typesetting systems. today to indicate any first proof, regardless of the
Display type. Type sizes fourteen point and type system.
above, used primarily for headlines and titles. "Golf" ball. An interchangeable metal ball ap¬
Dissonance. In design, visual tension and con¬ proximately one inch in diameter with raised char¬
trast between typographic elements. acters on its surface, used as the printing element
Drop initial. Display letterform set into the text. in some typewriters.
Grid. Underlying structure composed of a linear
E. A. Abbreviation for Editor's Alteration, used to framework used by designers to organize typo¬
flag errors or corrections made by the editor. graphic and pictorial elements. Also, a film or
Editing terminal. Workstation consisting of a glass master font, containing characters in a pre¬
keyboard and visual display device, used to input determined configuration and used in phototype¬
and edit copy prior to typesetting. setting.
Egyptian. Typefaces characterized by slablike Grotesque. Name for sans serif typefaces.
serifs similar in weight to the main strokes. Gutter. The interval separating two facing pages
Elite. Size of typewriter type approximately equal in a publication.
to ten-point typography. Gutter margin. Inner margin of a page in a
Ellipses. Three dots used to indicate an omission publication.
in quoted material.
Em. The square of the body size of any type, Hairline. Thinnest strokes on a typeface having
used as a unit of measure. In some expanded or strokes of varying weight.
condensed faces, the em is also expanded or con¬ Hand composition. Method of setting type by
densed from the square proportion. placing individual pieces of metal type from a type
Em dash. A dash one em long. Also called a long case into a composing stick.
dash.
Hanging indent. In composition, a column for¬
Em leader. Horizontal dots or dashes with one mat in which the first line of type is set to a full
em between their centers. measure while all additional lines are indented.
Em space. A space equal to the width of an em Hanging punctuation. Punctuation set outside
quad.
the column measure to achieve an optical
En. One-half of an em (see Em). alignment.
En dash. A dash one en long. Also called a short Hard copy. Computer output printed on paper.
dash.
Hardware. The physical equipment of a com¬
En leader. Horizontal dots or dashes with one en puter system, such as the CPU, input/output
between their centers. devices, and peripherals.
En space. Space equal to the width of an en quad. Heading. Copy that is given emphasis over the
Expanded. Letterforms whose horizontal width body of text, through changes in size, weight, or
has been extended. spatial interval.
Headline. The most significant type in the visual
Face. The part of metal type that is inked for hierarchy of a printed communication.
printing. Also, another word for typeface. Hot type. Type produced by casting molten metal.
Family. See Type family.
Hyphenation. The syllabic division of words,
Firmware. Software in hardware form.
when they must be broken at the end of a line. In
Fit. Refers to the spatial relationships between electronic textsetting, hyphenation can be deter¬
letters after they are set into words and lines. mined by the operator, or automatically by the
Flush left (or right). The even vertical alignment computer.
of lines at the left (or right) edge of a column.

244
 Imposition. The arrangement of pages in a printed raised type on a single metal slug.
signature to achieve the proper sequencing after Logotype. Two or more type characters that
the sheets are folded and trimmed. are combined as a sign or trademark.
Incunabula. European printing during the first Lowercase. The alphabet set of small letters, as
half-century of typography, from Gutenberg's opposed to capitals.
invention of movable type until the year 1500. LPM. Lines per minute, a unit of measure express¬
Indent. An interval of space at the beginning of ing the speed of a typesetting system.
a line to indicate a new paragraph. Ludlow. A typecasting machine that produces in¬
Inferior characters. Small characters, usually dividual letters from hand-assembled matrices.
slightly smaller than the x-height, positioned on Machine composition. General term for the
or below the baseline and used for footnotes or mechanical casting of metal type.
fractions. Makeup. The assembly of typographic matter
Initial. A large letter used at the beginning of a into a page, or a sequence of pages, ready for
column; for example, at the beginning of a chapter. printing.
Input. Raw data, text, or commands entered into Margin. The unprinted space surrounding type
a computer memory from a peripheral device, matter on a page.
such as a keyboard. Mark up. The marking of typesetting specifica¬
Interletter spacing. The spatial interval between tions upon manuscript copy.
letters, also called letterspacing. Masthead. The visual identification of a magazine
Interline spacing. The spatial interval between or newspaper, usually a logotype.
lines, also called leading. Matrix. In typesetting, the master image from
Interword spacing. The spatial interval between which type is produced. The matrix is a brass
words, also called wordspacing. mold in linecasting and a glass plate bearing the
Italic. Letterforms having a pronounced diagonal font negative in phototypesetting.
slant to the right. Meanline. An imaginary line marking the tops of
lowercase letters, not including the ascenders.
Justified setting. A column of type with even Measure. See Line length.
vertical edges on both the left and the right, Minuscules. An early term for small, or lower¬
achieved by adjusting interword spacing. Also case, letters.
called flush left, flush right. Minus spacing. A reduction of interline spacing,
resulting in a baseline-to-baseline measurement
K. Computer term for one thousand bytes of that is smaller than the point size of the type.
memory. Mixing. The alignment of more than one type-
Kerning. Optical adjustment of interletter spac¬ style or typeface on a single baseline.
ing that reduces space between characters to Modern. Term used to describe typefaces de¬
produce a better fit. signed at the end of the eighteenth century. Char¬
Keyboard. A device having keys or buttons used acteristics include vertical stress, hairline serifs,
to enter data into typesetting and computer and pronounced contrasts between thick and thin
systems. strokes.
Monotype. A trade name for a keyboard-operated
Laser. A concentrated light source that can be typesetting machine that casts individual letters
optically manipulated. Coined from "Light Ampli¬ from matrices.
fication by Stimulated Emission of Radiation."
Latin. Typestyles characterized by triangular, Negative. The reversal of a positive photographic
pointed serifs. image.
Leader. Typographic dots or periods that are re¬
peated to connect other elements. Oblique. A slanted roman character. Unlike many
Lead-in. Introductory copy set in a contrasting italics, oblique characters do not have cursive
typeface. design properties.
Leading. See Interline spacing. Offset lithography. A printing method using flat
Letterpress. The process of printing from a photo-mechanical plates, in which the inked image
raised, inked surface. is transferred or offset from the printing plate
Letterspacing. See Interletter spacing. onto a rubber blanket, then onto the paper.
Ligature. A typographic character produced by Old Style. Typeface styles derived from fifteenth-
combining two or more letters. to eighteenth-century designs, and characterized
Line breaks. The relationships of line endings in by moderate thick-and-thin contrasts, bracketed
a ragged-right or ragged-left setting. Rhythmic serifs, and a handwriting influence.
line breaks are achieved by adjusting the length of Old Style figures. Numerals that exhibit a varia¬
individual lines of type. tion in size, including characters aligning with the
Line length. The measure of the length of a line lowercase x-height, and others with ascenders
of type, usually expressed in picas. or descenders: 1234567890.
Lining figures. Numerals identical in size to the Optical adjustment. The precise visual align¬
capitals and aligned on the baseline: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ment and spacing of typographic elements. In
8 9 10. interletter spacing, the adjustment of individual
Linotype. A machine that casts an entire line of characters to achieve consistent spacing.

245
 Outline type. Letterforms described by a contour Reverse leading. A reduction in the amount of
line that encloses the entire character on all sides. interline space, making it less than normal for the
The interior usually remains open. point size. For example, twelve-point type set on
Output. The product of a computer operation. an eleven-point body size becomes reverse lead¬
In computerized typesetting, output is reproduc¬ ing of one point.
tion proofs of composition. River. In text type, a series of interword spaces
that accidentally align vertically or diagonally,
Pagination. The sequential numbering of pages. creating an objectionable flow of white space
Paragraph mark. Typographic elements that within the column.
signal the beginning of a paragraph. Roman. Upright letterforms, as distinguished
For example, <J. from italics. More specifically, letters in an alpha¬
Parallel construction. In typography, the use of bet style based on the upright, serifed letterforms
similar typographic elements or arrangements to of Roman inscriptions.
create a visual unity or to convey a relationship Rule. In handset metal type, a strip of metal that
in content. prints as a line. Generally, any line used as an ele¬
R E. Abbreviation for Printer's Error, used to flag ment in typographic design, whether handset,
a mistake made by the compositor rather than by photographic, digital, or hand-drawn.
the author. Run-around. Type that is set with a shortened line
Photocomposition. The process of setting type measure to fit around a photograph, drawing, or
by projecting light onto a light-sensitive film or other visual element inserted into the running text.
paper. Run in. To set type without a paragraph indenta¬
Photodisplay typesetting. The process of set¬ tion or other break. Also, to insert additional
ting headline type on film or paper by photo¬ matter into the running text as part of an existing
graphic means. paragraph.
Phototype. Type matter set on film or paper by Running head. Type at the head of sequential
photographic projection of type characters. pages, providing a title or publication name.
Photounit. Output component of a photocompo¬
sition system, which sets the type and exposes it Sans serif. Typefaces without serifs.
to light-sensitive film or paper. Script. Typefaces based on handwriting, usually
Pica. Typographic unit of measurement: 12 points having connecting strokes between the letters.
equal 1 pica. 6 picas equal approximately one inch. Semantics. The science of meaning in linguistics;
Line lengths and column widths are measured in the study of the relationships between signs and
picas. symbols, and what they represent.
Point. The smallest unit of measure in typog¬ Serifs. Small elements added to the ends of the
raphy: 12 points equal 1 pica. 1 point equals ap¬ main strokes of a letterform in serifed typestyles.
proximately 1/72 of an inch. Type body size and Set width. In metal type, the width of the body
interline spacing are measured in points. upon which a letter is cast. In phototype and digital
Processor. In a computer system, the general type, the horizontal width of a letterform mea¬
term for any device capable of carrying out oper¬ sured in units, including the normal space before
ations upon data. In phototypography, the unit and after the character. This interletter space can
that automatically develops the light-sensitive be increased or decreased to control the tightness
paper or film. or looseness of the fit.
Program. A sequence of instructions that directs Shoulder. In metal type, the flat top of the type
the operations of a computer to execute a given body that surrounds the raised printing surface
task. of the letterform.
Side head. A title or other heading material placed
Quad. In metal type, pieces of type metal shorter to the side of a type column.
than type-high, which are used as spacing matter Slab serifs. Square or rectangular serifs that align
to separate elements and fill out lines. horizontally and vertically to the baseline and are
Quoins. Wedges used to lock up metal type in usually the same (or heavier) weight as the main
the chase. These devices are tightened and strokes of the letterform.
loosened by a quoin key. Slug. A line of metal type cast on a linecasting
machine, such as the Linotype. Also, strips of
Ragged. See Unjustified type. metal spacing material in thicknesses of six points
Raster scan. The generation of an image upon or more.
a cathode-ray tube made by refreshing the dis¬ Small capitals. A set of capital letters having the
play area line by line.
same height as the lowercase x-height, frequently
Recto. In publication design, the right-hand used for cross reference and abbreviations. Also
page. Page one (and all odd-numbered pages) called small caps, and often abbreviated s.c.
always appears on a recto. The left-hand page is Software. Components of a computer system
called the verso.
consisting of the programs or instructions that
Reverse. Type or image that is dropped out of a control the behavior of the computer hardware.
printed area, revealing the paper surface. Solid. Lines of type that are set without additional
interline space. Also called set solid.
Sorts. In metal type, material that is not part of

246
a regular font, such as symbols, piece fractions, U. and l.c. Abbreviation for uppercase and lower¬
and spaces. Also, individual characters used to case, used to specify typesetting that combines
replace worn-out type in a font. capitals with lowercase letters.
Stand-alone typesetting system. A typesetting Unit. A subdivision of the em, used in measuring
system that is completely self-contained, includ¬ and counting characters in photo- and digital type¬
ing editing terminal, memory, and character setting systems.
generation. Unitization. The process of designing a typeface
Stet. A proofreader's mark meaning that copy so that the individual character widths conform
marked for correction should not be changed; to a typesetter's unit system.
rather, it should be left as originally set. Unitized font. A font with character widths con¬
Storage. In computer typesetting, a device (such forming to a typesetter's unit system.
as a disk, drum, or tape) that can receive informa¬ Unit system. A counting system first developed
tion and retain it for future use. for Monotype, used by most typesetting ma¬
Straight matter. Text material set in continuous chines. The width of characters and spaces are
columns with limited deviation from the basic measured in units. This data is used to control line
typographic specifications. breaks, justification, and interword and interletter
Subscript. A small character beneath (or adja¬ spacing.
cent to and slightly below) another character. Unit value. The established width, in units, of a
Superscript. A small character above (or adjacent typographic character.
to and slightly above) another character. Unjustified type. Lines of type set with equal
Swash letters. Letters ornamented with flour¬ interword spacing, resulting in irregular line
ishes or flowing tails. lengths. Also called ragged.
Syntax. In grammar, the way in which words or Uppercase. See Capitals.
phrases are put together to form sentences. In
design, the connecting or ordering of typographic Verso. In publication design, the left-hand page.
elements into a visual unity. Page two (and all even-numbered pages) always
System. A related group of interdependent appears on a verso. The right-hand page is called
design elements forming a whole. In computer the recto.
science, a complete computing operation includ¬ Visual display terminal. A computer input/out¬
ing software and hardware (Central Processing put device utilizing a cathode-ray tube to display
Unit, memory, input/output devices, and peripher¬ data on a screen. Information from memory, stor¬
als or devices required for the intended functions). age, or a keyboard can be displayed.

Terminal. See Visual display terminal. Weight. The lightness or heaviness of a typeface,
Text. The main body of written or printed material, which is determined by ratio of the stroke thick¬
as opposed to display matter, footnotes, appen¬ ness to character height.
dices, etc. White space. The "negative" area surrounding a
Text type. See Body type. letterform. See Counter and Counterform.
Transitional. Classification of typestyles combin¬ White space reduction. A decrease in the
ing aspects of both Old Style and Modern type¬ amount of interletter space, achieved in type¬
faces; for example, Baskerville. setting by reducing the unit value of typeset
Typeface. The design of alphabetical and characters.
numerical characters unified by consistent visual Widow. A very short line that appears at the end
properties. of a paragraph, column, or page, or at the top of
Type family. The complete range of variations of a column or page. These awkward typographic
a typeface design, including roman, italic, bold, configurations should be corrected editorially.
expanded, condensed, and other versions. Woodtype. Hand-set types cut from wood by a
Type-high. The standard foot-to-face height of mechanical router. Formerly used for large display
metal types; 0.9186 inches in English-speaking sizes that were not practical for metal casting,
countries. woodtype has been virtually eliminated by display
Typescript. Typewritten manuscript material photographic typesetting.
used as copy for typesetting. Word. In computer systems, a logical unit of in¬
Typesetting. The composing of type by any formation, composed of a predetermined number
method or process, also called composition. of bits.
Type specimen. A typeset sample produced to Wordspace. See Interword spacing.
show the visual properties of a typeface. Wordspacing. In typesetting, adding space
Typo. See Typographical error. between words to extend each line to achieve a
Typographer. A firm specializing in typesetting. justified setting.
Sometimes used to denote a compositor or type¬
setter. x-height. The height of lowercase letters, ex¬
Typographical error. A mistake in typesetting, cluding ascenders and descenders. This is most
typing, or writing. easily measured on the lowercase x.
Typography. Originally the composition of printed
matter from movable type. Now the art and pro¬
cess of typesetting by any system or method.

247
Appendix A

Copyfitting is the process of converting a type¬ if you are using additional interline space between
Copyfitting
written manuscript into text type that will accu¬ paragraphs.) Will the depth of the typeset lines
rately fit a typographic layout. Throughout this correspond to the depth of the area allowed on the
process, a designer should carefully consider legi¬ layout? If the typesetting will run too long, or if
bility factors, visual characteristics, and spatial it will be too short to fill the space, adjustments
requirements. Understanding copyfitting enables can be made. These adjustments might include
the designer to control the details of typesetting, changing the type size, interline spacing, or
which can contribute to a typographic design of typeface.
clarity and distinction. A suggested method for
proper copyfitting follows. 3. Mark the manuscript.
After fitting the copy to the layout, it is important
1. Count all the characters to clearly mark specifications for the typographer
in the typewritten manuscript. on the manuscript. Specifications should always
This manuscript should be as clean and orderly as include: type size and interline spacing in points;
possible to increase accuracy while keeping costs complete name of the typeface, including weight
to a minimum. Copy should be double-spaced in a and width (Garamond Bold Condensed); line length
single column. Although the size of typewriter type in picas; line alignment (justified, flush left/ragged
varies with different machines, there are generally right, or centered); paragraph indication (indent
two sizes: elite, with twelve characters to an inch, one pica, or one line space between paragraphs);
and pica, with ten characters to an inch. To begin, variations and special instructions (italics, under¬
determine the number of characters in an average lining, changes in size, weight, or typeface).
line length of the typewritten manuscript by count¬
ing the number of characters in four typical lines
(including all spaces and punctuation), adding the
number of characters in these lines, and dividing
this total by four. Then, multiply this average by the
number of lines in the whole manuscript to get the
total number of characters.

2. Fit the copy to the layout.

After choosing a specific typeface and size, refer
to the layout, and measure the line length in picas.
Determine how many characters of the chosen
typeface will fit on a line. This can easily be deter¬
mined by referring to a characters-per-pica or
characters-per-line table (Appendix B) often found
in specimen books or provided by typographers.
If a characters-per-pica figure is given, multiply
the number of characters per pica by the number
of picas in a line. If a characters-per-line table is
provided, simply find the line length which indi¬
cates the number of characters in the average
typeset line. Divide the number of characters per
line into the total number of characters in the type¬
written manuscript to determine the total number
of typeset lines. Compare the vertical column
depth of this number of typeset lines to the vertical
column depth on the layout. (Remember to con¬
sider the effect of paragraph indication, particularly

248
Appendix B Line length in picas

1 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

8 point Baskerville 3.25 33 39 46 52 59 65 72 78 85 91 98

9 point Baskerville 2.90 29 35 41 46 52 58 64 70 75 81 87

10 point Baskerville 2.60 26 31 36 42 47 52 57 62 68 73 78

12 point Baskerville 2.30 23 28 32 37 41 46 51 55 60 64 69

8 point Bodoni 3.40 34 41 48 54 61 68 75 82 88 95 102

9 point Bodoni 3.10 31 37 43 50 56 62 68 74 81 87 93

10 point Bodoni 2.80 28 34 39 45 50 56 62 67 73 78 84

12 point Bodoni 2.40 24 29 34 38 43 48 53 58 62 67 72

Character count 10 point Helvetica 2.40 24 29 34 38 43 48 53 58 62 67 72

table for text type 47 54 60 67 74 80 87 94 101
8 point ITC Garamond Light 3.35 34 40
specimens
9 point ITC Garamond Light 3.05 31 37 43 49 55 61 67 73 79 85 92

10 point ITC Garamond Light 2.75 28 33 39 44 50 55 61 66 72 77 83

12 point ITC Garamond Light 2.35 24 28 33 38 42 47 52 56 61 66 71

8 point ITC Garamond Book 3.25 33 39 46 52 59 65 72 78 85 91 98

9 point ITC Garamond Book 2.95 30 35 41 47 53 59 65 71 77 83 89

10 point ITC Garamond Book 2.65 27 32 37 42 48 53 58 64 69 74 80

12 point ITC Garamond Book 2.25 23 27 32 36 41 45 50 54 59 63 68

8 point ITC Garamond Bold 3.00 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90

9 point ITC Garamond Bold 2.65 27 32 37 42 48 53 58 64 69 74 80

10 point ITC Garamond Bold 2.40 24 29 34 38 43 48 53 58 62 67 72

12 point ITC Garamond Bold 2.05 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 57 62

8 point Lubalin Graph Med. 2.80 28 34 39 45 50 56 62 67 73 78 84

9 point Lubalin Graph Med. 2.45 25 29 34 39 44 49 54 59 64 69 74

10 point Lubalin Graph Med. 2.30 23 28 32 37 41 46 51 55 60 64 69

12 point Lubalin Graph Med. 1.95 20 23 27 31 35 39 43 47 51 55 59

8 point Univers 45 3.20 32 38 45 51 58 64 70 77 83 90 96

9 point Univers 45 2.90 29 35 41 46 52 58 64 70 75 81 87

10 point Univers 45 2.60 26 31 36 42 47 52 57 62 68 73 78

12 point Univers 45 2.25 23 27 32 36 41 45 50 54 59 63 68

8 point Univers 55 2.90 29 35 41 46 52 58 64 70 75 81 87

9 point Univers 55 2.60 26 31 36 42 47 52 57 62 68 73 78

10 point Univers 55 2.40 24 29 34 38 43 48 53 58 62 67 72

12 point Univers 55 2.10 21 25 29 34 38 42 46 50 55 59 63

8 point Univers 65 2.60 26 31 36 42 47 52 57 62 68 73 78

9 point Univers 65 2.40 24 29 34 38 43 48 53 58 62 67 72

10 point Univers 65 2.20 22 26 31 35 40 44 48 53 57 62 66

12 point Univers 65 1.90 19 23 27 30 34 38 42 46 49 53 57

249
Appendix C Display typography
1. Carefully examine the copy. Consider its mean¬ mark specifications on the manuscript with as¬
ing and its relationship to other elements on the surance that the set type will conform to this plan.
page. Study the visual aspects of display copy:
word lengths, number of words, word structure Reviewing type proofs
(presence and location of ascenders and descend¬ After proofs are received from the typesetter, the
ers), and interletter relationships (see Fig. 217). designer should carefully examine them while the
2. Select typefaces for exploration, considering proofreader is checking for editorial accuracy.
their relationship to content, legibility factors, and 1. Compare the set type with the layouts for
typesetting and printing methods. proper fit. Determine what, if any, adjustments
3. Begin a series of small preliminary sketches, are necessary.
exploring alternative design possibilities. Con¬ 2. Check the type proofs to ensure that specifica¬
sider type size and weight, division of the copy tions were followed. Font selection, line lengths,
into lines, line arrangements (justified, unjustified, and interline spacing should conform to the
centered), and overall spatial organization. If a instructions.
grid is being used, each sketch should reflect its 3. Make sure that details were handled correctly.
structure. For example, did the typesetters overlook words
Suggested
4. Evaluate the sketches, and select one or more set in italic or bold?
working methods
for further development. Criteria should be based 4. Use a T-square and triangle to check the hori¬
in typographic
on an overview of visual syntax, message, and zontal and vertical alignment of columns.
design
legibility. 5. Examine the interline and interword intervals,
5. Prepare actual-size rough sketches of the page, particularly in display type, to make sure that they
working freely. Once again, select a sketch or conform to the specifications. Often, designers
sketches for further development. make subtle optical adjustments by cutting apart
6. Study type specimens to select the exact style, the proofs.
size, and weight to be used. Often, designers 6. Look for awkward text settings, such as rivers,
make tracings of the specimens to explore subtle widows, and undesirable line breaks in unjustified
visual characteristics of the type and to deter¬ typography. The editor or writer may be able to
mine the desired interletter, interword, and inter¬ make small editorial changes to correct these
line spacing. problems.
7. After these design decisions are made, the final 7. Inspect proof quality. Common problems
layout can be prepared. It becomes the basis for include rounded terminals due to inaccurate ex¬
type specification, client approval, and preparation posure, poor image sharpness, uneven or gray
of reproduction art. The degree of refinement may tone from incorrect processing, "dancing" char¬
vary from a rough sketch to a tight comprehen¬ acters that don't align properly on the baseline,
sive with set type, depending on the nature of the poor kerning between misfit letters, and inconsis¬
project. tent proof tone within a long text.
8. Standard proofreaders' marks, listed in Appen¬
Text typography dix D, should be used to specify corrections.
1. In the small preliminary sketches, text areas
should be treated as rectangles or other simple
shapes.
2. An initial character count of the typewritten
manuscript (see Appendices A and B) should be
made to determine its length.
3. Select a typestyle, considering its appropriate¬
ness to content and its relationship to the display
type. Carefully study the type specimens to evalu¬
ate legibility, texture, and tone.
4. Working on tracing paper or at a computer
terminal, plan a specific format, establishing line
length, vertical column depth, and margins.
5. Select the desired type size and interline spac¬
ing. Then, copyfitting, as described in Appendix A,
should be used to determine the specific area oc¬
cupied by the text type.
6. Adjustments are now made in the format or the
type specifications if the copyfitting procedure
indicates that the type will not fit the allocated
space.
7. Attention should be given to details: paragraph
indication, interletter and interword spacing, and
treatment of headings, folios, captions, and other
supporting text material.
8. The designer can now prepare final layouts and

250
Appendix D
Instruction Notation in Notation in Corrected type
margin type

Delete y the type-font the font

Insert type theAfont the type font

Let it stand the-type font the type font

Reset in capitals the type font THE TYPE FONT

Reset in lowercase Gl&) the type font

Reset in italics Cm) the type font the type font

Reset in small capitals Sc) See tvne font. See TYPE FONT.

_ . Reset in roman (A^-YYUJ the(fype)font the type font

Proofreader s
marks Reset in boldface (MC the type font the type font

Reset in lightface Lw the typejfont) the type font

Transpose L thetfontjtype* the type font

Close up space ^y the tyl3e the type

Delete and close space the type foe^vt the type font

Move left i C the type font the type font

Move right 3 tQ type font the type font

Run in (yUUv jyyj) The type font is The type font is

Univers.i Univers. It is not
Clt is not Garamond.
Garamond.

Align the type font the type font

the type font the type font
the type font the type font

Spell out (j)type fonts Three type fonts

£ T)
&
_C

Insert space the type font

Q_
CD

O
C
>

Insert period O The type fontA The type font.

Insert comma 0 OneAtwo, three One, two, three

r "“v
Insert hyphen Ten^point type Ten-point type

Insert colon () Old Style typesA Old Style types:

A
Insert semicolon y Select the fontA Select the font;
spec the type. spec the type.

Insert apostrophe v' Baskervillevs type Baskerville's type

Insert quotation marks 9N the wordAtypeA the word "type"

Insert parenthesis The word^ype is The word (type) is

01 in parenthesis. in parenthesis.

Insert en dash N Flush left

A
Flush-left

Insert em dash
H/V Garamond an Old Style
facets used today.
Garamond —an Old Style
face—is used today.

Start paragraph ff AThe type font is The type font is

Univers 55 Univers 55.

No paragraph indent >10 ff C The type font is The type font is

Univers 55. Univers 55.

251
 c. 1450: FirstTextur style type, Johann Gutenberg 1892: Troy, William Morris

1467: First roman style type, Sweynheym and Pannartz 1893: Chaucer, William Morris

1470: Jenson, Nicolas Jenson 1894 Bradley, Will Bradley

1495: Bembo, Francesco Griffo 1895. MerrymountType, Bertram Goodhue

1499: Poliphilus, Francesco Griffo 1895: Century Roman,Theodore Low DeVinne and L B. Benton

1501: First italic type, Francesco Griffo 1896. Cheltenham, Bertram Goodhue

1514: Fraktur, Hans Schoensperger 1896: Vale Type, Charles Ricketts

1532: Garamond, Claude Garamond 1898 Grasset, Eugene Grasset

1557: Civilite, Robert Granjon c. 1898: Paris Metro Lettering, Hector Guimard

c. 1570: Plantin, Anonymous 1898-1906: Akzidenz Grotesque (Standard), Berthold Foundry

c. 1570: Canon d'Espagne,The Plantin Office 1900: Eckmann-Schrift, Otto Eckmann

c. 1582: Flemish bold roman,The Plantin Office 1900: Century Expanded, Morris F Benton

1616: Typi Academiae, Jean Jannon 1900: Doves Roman,T. J. Cobden-Sanderson and Emery Walker

c. 1670: Fell Roman, Peter Walpergen 1901: Endeavor, Charles R. Ashbee

1690: Janson, Nicholas Kis 1901: Copperplate Gothic, Frederic W. Goudy

1702: Romain du Roi, Philippe Grandjean 1901-04: Auriol, Georges Auriol

1722: Caslon Old Style, William Caslon 1902: Behrens-Schrift, Peter Behrens
A chronology 1902: Subiaco, C. H. St. John Hornby
c. 1743: Early transitional types,
of typeface designs Pierre Simon Fournier le Jeune 1903: Brook Type, Lucien Pissarro
c. 1746: Fournier decorated letters, 1904: Korinna, H. Berthold
Pierre Simon Fournier le Jeune 1904: Franklin Gothic, Morris F Benton
1757: Baskerville, John Baskerville 1907: Behrens-Kursiv, Peter Behrens
c, 1764: Italique Moderne and Ancienne, 1907: Clearface Bold, Morris F Benton
Pierre Simon Fournier le Jeune 1907-13: Venus, Bauer Foundry
1768: Fry's Baskerville, Isaac Moore 1908: Behrens-Antiqua, Peter Behrens
1780s: Bodoni, Giambattista Bodoni 1908: News Gothic, Morris F Benton
1784: Didot, Firmin Didot 1909: Aurora, Wagner and Schmidt Foundry
1790s: Bulmer, William Martin 1910: Kochschrift, Rudolf Koch
1796: Fry's Ornamented, Richard Austin 1910-15: Hobo, Morris F Benton
c. 1800: Walbaum, J. E. Walbaum 1911: Kennedy Old Style, Frederic W. Goudy
c. 1810: Scotch Roman, Richard Austin 1912: Nicolas Cochin, G. Peignot
1815: Two Lines Pica, Antique (first Egyptian style), 1914: Souvenir, Morris F Benton
Vincent Figgins 1914 Cloister Old Style, Morris F Benton
1815: Five Lines Pica, In Shade (first perspective font), 1915: Century Schoolbook, Morris F Benton
Vincent Figgins 1915-16: Goudy Old Style, FredericW. Goudy
1816: Two-line English Egyptian (first sans serif), 1916: Centaur, Bruce Rogers
William Caslon IV 1919-24: Cooper Old Style, Oswald Cooper
1820: Lettres Ornees, Fonds de Gille 1921: Cooper Black, Oswald Cooper
1828: Roman, DariusWells 1923: Windsor, Stephenson Blake Foundry
1830: Two-line great primer sans serif, Vincent Figgins 1923: Neuland, Rudolf Koch
1832: Grotesque, William Thorowgood 1926: Weiss Roman, E. R. Weiss
1838: Sans surryphs ornamented, Blake and Stephenson 1927-29: Futura, Paul Renner
1844: Ionic, Henry Caslon 1927- 29: Kabel, Rudolf Koch
1845: Clarendon, Robert Besley and Company 1928: Ultra Bodoni, AmericanType Founders
1845: Rustic, V. and J. Figgins 1928- 30: Gill Sans, Eric Gill
1845 Zig-Zag, V, and J, Figgins 1928: Modernique, Morris F Benton
1850: Scroll, Henry Caslon 1929: Zeppelin, Rudolf Koch
1856: National, PhiladelphiaType Foundry 1929: Golden Cockerel, Eric Gill
1859: AntiqueTuscan Outlined, William Page 1929: Bernhard Fashion, Lucien Bernhard
c. 1860s: P T. Barnum, Barnhart Brothers and Spindler 1929: Bifur, A. M. Cassandre
c. 1865: French Antique (later called Playbill), Miller and Richard 1929: Broadway, Morris F Benton
c. 1865: Old Style Antique (called Bookman in the U.S.), 1929: Novel Gothic, H. Becker
Miller and Richard 1929: Lux, J.Erbar
c. 1869: Runic, Reed and Fox 1929- 30: Metro, William A. Dwiggins
c. 1870: Figgins Condensed No. 2, Stevens Shanks 1929-30: Perpetua, Eric Gill
1870s: Bank Gothic, Barnhart Brothers and Spindler 1929-34: Corvinus, Imre Reiner
1878: Circlet, Barnhart Brothers and Spindler 1930: Joanna, Eric Gill
1878: Glyphic, MacKellar, Smiths and Jordan 1930: Dynamo, Ludwig and Mayer Foundry
c. 1885: Geometric, Central Type Foundry 1931: Prisma, Rudolf Koch
c. 1890: Ringlet, MarrTypefounding 1931: Times New Roman, Stanley Morison
c. 1890: Gothic Outline No. 61, American Type Founders 1931: Stymie, Morris F Benton
c. 1890: Rubens, Marr Typefounding 1931- 36: Beton, Heinrich Jost
c. 1890: Karnac, Marr Typefounding 1932- 40: Albertus, Berthold Wolpe
1890: Century, L.B. Benton 1933: Agency Gothic, Morris F Benton
1890: Golden, William Morris 1933: Atlas, K, H. Schaefer

252
 1935: Huxley Vertical, Walter Huxley
1936: Acier Noir, A. M. Cassandre
1937: Peignot, A. M. Cassandre
1937: Onyx, Gerry Powell
1938: Caledonia, William A. Dwiggins
1938: Libra, S. H. De Roos
1938: Lydian, Warren Chappell
1938: Empire, American Typefounders
1939: Chisel, Stephenson Blake Foundry
1940: Trajanus, Warren Chappell
1945: Stradivarius, Imre Reiner
1946: Profil, Eugen and Max Lenz
1948: Trade Gothic, Mergenthaler Linotype
c. 1950: Brush, Harold Brodersen
1950: Michelangelo, Hermann Zapf
1950: Palatino, Hermann Zapf
1951: Sistina, Hermann Zapf
1952 Horizon, K. F Bauer and Walter Baum
1952: Melior, Hermann Zapf
1952: Microgramma, A. Butti
1953: Mistral, Roger Excoffon
1954 Trump Mediaeval, Georg Trump
1955: Columna, Max Caflisch
1955-56: Egyptienne, Adrian Frutiger
1956: Craw Clarendon, Freeman Craw
1956: Murry Hill, E.J. Klumpp
1957: Meridien, Adrian Frutiger
1957: Univers, Adrian Frutiger
c. 1957: Helvetica, Max Miedinger
1962: Eurostile, Aldo Novarese
1962-66: Antique Olive, Roger Excoffon
1964: Sabon, JanTschichold
1965: Friz Quadrata, Ernest Friz
1967: Serifa, Adrian Frutiger
1967: Americana, Richard Isbell
1967: Cartier, Carl Dair
1967: Avant Garde Gothic, Herb Lubalin
1970: ITC Souvenir, Edward Benguiat
1974: Tiffany, Edward Benguiat
1974: Newtext, Ray Baker
1974: ITC Korinna, Ed Benguiat and Vic Caruso
1974: Serif Gothic, Herb Lubalin and Tony DiSpigna
1974: ITC Lubalin Graph, Herb Lubalin,Tony DiSpigna,
and Joe Sundwall
1975: ITC Bauhaus, based on Bayer's universal alphabet
1976: Snell Roundhand, Matthew Carter
1976: Zapf Book, Hermann Zapf
1976: Eras, Albert Hollenstein and Albert Boton
1976: Zapf International, Hermann Zapf
1977: ITC Quorum, Ray Baker
1977: Korinna Kursiv, Edward Benguiat
1977: Italia, Colin Brignall
1977: Benguiat, Edward Benguiat
1977: ITC Garamond, Tony Stan
1979: Zapf Chancery, Hermann Zapf
1979: Benguiat Gothic, Edward Benguiat
1980: ITC Novarese, Aldo Novarese

1980: leone, Adrian Frutiger

1980: Marconi, Hermann Zapf
1980: Edison, Hermann Zapf
1980: Isbell, Dick Isbell and Jerry Campbell
1983: ITC Weidemann, Kurt Weidemann and Kurt Strecker

1984: ITC Usherwood, Les Usherwood

253
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254
 (Frontispiece) St. Barbara, Fifteenth-century German or French 54. From Champ Fleuryby Geoffroy Tory; Paris, 1529.
polychromed walnut sculpture. (50" FI X 23"Wx 13" D) 127.0cm 55. Photograph; courtesy of the French Government Tourist
58.4cm X 33.0cm.TheVirginia Museum of Fine Arts, Rich¬ Office.
mond. The Williams Fund, 1968. 57. Titian; Venetian c. 1477-1565. Cardinal Pietro Bembo.
1. Impressed tablet from GodinTepe, Iran. West Asian Depart- Canvas, 0.945 X 0.765m (37’% X 30'% in.). National Gallery of
ment. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto. Art, Washington, DC. Samuel H. Kress Collection, 1952.
2. Facsimile of the cuneiform impression on a clay tablet, after 58. Title page for Elementary Geometry by Oronce Fine. Printed
Hansard.
by Simone de Colines; Paris, 1544.
3. The Pyramids at Giza, from The Iconographic Encyclopaedia 59. From Hypnerotomachia Poliphili by Fra Francesco Colonna.
of Science, Literature, and Art by Johann Georg Heck, 1851. Printed by Jacques Kerver; Paris, 1546.
4 Egyptian Old Kingdom False Door Stele, limestone. The Vir¬ 60. El Greco; Spanish 1541-1614. Saint Martin and the Beggar.
ginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond. Museum Purchase: Canvas, 1.935 X 1.030m (76% X 40% in.). National Gallery of
TheWilliams Fund.
Art, Washington, DC. Widener Collection, 1942.
5. Cuneiform tablet. Sumero-Akkadian.The Metropolitan Mu¬ 61. From Nejw Kunstliches Alphabet by JohannTheodor de Bry;
seum of Art, New York. Acquired by exchange with J. Pierpont Germany, 1595.
Morgan Library, 1911.
62. Photographer anonymous; c. 1895. Private collection.
6. Photograph of Stonehenge: courtesy of the British Tourist 63. Detail, typographic specimens of Jean Jannon; Sedan,
Authority. France, 1621.
7. Egyptian Polychromed Wood Sculpture, XVIII-XIX Dynasty. 64. Page from Stamperia Vaticana Specimen; Rome, 1628.
Ushabti. TheVirginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond. Museum 65. Photograph; courtesy of the Government of IndiaTourist
Picture Credits Purchase: TheWilliams Fund, 1955. Office.
8. The Book of the Dead of Tuthmosis III. Museum of Fine Arts, 66. Sir Anthony van Dyck; Flemish 1599-1641. HenriII de
Boston. Gift of Horace L. Meyer. Lorraine, Due de Guise. Canvas, 2.046 X 1.238m (80% X 48%
10. Phoenician inscription.The Metropolitan Museum of Art, in.). National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. Gift of Cornelius
New York. The Cesnola Collection. Purchased by subscription, Vanderbilt Whitney, 1947.
1874-76. 67. Jan Vermeer; Dutch 1632-75. Woman Holding a Balance,
12. Photograph of the Parthenon; courtesy of the Greek Na¬ c. 1664. Canvas, 0.425 X 0.380m (16% X 15 in.). National
tional Tourist Office. Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. Widener Collection, 1942.
13. Photograph of Greek record of sale; Agora Excavations, 69. Photograph; courtesy of the British Tourist Authority.
American School of Classical Studies, Athens. 71. Photographer anonymous; 1896. Private collection.
15. Photograph of a wall in Pompeii, by James Mosley. 72. From the 1764 specimen book of W. Caslon and Son,
17. Photographer anonymous; c. 1895. Private collection. London.
18. Funerary inscription of Lollia Genialis. Marble. The Metro¬ 73. Photograph; courtesy of the IrishTourist Board.
politan Museum of Art, New York. 74. Title page for Cato Major, or His Discourse on Old Age by
19. Photographer anonymous; c. 1895. Private collection. M.T. Cicero. Printed by Benjamin Franklin; Philadelphia, 1744.
20. Photograph; courtesy of the Italian Government Travel Office. 75. Francois Boucher; French 1703-70. The Love Letter, 1750.
24. Detail, "Christ attended by angels," from The Book of Kells, Canvas, 0.813 X 0.741m (32 X 29% in.). National Gallery of Art,
fol. 32v; photograph; courtesy of the Irish Tourist Board. Washington, DC. Timken Collection, 1959.
25 and 26. Photographs; courtesy of the Irish Tourist Board. 76. Anonymous; engraved portrait of John Baskerville.
28. Photograph; courtesy of the French Government Tourist 77. From the specimen book of Thomas Cottrell, English type¬
Office. founder; London, c. 1765.
30. Bronze and copper Crucifix. TheVirginia Museum of Fine 78. Detail, title page of Historie de Louis de Bourbon..., using
Arts, Richmond. Museum Purchase: TheWilliams Fund, 1968. types and ornaments designed by Pierre Simon Fournier le Jeune.
32. Madonna and Child on a Curved Throne. Wood, 0.815 X Published by Lottin; Paris, 1768.
0.490m (32% X 19% in.). National Gallery of Art, Washington, 79. Johann David Steingruber, 1702-87. Engraved letter A from
DC. Andrew W. Mellon Collection, 1937. Arch/tectonishes Alphabet, Schwabach, 1773. Metropolitan Mu¬
34. Lippo Memmi; Sienese, active 1317-47. Saint John the seum of Art, New York. The Elisha Whittelsey Collection, 1955.
Baptist. Wood, 0.95 X 0 46m (37%. X 18 in.). National Gallery The Elisha Whittelsey Fund.
of Art, Washington, DC. Samuel H. Kress Collection, 1939. 80. Photograph; courtesy of the Library of Congress, Wash¬
35. Photograph; courtesty of the Italian Government Tourist ington, DC.
Office. 82. Detail, title page using type designed by Bodoni. Dante's
37. Fra Filippo Lippi; Florentinec. 1406-69. Madonna and Child. Divine Comedy; Pisa, 1804.
Wood, 0.80 X 0.51m (31% X 20% in.). National Gallery of Art, 83. From Thorowgood's New Specimen of Printing Types, late R.
Washington, DC. Samuel H. Kress Collection, 1939. Thorne's, No. 2; London, 1821.
39. Woodcut illustration from Standebuch by Jost Amman, 84. Jacques-Louis David; French 1748-1825. Napoleon in his
1568. Study, 1812. Canvas, 2.039 X 1.251m (80% X 49% in.). National
40. Photographer anonymous; c. 1895. Private collection. Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, Samuel H. Kress Collection,1961.
42. Typography from Lactantu.... Printed by Sweynheym and 85-6. From Specimen of Printing Types by Vincent Figgins;
Pannartz; Rome, 1468. The Library of Congress Rare Book and London, 1815.
Special Collections Division, Washington, DC. 87. From Specimen of Printing Types by William Caslon IV;
43. From De evangelica praeparatione by Eusebius Pamphilii. London, 1816.
Printed by Nicolas Jenson; Venice, 1470. 88. From Manua/e Typographico. Published by Signora Bodoni
44. From The Recuyellof the Historyes of Troye by Raoul Le and Luigi Orsi; Parma, Italy, 1818.
Fevre. Printed by William Caxton and Colard Mansion; Burges, 89. From Thorowgood's New Specimen of Printing Types, late R.
c. 1475. Thorne's, No. 2; London, 1821.
45. Filippino Lippi; Portrait of a Youth. Wood, 0.510 X 0.355m 90. Photograph; courtesy of the Virginia State Travel Service.
(20 X 13% in.). National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. Andrew 91. From Bower, Bacon & Bower's Specimen of Printing Types;
Mellon Collection, 1937. Sheffield, c, 1825
46. Erhard Ratdolt, earliest extant type specimen sheet. Pub¬ 92. Wood engraving of Darius Wells, from The Inland Printer;
lished April 1, 1486, in Augsburg, Germany. Bayerische Chicago, July 1888.
Staatsbibliothek, Munich. 93. From Specimen of Printing Types by Vincent Figgins;
47. Woodcut portrait of Aldus Manutius. Published by Antoine London, 1833.
Lafrery; Rome, 16th century. 94. Poster by the Davy & Berry Printing Office; Albion, England,
48. From De aetna by Pietro Bembo, Published by Aldus 1836.
Manutius; Venice, 1495. 95. From Specimen of Printing Types byV. &J. Figgins, succes¬
49. Page from Virgil. Published by Aldus Manutius; Venice, 1501. sors to Vincent Figgins, Letter-Founder; London, 1836.
50. Photograph by Rommler and Jonas; 1892. Private collection. 96. Courtesy of the Library of Congress Rare Book and Special
53. From Underweisung der Messung by Albrecht Durer; Collections Division, Washington, DC.
Nuremberg, 1525. 97. Photograph; courtesy of British Tourist Authority.

255
98. From The Specimen Book of Types cast at the Austin Foundry 142. Photograph; courtesy of New York Convention and Visitors
byWood&Sharwoods; London, c. 1841. Bureau.
99. From A General Specimen of Printing Types. Published by 143. Max Bill. Poster for an exhibition of African Art at the
W. Thorowgood and Company; London, 1848. Kunstgewerbemuseum, Zurich.
144. Alexey Brodovitch. Poster for an industrial design exhibition
100. Photograph; Library of Congress Rare Book and Special
Collections Division, Washington, DC. at the Philadelphia Museum of Art.
101. Photograph; Library of Congress Rare Book and Special 145. Walker Evans. Photograph, "Fieldsfamily, sharecroppers,"
Collections Division, Washington, DC. Hale County, Alabama. Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
102. From the wood type specimen book of William H. Page & 146. Jean Carlu. Advertisement for Container Corporation of
Company; Greenville, Connecticut, 1859. America, December 21, 1942.
103. Private collection. 147. Max Bill. Poster for an exhibition of Art Concrete at the
104. Honore Daumier; French 1808-79. The Third-Class Kunsthalle, Basel.
Carriage. Oil on canvas, 65.4 x 90.2m (25% x 35'/2 in.). Metro¬ 148. Paul Rand. Title page for On My Way by Hans Arp. Pub¬
politan Museum of Art, New York, Bequest of Mrs. H. 0. lished by Wittenborn, Schultz, Inc; New York, 1948.
Havemeyer, 1929. The H O. Havemeyer Collection. 149. Willem de Kooning. Painting, 1948. Enamel and oil on can¬
105. Private collection. vas, 42% x 56% in. Collection; Museum of Modern Art, New
106. Private collection. York. Purchase.
107. Courtesy of the New York Convention and Visitors Bureau. 150. Ladislav Sutnar. Cover for Catalog Design Progress by K.
108. Private collection. Lonberg-Holm and Ladislav Sutnar. Published by Sweet s Cata¬
109. Private collection. log Service; New York, 1950.
110. Wood engraving from The Inland Printer; Chicago, Decem¬ 151. Illustration by Stephen Chovanec.
ber 1889, 152. Henri Matisse; French 1869-1954. Woman with Amphora
112. Courtesy of the French Government Tourist Office. and Pomegranates. Paper on canvas (collage), 2.436 x 0.963m
113. Photograph; courtesy of the Archives. The Coca-Cola (96 X 37% in.). National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. Ailsa
Company. Mellon Bruce Fund, 1973.
114. Paul Gauguin; French 1848-1903. FatataTe Miti (By the 153. Josef Muller-Brockmann. Poster for a musical concert;
Sea). 1892. Canvas, 0.679 x 0.915m (26% X 36 in.). National Zurich, Switzerland, January 1955.
Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. Chester Dale Collection, 1962. 154. Saul Bass. Advertisement from the Great Ideas of Western
117. William Morris. News from Nowhere. Published by Kelmscott Man series. Container Corporation of America.
Press; London, 1892. 155. Willem Sandberg. Back and front covers for Experimenta
118. Title page from Van nu en Straks. Designed by Henri van de Typographica. Published by Verlag Galerie der Spiegel; Cologne,
Velde, 1893. 1956.
119. Title page from Limbes de Lumieres by Gustave Kahn; 156. Saul Bass. Film title for Anatomy of a Murder. Produced and
Brussels, 1897. directed by Otto Preminger, 1959.
120. From The Inland Printer; Chicago, June 1900. 157. Photograph; courtesy of the New York Convention and
121. Title page from A Lady of Quality by Francis Hodgson Visitors Bureau.
Burnett. Published by Charles Scribner's Sons; New York, 1897. 158. Carlo L. Vivarelli. Cover for Neue Grafik. Published by
122. Cover forVienna Secession Catalog No. 5; Vienna, 1899. Verlag Otto Walter AG; Olten, Switzerland, 1959.
123. Photograph; courtesy of the French Government Tourist 159. Henry Wolf. Cover for Harper's Bazaar magazine, Decem¬
Office. ber 1959.
124. Dedication page from Feste des Lebens und der Kunst: Ein 160. Gerald Holton. Symbol for the Campaign for Nuclear Dis¬
Betrachtung des Theaters als hochsten Kultursymbols (Cele¬ armament; Great Britain, c. 1959.
brations of Life and Art: A Consideration of the Theater as the 161. Otto Storch. Typography from McCall's magazine; July 1959.
Highest Cultural Symbol) by Peter Behrens; Darmstadt, 1900. 162. Karl Gerstner. Poster for the newspaper National Zeitung;
125. Filippo Marinetti, Futurist poem, S.T. F, 1914. Zurich, 1960.
126. Cover, Delikatessen Haus Erich Fromm, Haupt-List 2; 163. Herb Lubalin. Advertisement for Sudler and Hennessey Ad¬
Cologne, c. 1910. vertising, Inc.; New York.
127. Wassily Kandinsky. Improvisation 31 (Sea Battle), 1913. 164. George Lois. Advertisement for A. H. Robins Company,
National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. Ailsa Mellon Bruce Fund. Incorporated.
128. War Bond Fund Drive poster for the British government 165. Photograph; courtesy of the Virginia State Travel Service.
by Bert Thomas, c. 1916. 166. Seymour Chwast and Milton Glaser, Push Pin Studios, Inc.
129. Advertisement for the Kleine Grosz Mappe (Small Grosz Poster for the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, New York.
Portfolio) from Die Neue Jugend. Designed by John Heartfield. 167. George Lois. Cover for Esquire magazine, October 1966.
Published by Der Malik-Verlag, Berlin, June 1917. 168. Seymour Chwast and Milton Glaser, Push Pin Studios, Inc.
130. First cover for De Sti/L the journal of the de Stijl movement. Poster for Filmsense, New York.
Designed by Vilmos Huszar. Published/Edited byTheo van 169. Photograph; courtesy of the Public Relations Department,
Doesburg,The Netherlands; October 1917. City of Montreal, Canada.
131. Raoul Hausmann. Poeme Phonetique, 1919. 170. Designer not known. Symbol widely used in the environ¬
132. Piet Mondrian; Dutch 1872-1944. Diamond Painting in mental movement.
Red, Yellow, and Blue. Oil on canvas, 40 X 40 in. National Gallery 171. Photograph; courtesy of the National Aeronautics and
of Art, Washington, DC. Gift of Herbert and Nannette Space Administration.
Rothschild, 1971. 172. Wolfgang Weingart. Experimental interpretation of a poem
133. Poster announcing availability of books, by Alexander Rod¬ by Elsbeth Bornoz; Basel, Switzerland.
chenko; Moscow, c. 1923. Private collection. 173. Herb Lubalin, Volume 1, Number 1, of U&lc. Published by
134. Illustration by Mike Fanizza. the International Typeface Corporation, New York.
135. Title page from Die Kunstismen by El Lissitzky and Hans 174. Cook and Shanosky, commissioned by the American Insti¬
Arp. Published by Eugen Rentsch Verlag; Zurich, 1925. tute of Graphic Arts under contract to the U.S. Department of
136. Proposed universal alphabet. Designed by Herbert Bayer Transportation. From Symbol Signs, a series of thirty-four
as a student at the Bauhaus. passenger-oriented symbols for use in transportation facilities.
137. Constantin Brancusi; Rumanian 1876-1957. Bird in Space. 175. Bruce Blackburn, then of Chermayeff and Geismar
Marble, stone, and wood, hgt. 3 446m (136y2 in.). National Associates. Symbol for the U.S. Bicentennial Commission and
Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. Gift of Eugene and Agnes stamp for the U.S. Postal Service, first released in 1971.
Meyer, 1967. 176. Photograph; courtesy of the French Government Tourist
138. Title page for special insert, "ElementareTypographic" from Office.
Typographische Mitteilungen; Leipzig, October 1925. 177. Trademark reproduced by permission of Frederic Ryder
139-40. Advertisements by Piet Zwart; courtesy of N. V. Company; Chicago.
Nederlandsche Kabelfabriek, Delft. 178. Willi Kunz. Poster for an exhibition of photographs by
141. Trial setting using Futura. Designed by Paul Renner. Pub¬ Fredrich Cantor, FOTO Gallery, New York.
lished by Bauersche Giesserei; Frankfurt am Main, 1930. 179. Title film for AH That Jazz, Twentieth Century-Fox. Director/

256
Designer: Richard Greenberg, R/Greenberg Associates Inc
New York.
180. Tim Priddy. Announcement for Best Products Company,
Inc. Richmond.
181. Photograph: courtesy of the Office of the Mayor, Portland
Oregon.
209. Philip Meggs. Experimental typography.
212, 215, 230, and 248. Frank Armstrong, Armstrong Design
Consultants: New Canaan, CT.
213. Wilii Kunz. Poster; 14 X 16y2 in.
253. Ben Day. From Hdndel& Haydn magazine.
254. Frank Armstrong. Armstrong Design Consultants; New
Canaan, CJ. Photograph by Sally Anderson-Bruce.
256. Designer: Philip Meggs.
259. Designer. Ben Day.
268. Ben Day. Exhibition catalog cover.
275 and 403—12. Courtesy of the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration,
278. Eugen Gomringer. "ping pong," from Concrete Poetry: A
World View. Edited by Mary Ellen Solt, Indiana University Press
1970.
292. Courtesy of Reader's Digest.
297. Photograph; courtesy of Olivetti.
302. Gerrit Rietveld. Red/blue chair, 1918. Collection Stedelijk
Museum, Amsterdam.
303 and 422-28. Reprinted with permission of Minneapolis Star
and Tribune.
306. Rob Carter. Courtesy of Best Products Co., Inc.
308. Photograph; courtesy of Daniel Friedman.
309. Photograph; courtesy of Best Products Co., Inc.
310. Eugene Gaillard. French marquetry cabinet, late nineteenth
century. Carved mahogany. Collection of Sydney and Frances
Lewis.
317. Photograph; courtesy of the Department of Dance, Vir¬
ginia Commonwealth University.
330, 336, and 343. Photographs; courtesy of Mergenthaler
Linotype Company.
340. Photograph; courtesy of Visual Graphics Corporation.
342. Courtesy of Visual Graphics Corporation.
344. Courtesy of Autologic, Inc.; Newbury Park, CA.
348. Courtesy of Serif & Sans, Inc.; Boston, MA.
349. Microphotographs courtesy of Mike Cody, Virginia Com¬
monwealth University.
442. Photograph; The Rare Book and Special Collections Divi¬
sion,The Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
446. From American Advertising Posters of the Nineteenth
Century by Mary Black; courtesy of Dover Publications, Inc.

Sources for specimen quotations

Pages 166-171, 198-203, 210-211, 218-219, and 226-227
From The Book Beautiful by Thomas James Cobden-Sanderson
Hammersmith: Hammersmith Publishing Society, 1902.
Pages 238-241. From The Alphabet and Elements of Lettering
by FredericW. Goudy, courtesy of Dover Publications, Inc.
Page numbers in italic ABA form, 62-65, 62-65 Caslon, William IV, 33, 72
refer to illustrations Accented characters, 29, 29 Caxton, William, 7
Akzidenz Grotesque, 173 Century, 221. See also Type specimen index
Alphabets, See also Letterforms Chang, Amos, 43, 58
Bayer's universal alphabet, 19 Chase, 92-93, 92
experimental alphabet book, 117, 117 Cheltenham, 38, 221, 38. See also Type specimen
Phoenician, 3 index
Animation Chromolithography, 15
in typographic film titles, 136-138, 136-138 Chwast, Seymour, 22-23
Anthony, Carol, 71 Clarendon, 221, 14
Apex, 26, 27 Cody, Mike, 102
Arm, 26, 27 Colley, David, 117, 75, 76, 117
Armstrong, Frank, 42, 44, 47, 50, 57, 59 Collins, Gail, 42
Ariss, Frank, 129 Columns, 49-50, 48-51
Arrighi, Lodovico, 8 Communication
Art Deco, 20 functionalism and, 77-80, 77-80
Art Nouveau, 17 relationship between typographic form and
Arts and Crafts Movement, 16 message, 77-80, 107, 110, 115, 117, 77-80,
Ascenders, 26, 4, 27 107, 110, 115. 117
Aurora Condensed, 28, 29 Composing stick, 92, 95, 92
Avant Garde, 37, 37. See also Type specimen index Computers
Index in digital typesetting, 99-101, 100-101
Baker, Jan, 116-117 in newspaper typesetting and page composition,
Ballmer, Walter, 45, 75 129-130
Barker, Tim, 106 in phototypesetting, 97, 96-97
Barnes, Jeff, 51, 75 Concrete poetry, 68, 68
Barnett, Lori, 126, 126-128 Condensed type, 28, 37, 87, 98, 3, 87 98
Baseline, 26, 27 Consonance, 58, 59
Baskerville, 205. See also Type specimen index Constructivism, 68, 19, 68
italic, 38, 38 Contrast, 49-50, 88, 50
type family, 37, 37 Cook and Shanosky, 23
x-height and legibility, 86 Cotterell, Thomas, 11
Baskerville, John, 205, 11, 204 Counter, 26, 27, 34
Bass, Saul, 21 Counterpart, 52, 53
Bayer, Herbert, 19 Counterpoint, 52, 53
Beard, 34 Cox, Steve, 110
Behrens, Peter, 18 Cranbrook Academy of Art, 112
Bembo, 7 See also Type specimen index Creps, James, 777
Benton, Morris F, 38 Crosby, Bart, 49-50
Besley, Robert, 14 Crossbar, 26, 27
Bill, Max, 20 Cursive, See Italic
Blackburn, Bruce, 23
Bodoni, 38, 213, 38. See also Type specimen index Dada, 52, 68, 77 52, 68
Bodoni, Giambattista, 213, 11, 212 Danne and Blackburn, 122, 57 66-67 122
Body size. See Point size Davis, Meredith, 54
Boerma, Rijk, 113 Day, Ben, 106, 120, 50
BoldfaceType, 37 Dean, Paul, 106
Bonnell, Bill, 24 De Bretteville, Sheila, 75
Books de Bry, JohannTheodor, 9
codex, 3 de Colines, Simon, 9, 143
first printed English-language book, 7 Decorative type. See Ornamented type
first typographic book in Europe, 6 DeJesus, Sergio, 44, 60
Gutenberg Bible, 6 Deman, Edmond, 77
manuscript, 4, 5 DeMao, John, 115
typographic book design, 117, 117 Descenders, 27, 4, 27
Boston University, 106, 116, 119 De Stijl, 68, 18. 68. 70
Boterman, Jan, 113 Detrie, Thomas, 105, 132, 133-135
Bowl, 26, 27 Dewey, Susan, 110
Boyle, Robert, 42 Didot, 213
Bradley, Will, 17 Didot, Francois Ambroise, 77
Brancusi, Constantin, 19 Die Neue Typographic, 173
Brodovitch, Alexey, 20 di Furia, Richard, 707
Brueggenjohann, Jean, 116,119, 58, 114 Digital typesetting, 99-102, 100-102
Burch, Harold, 73 Digraphs, 29, 29
Dingbats, 29, 29
Capital letters, 29, 29 Display photographic typesetting, 98, 98
geometry of, 26, 26 Display type, 34, 87, 98, 77, 13, 87 98
legibility of, 85, 84 Dissonance, 58, 59
Roman, 3-4, 9 Doczi, Gyorgy, 56
Capline, 26, 27 Dorfsman, Lou, 72
Carlu, Jean, 20 Dronenburg, Linda, 77
Caroline minuscules, 5, 143, 4
Carroll, Michael, 129, 131, 78 Ear, 27, 27
Carter, Rob, 105, 111, 54 Easter, Joe, 106
Caslon, 10-11, 17. See also Type specimen index Egyptian type, 14. See also Type specimen index
Caslon, William, 10 characteristics of, 33, 221, 33
early design by Figgins, 72
history of, 33, 221

258
Elaboration
Hardy Holzman Pfeiffer Associates, 80 in justified vs. unjustified typography, 88-89, 89
in ABA form, 64, 65
Hausmann, Raoul, 18, 52, 68 letterform proportion and, 106, 106
in development of visual hierarchies, 54, 56, 54 Heartfield, John, 18 letterform studies, 106, 106
within type families, 38, 38-39
Helvetica, 38, 173, 39. See also Type specimen index line breaks and, 89
Electronic page composition, 129-130
Hieroglyphics, 52, 2, 52 in lowercase vs. capital letters, 85, 84
Environmental graphics
Hoffmann, Josef, 77 paragraphs and indentations and, 89
NASA visual identity system, 124-125, Holt, John, 11 in serif vs. sans serif, 84
124-125
Holton, Gerald, 22 thick and thin contrast and, 87, 87
Evans, Linda, 105
Hot metal type type weight and, 87
Expanded type, 28, 37, 87, 98, 29, 87, 98 hand composition, 92-93, 92 Lehrer, Warren, 47
Eye, 27, 27
invention of, 15, 16 Leister, Bryan, 56
Linotype, 93-94, 93 Letterforms. See also Alphabets
Face, 34
Ludlow, 94, 95 components of, 26-27, 26-27
Fanizza, Michael, 120 Monotype, 94, 94 distinguishing characteristics of, 82-84, 82-84
Fat Face, 12-14 quality of, 102, 102 evolution of physical characteristics, 26, 26
Feet, 34 Huszar, Vilmos, 18 form-counterform relationships, 45, 44-45
Figgins, Vincent, 33, 12-13
optical adjustment of, 26, 30, 30
Fillet, 27 27 Incunabula, 7 proportion in, 28, 28
Fluxus, 126-128, 126-128 Indentations, 89 as signs, 43, 42-44
Fonts Indiana University, 114 unity of design in typographic fonts, 30, 31
components of, 29, 29 Industrial Revolution Letterspacing. See Interletter spacing
definition of, 29 typography of, 12-17 Li, Ivy, 46. 53, 56
in display photographic typesetting, 98, 98 Inland Printer, The, 34 Ligatures, 29, 29
in phototypesetting, 96, 96 Interletter spacing Limoncelli, Susan, 777
unity of design in, 30, 31 definition of, 35 Line breaks
Form-counterform, 45, 49-50, 58-61, 84, 105, in display photographic typesetting, 98, 98 according to meaning of text, 89, 90
44-45, 58-61, 84, 105 effect on legibility, 85-86, 85-86 legibility and, 89
Fotosetter, 96 optical adjustment of, 45 Linecaster. See Linotype; Ludlow; Monotype
Fournier le Jeune, Pierre Simon, 34, 11 unit system of, 36, 36 Line length
Fractions, 29, 29 Interline spacing, 35, 86-87, 89, 92, 47, 87 legibility and, 86, 86
Friedman, Daniel, 80 Intertype, 94 Lines. See Typographic lines
Frutiger, Adrian, 39, 39 Interword spacing, 35, 85-86, 35, 85-86 Linespacing. See Interline spacing
Functionalism, 77-80, 173, 77-80 Italic, 38, 38 Link, 27, 27
Funk, Donna, 72 chancery style of Arrighi, 8 Linofilm, 96, 96
Furniture, 92, 92 characteristics of, 32, 32 Linotype, 93-94. 75, 93
Futura, 38, 20, 38. See also Type specimen index legibility of, 87, 87 Lissitzky, El, 19, 68
Futurism, 68, 18, 68 origins of, 32, 8 Lock, Alexandre, 104
in phototypesetting, 98, 98 Logotypes
Gaillard, Eugene, 80 Janiszewski, Jerzy, 70 American Broadcasting Company, 56, 57
Galley, 94 Jannon, Jean, 9 design process, 106, 106
Garamond, 143, 9, 29, 142. See also Type specimen Jenson, Nicolas, 7 Minneapolis Tribune, 129, 129-131
index Jolley, Bill, 110 NASA, 122-125, 57 722-725
Garamond, Claude, 143, 8 Justified typography, 88-89, 92, 94, 89 Nautical Quarterly, 139, 140
Geissbuhler, Steff, 73, 76 Olivetti, 45, 45, 75
Gerrit Rietveld Academy, Amsterdam, 113 Kandinsky, Wassily, 18 Solidarity, 70, 70
Gerstner, Karl, 58, 22 Kane, John, 67 Loop, 27 See also Bowl
Glaser, Milton, 22-23 Kelmscott Press, 16 Lowercase letters, 26, 29, 85, 26, 29, 84
' Godlewski, Josef, 114 Kerning, 36. See also Interletter spacing Lois, George, 22
Golden, 16 Kerver, Jacques, 9 Lubalin, Herb, 221, 22-23, 73
Gomringer, Eugen, 68 Kim, Cindy, 115 Ludlow, 95, 95
Goodhue, Bertram G., 38 Kimball, Ingalls, 38 Lumiere Brothers, 17
Gothic Letters, 5-6 Kirwin, Colene, 105, 111
Goudy, 38, 38 See also Type specimen index Klmkon, Heinz, 118 Machlis, Joseph, 62
Goudy, Frederic, 84, 17 Knauz, Karl, 115, 115 Maciunas, George, 126-127
Grandjean, Philippe, 10 Knobler, Nathan, 60 McCoy, Katherine, 112, 126, 126-128
Graves, Michael, 24 Koenig, Friedrich, 12 McLawhorn, Craig, 109
Greenberg, Richard, 136, 24 Kunz, Willi, 24, 43, 78 McPherson, Elizabeth, 70S
Greischel, Laurie, 107 Kuyper, Jerry, 75 Majuscules, 4
Grids Malevich, Kasimir, 18
in digital letterform generation, 99, 100 Lanston, Tolbert, 94, 16 Manuale Tipographico, 213, 72, 272
in experimental poster designs, 119, 119 Lantz, Rebecca, 56 Manutius, Aldus, 32, 7
"floating" grids, 126, 128, 131, 131 Leading. See Interline spacing Margins, 49-50, 49-51
legibility and, 89 Le Corbusier, 27 Marinetti, Filippo, 18, 68
in letterform analysis, 106, 106 Leg, 27, 27 Marlatt, Kim, 70S
in NASA visual identity system, 124, 66-67 Legibility Mathematical signs, 29, 29
in newspaper design, 129-131, 130 background color and, 88, 88 Matisse, Henri, 27
in publication design, 140 in black on white vs. white on black, 88, 88 Matrix, 93-96, 93-96
in visual organization, 66-67, 109, 66-67, 109 character width and, 87 87 Meanline, 26, 27
comparative legibility of letterforms, 83, 83 Meganck, Robert, 54
Griffo, Francesco, 32, 7, 8
effect of contrast on, 88 Mergenthaler, Ottmar, 93, 75
Groove, 34
effect of interletter spacing and interword spacing Message. See Communication
Guimard, Hector, 17
on, 85-86, 85-86 Middleton, R Lyn, 104
Gutenberg, Johann, 7, 34
effect of type size, line length, and interline spacing Mills, Maxine, 104
on, 86-87 86-87 Minneapolis Tribune, 129-131, 78, 129-131
Hairline, 27
effect of word space and internal pattern on, Modern Style, 33, 213, 77, 33
Hand composition, 92-93, 92
84-85, 84-85 Mondrian, Piet, 19
Handset type. See Hand composition
form-counterform and, 84, 84 Monk, Matt, 109
grids and, 89
italics and, 87, 87

259
Monotype, 94, 16, 94 Serif type Type specimens, 116, 7 116
Morgan, Bruce, 114 legibility of, 84 Type weight, 37, 87 37
Morris, William, 16 Set width, 35, 34 Typesetting systems
Mugford Wieland, Jennifer, 60 Shaded type, 12 digital, 99-101, 100-101
Muller-Brockmann, Josef, 89, 21 Shahn, Ben, 45 display photographic typesetting, 98, 98
Sholes, Christopher, 15 hand composition, 92-93, 92
NASA, 122-125, 66-67, 122-125 Shoulder, 27, 27, 34 hot metal, 15, 16
Nautical Quarterly, 139-140, 139-140 Signorio, Mark, 115 Linotype, 93-94, 15, 93
Newspapers, 129-131, 129-131 Signs. See Logotypes; Typographic signs Ludlow, 95, 95
Nick, 34 Silarski, Lyn, 126, 126-128 Monotype, 94, 16, 94
North Carolina State University, 104,106, 108, 109 Slab serif. See Egyptian type Typographic joinery, 56, 105, 57, 64, 105
Novelty type, 38. See also Ornamented type Slugs, 93, 95, 92-93 Typographic lines, 46, 86, 46-48, 86. See also
Numbers, 29, 29 Small caps, 29, 29 Interline spacing
Smolev, Beth April, 114 Typographic rules, 46, 46-47
Ohashi, Ryoji, 112 Spine, 27, 27 Typographic space, 58-61, 58-61
Old Style, 28, 32,143, 8-10, 28, 32 Sponga, Rebecca, 71 Typographic signs, 42-43, 71-76, 104, 106, 43-44,
Olivetti logotype, 45, 45 Spur, 27 27 71-76, 104, 106
Optical adjustment, 30, 60, 30, 60-61 Stan, Tony, 143 Typographic syntax
Optical alignment, 26, 46, 47 Steingruber, Johann David, 11 columns and margins and, 49-51, 48-51
Ornament Stele, 2 definition of, 42
functionalism and, 78, 78-80 Stem, 27, 27 grids and, 66-67 66-67
Ornamented type, 38, 14 Stewart, Angela, 104 letterforms and, 43, 42-43
Outline type, 13-14 Stewart, Anne, 50 lines and, 46, 46-47
Ozubko, Christopher, 107, 110 Storch, Otto, 22 typographic space and, 58-61, 58-61
Stress, 28, 28 visual hierarchy and, 52-57, 52-57
Paragraphs, 89 Stroke, 27 words and, 45, 44-45
Parallel construction, 54, 55 Sutnar, Ladislav, 78, 21
Pedersen, Martin, 139 Sweynheym and Pannartz, 7 Uncials, 4
Perry, Suzanne, 119 Symbols. See Logotypes; Typographic signs Units, 36
Pfleegor, Lark, 53, 59, 120 Unit value, 36, 36
Phototypesetting, 96-97, 102, 96-97 102 Tail, 27 Univers, 38-39, 86,173, 39. See also Type specimen
See also Digital typesetting; Tan, Allan, 113 index
Display photographic typesetting, Typesetting Teletypesetter, 94 University of Cincinnati, 108
systems Terminal, 27, 27 University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana, 117
Pica, 34 Teten, Michelle, 111 University of Illinois at Chicago, 115
Point, 34 Text type, 34 University of Washington at Seattle, 107, 110
Point size, 34, 34-35. See also Type size Textur, 5 Unjustified Typography, 88-89, 89
Priddy, Tim, 24 Texture, 49, 85, 51 Uppercase letters. See Capital letters
Printing, 12-13, 6 Thicks and thins, 28, 87, 28, 87
Proportion Thomas, Bert, 18 Van Arnam, Cheryl, 46
in letterforms, 28, 28 Thompson, Bradbury, 90 Van de Velde, Henri, 17
within type families, 37 Thompson, Debra, 61, 67 Van Doesburg, Theo, 68
Prygrocki, Greg, 106, 108, 109 Thorne, Robert, 12 Van Dyck, Christoffel, 10
Punctuation, 29, 46, 29, 47. See also Visual Times Roman, 30, 31. See also Type specimen index Vienna Secession, 17
punctuation Tone, 49, 51 Viewing experience, 56, 57
Purvis, Alston, 119 Tory, Geoffroy, 8 Virginia Commonwealth University, 105, 111, 120
Transitional style, 32, 205, 10, 32 Visual compensation, 58, 60, 64, 58-59, 65
Quads, 35, 35 Troy, 16 Visual hierarchy, 52-57, 130, 140, 52-57, 131
Quoins, 92, 92 Tschichold, Jan, 46, 50, 19, 173 Visual identity systems, 122-125, 66-67, 122-125
Tuscan,12 Visual punctuation, 56, 56-57
Rag. See Line breaks Type case, 92, 92 Vivarelli, Carlo, 21
Ragged-right typography. See Unjustified typography Typecaster, 94
Rand, Paul, 20, 43, 55. 57 Typefaces. See also Type specimen index Wagner, Otto, 68
Ratdolt, Erhard, 7 classification of, 32-33, 32-33 Walbaum, 213
Remington, R. Roger, 114, 118 comparative studies, 118, 118 Warde, Beatrice, 136
Renner, Paul, 20 decorative and novelty styles, 38 Weight. See Type weight
Reversed type, 88, 13, 88 Dutch Old Style, 10 Weingart, Wolfgang, 132, 23, 46, 55. 61, 80
Rhode Island School of Design, 105, 116, 117 early Roman, 7 Weller, Don, 75
Rietveld, Gerrit, 77 19, 77 early sans serif, 12 Wells, Darius, 13
Ritzenberg, Philip, 129 elaborated forms, 38, 38-39 White space, 43, 43. See also Form-counterform;
Rochester Institute of Technology, 114, 118 italic, 38, 38 Typographic space
Rodchenko, Alexander, 19 ornamented, 11, 14 Wiley, Kyle, 107 110
Rodgers, John, 44 outline, 13 Williams, J. P., 105
Rogers, Bruce, 17 perspective, 13 Windsor, Ken, 126, 126-128
Rotunda, 6 reversed,13 Wohlt, Carl, 49, 50
Ruark, Amy, 54 Romain du Roi, 10 Wolf, Henry, 22
Rules. See Typographic rules shaded, 12 Woodblock printing, 6
Rumble, Richard, 75 studies of visual characteristics, 116, 116 Wood type, 13
Type Families. See also Type specimen index Wordspacing. See Interword spacing.
Saarinen, Eero, 22 Avant Garde, 37 37 Wright, Frank Lloyd, 21
St. James, Katherine, 114 Baskerville, 37 37 Writing
Salchow, Gordon, 108 Cheltenham, 38, 38 history of, 2-6
Sandberg, Willem, 21 definition of, 37 37
Sans serif type, 28, 33, 84, 173, 221, 12, 18, 28, 33 Univers, 39, 39 X-height
Scher, Paula, 78 variations within, 37, 37 definition of, 26, 27
Schoenberg, Arnold, 62 Type high, 34, 34 effect on visual qualities of type, 28, 28
Schrenk, Nick, 57 Type size, 86. See also Point size interline spacing and, 87
Schulman, Robert, 122
Serifs, 27, 27 Zwart, Piet, 19

260
 Avant Garde Bold, 228 Optima Semibold, 236
Type Specimen Index Avant Garde Book, 228 Palatino, 236
Avant Garde Medium, 228 Palatino Italic, 236
Avant Garde X-Light, 228 Sabon Roman, 237
Baskerville, 206, 208, 210-211, 241 Times Roman, 237
Baskerville Italic, 207, 209 Times Roman Bold, 237
Bembo, 228 Times Roman Italic, 237
Bembo Italic, 229 Trump Mediaeval, 237
Bembo Bold, 229 Univers 39, 197
Benguiat Bold, 229 Univers 45, 188, 198-199
Benguiat Book, 229 Univers 46, 189
Benguiat Italic, 229 Univers 47, 186
Beton Extra Bold, 230 Univers 48, 187
Bodoni, 214, 216, 218-219, 239 Univers 55, 176, 178. 180, 200-201, 240
Bodoni Italic, 215, 217 Univers 56, 182, 184
Bookman, 230 Univers 57, 190
Bookman Italic, 230 Univers 58, 191
Caslon Bold, 231 Univers 65, 174-175, 177 179, 181, 202-203
Caslon Bold Italic, 231 Univers 66, 183, 185
Caslon 471,230 Univers 67, 192
Caslon 471 Italic, 230 Univers 68, 193
Century Schoolbook, 231 Univers 75, 194
Century Schoolbook Bold, 231 Univers 76, 195
Century Schoolbook Italic, 231 Univers 83, 196-197
Cheltenham Medium Italic, 232
Cheltenham Old Style, 232
Egyptian 505, 232
Egyptian 505 Bold, 232
Egyptian Bold Condensed, 232
Franklin Gothic, 233
Franklin Gothic Condensed, 233
Futura Bold Condensed, 233
Futura Book, 233
Futura Demi, 233
Futura Medium, 238
Garamond Bold, 153, 155, 170-171
Garamond Bold Condensed, 162-163
Garamond Book, 144-146, 148, 150, 168-169,
238, 239
Garamond Book Condensed, 160-161
Garamond Book Italic, 147, 149, 151
Garamond Light, 152, 154, 166-167
Garamond Light Condensed, 158-159
Garamond Ultra, 156-157
Garamond Ultra Condensed, 164-165
Gill Sans Medium, 234
Goudy Bold, 234
Goudy Old Style, 234
Helvetica, 234, 240
Helvetica Bold, 235
Helvetica Extra Bold Condensed, 235
Helvetica Light, 234
Helvetica Medium, 235
Kabel Bold, 235
Kabel Medium, 235
Lubalin Graph Book, 222, 224, 226-227, 241
Lubalin Graph Demi, 223, 225
Melior, 236
Optima, 236

261
Printing: Halliday Lithograph, West Hanover, Massachusetts

Binding: Halliday Lithograph, Plympton, Massachusetts

Typography: Riddick Advertising Art, Richmond, Virginia

9/11 Univers 55, with 7/11 Univers 55 captions and 9/11
Univers 65 headings set by the Alphatype CRS Digital
Phototypesetter, with Phototypositor display specimens

Design: Rob Carter, Stephen Chovanec, Ben Day, and Philip Meggs

Design Assistance: Tina Brubaker Chovanec, Justin Deister, John Demao,

Akira Ouchi, Tim Priddy, Anne Riker, Joel Sadagursky
and Jennifer Mugford Wieland

Photography: George Nan

The authors wish to thank the following people for their

contributions to this book. Margaret Bates, Tina Brubaker
Chovanec, Martina DAIton, Wendy Lochner, and Linda
Venator provided editorial support. Jack Flynn, Cathy
Stone, Kate Bridgman and Eileen Kirby of Riddick
Advertising Art contributed immeasurably to the type¬
setting process. Jerry Bates of Virginia Commonwealth
University, Lynn Painter of Mobility Printing, and
Charles Dietz of Dietz Press provided invaluable graphic
arts assistance. Murry N. DePillars offered encourage¬
ment and support.

262
DATE DUE
Typographic Design: About the authors Typographic design : form and communic
Z 253 CAR 1985 25740
Form and Communication

Rob Carter, Ben Day, and Philip Meggs

Carter, Rob.
McIntosh College Library

Typographic design—the art and process of pre¬ Rob Carter attended the University of Utah and
senting written communication in graphic form — the University of Illinois at Champaign/Urbana. He
has undergone dramatic changes in the twentieth teaches typography, graphic design, and computer
century. This revolutionary era, witness to in¬ graphics and conducts research in computer-
credible advances in technology, has influenced assisted design at Virginia Commonwealth Uni¬
both legibility and aesthetics. Typographic Design versity in Richmond. His graphic designs have
provides a comprehensive overview of the infor¬ been exhibited by the American Institute of
mation necessary for effective typographic-design Graphic Arts, New York Art Director's Club,
practice today. Society of Typographic Arts, Graphis Annual,
Creativity, and the New York Type Director's Club.
The thorough and detailed examination of type-
forms, their organization, and their relationship to Ben Day was educated at Lamar University and
content provide the reader with an in-depth survey Louisiana Tech University. He taught at Southwest
of the design process. Also included are projects Missouri State University and Massachusetts
revealing the language and theory of typographic College of Art and Design, chaired the graphic
design by leading educators in the field, case design program at Boston University, and currently
studies of recent projects by prominent designers, teaches at Virginia Commonwealth University.
discussions of the impact of advanced technology Exhibition design projects include the Boston
upon design, a carefully illustrated survey of legi¬ Photographic Resource Center and New York
bility research, and hundreds of type specimens. Sculpture Centre. He was art director of Handel
The heritage of typography—extending back to & Haydn magazine and consultant to Leviathan
early writing over 5,000 years ago—is shown on and Bostonia magazines and the Fogg Museum.
a 182-image timeline.
Philip Meggs studied at the University of South
The reader will find this volume —richly illustrated Carolina, Richmond Professional Institute, and
with 446 figures, diagrams, and outstanding ex¬ Virginia Commonwealth University, where he
amples of typographic design —to be a continu¬ chairs the Communication Arts and Design Depart¬
ing resource for information, ideas, and inspiration. ment and lectures in design history. Van Nostrand
Reinhold published his book A History of Graphic
Design, which received an award for excellence in
publishing from the Association of American
Publishers in 1983. His graphic designs have been
exhibited in Graphis Posters, Graphis Annual,
Photographis, CA Annual, and Print.