DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

MAT111 INTRODUCTORY MATHEMATICS I

WEEK 7: LECTURE NOTE

RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
Definition 1. A rational function can be written in the form

N(x)
f (x) =
D(x)

where N(x) and D(x) are polynomials and D(x) is not the zero polynomial.

In general, the domain of a rational function of x includes all real numbers except
x-values that make the denominator zero. Much of the discussion of rational functions
will focus on the graphical behavior near the x-values that make the denominator zero.

NOTATIONS: Let a and b be real numbers and f (x) be a real valued function.

• x → a− : x approaches to a from the left

• x → a+ : x approaches to a from the right

• x → +∞: x increases without bound

• x → −∞: x decreases without bound

• f (x) → −∞ as x → a− : When x approaches to a from the left f (x) decreases

without bound.

• f (x) → −∞ as x → a+ : When x approaches to a from the right f (x) decreases

without bound.

• f (x) → +∞ as x → a− : When x approaches to a from the left f (x) increases

without bound.

• f (x) → +∞ as x → a+ : When x approaches to a from the left f (x) increases

without bound.

• f (x) → b as x → ∞: When x increases without bound f (x) approaches to b.

• f (x) → b as x → −∞: When x decreases without bound f (x) approaches to b.

1
Example 2. Find the domain of f (x) = and discuss the behavior of f near any
x
excluded x-values.
Solution. Because the denominator is zero when x = 0, the domain of f is all real
numbers except x = 0, written R − {0} or R \ {0}. To determine the behavior of f near
this excluded value, evaluate f (x) to the left and right of x = 0, as indicated below.

1
 x -1 -0.5 -0.1 -0.01 -0.001 -0.0001 → 0−
f (x) -1 -2 -10 -100 -1000 -10,000 → −∞

From the table, we note that x approaches 0 from the left, f (x) decreases without bound.
x 0+ ← 0.000001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 0.5 1
f (x) ∞← 1,000,000 10,000 1000 100 10 2 1
From the table, we note that x approaches 0 from the right, f (x) increases without bound.
The graph of f is shown below.

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y = 1/x
8

−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10

−2

−4

−6

−8

−10

Definition 3. (Asymptotes of the graph of a rational function)

1. The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f when

f (x) → ∞ or f (x) → −∞

as x → a, either from the right or from the left.

2. The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f when f (x) → b as
x → ∞ or x → −∞.
2
 Let f be the rational function

N(x) an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a1 x1 + a0

f (x) = =
D(x) bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + ... + b1 x1 + b0

where N(x) and D(x) have no common factors.

• The graph of f has a vertical asymptotes at the solutions of D(x) = 0.

• The graph of f has at most one horizontal asymptotes determined by comparing

the degrees of N(x) and D(x)

⊲ If n < m, then the graph of f has the line y = 0 (the x-axis) as a horizontal
asymptote.
an
⊲ If n = m, then the graph of f has the line y = as a horizontal asymptote,
bm
where an is the leading coefficient of the numerator and bm is the leading
coefficient of the denominator.
⊲ If n > m, then the graph of f has no horizontal asymptote.

Example 4. Find all asymptotes of the graph of each rational function.

2x
1. f (x) = .
3x2 + 1
Solution. Here the polynomials N(x) = 2x and D(x) = 3x2 + 1 have no common
factors. For this rational function, the degree of the numerator is less than the degree
of the denominator, so the graph has the line y = 0 as a horizontal asymptote.
To find any vertical asymptote, set the denominator equal to zero and solve the
resulting equation for x. Because the equation 3x2 + 1 = 0 has no real solutions, we
can conclude that the graph has no vertical asymptotes. The graph of f is shown
below.
1

0.5

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−0.5

−1
2x2
2. f (x) = .
x2 − 1
Solution. Here the numerator N(x) = 2x2 and the denominator D(x) = 2x2 − 1
have no common factors. For this rational function, the degree of the numerator
3
 is equal to the degree of the denominator. The leading coefficient of the numerator
is 2 and the leading coefficient of the denominator is 1, so the graph has the line
2
y = = 2 as the horizontal asymptote. To find any vertical asymptotes, set the
1
denominator equal to zero and solve the resulting equation for x.

x2 − 1 = 0
(x + 1)(x − 1) = 0
x + 10 =⇒ x = −1
x − 1 = 0 =⇒ x = 1

The graph has the lines x = −1 and x = 1 as vertical asymptotes.

10

−4 −3.5 −3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

−5

−10

Example 5. Find all asymptotes and holes in the graph of

x2 + x − 2
f (x) = .
x2 − x − 6
Solution: For this rational function the degree of the numerator is equal to the degree
of the denominator. The leading coefficients of the numerator and denominator are both
1, so the graph has the line y = 1/1 = 1 as a horizontal asymptote. To find any vertical
asymptotes first factor the numerator and denominator as follows.

x2 + x − 2
f (x) = 2
x −x−6
(x − 1)(x + 2)
=
(x + 2)(x − 3)
x−1
= , x 6= −2.
x−3
The graph has the line x = 3 as a vertical asymptote. But, the function is undefined at
x = −2 as well. There is a hole in the graph at (−2, 0.6). The graph of f is shown below.

4
 14

12

10

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
−2

−4

−6

−8

−10

−12

Example 6. Given the function

3x3 + 7x2 + 2
f (x) = ,
−2x3 + 16
find
(a) the domain of f ,
(b) The vertical asymptote of f , and
(c) the horizontal asymptote.
Solution.
(a) Because the denominator is zero when −2x3 + 16 = 0, solve this equation to deter-
mine that the domain of f is all real numbers except x = 2 (R − {2} or R \ {2})
(b) Because the denominator of f is zero at x = 2 and 2 is not a solution of the
numerator, the graph of f has the vertical asymptote x = 2.
(c) Because the degree of the numerator and denominator are the same, and the leading
coefficient of the numerator is 3 and the leading coefficient of the denominator is
3
-2, the horizontal asymptote of f is y = − .
2
5
 Guidelines to sketch the graph of a rational function
N(x)
Let f (x) = , where N(x) and D(x) are polynomials.
D(x)
Step 1 Simplify f , if possible. Any restrictions on the domain of f not in the simplified
function should be listed.

Step 2 Find and plot the y-intercept(if any) by evaluating f (0).

Step 3 Find the solutions of the numerator (if any) by setting the numerator equal to zero.
Then plot the corresponding x-intercepts.

Step 4 Find the solutions of the denominator (if any) by setting the denominator equal to
zero. Then sketch the corresponding vertical asymptote using dashed vertical lines
and plot the corresponding holes using open circles.

Step 5 Find and sketch any other asymptotes of the graph using dashed lines.

Step 6 Plot at least one point between and one point beyond each x-intercept and vertical
asymptotes.

Step 7 Use smooth curves to complete the graph between and beyond vertical asymptotes,
excluding any points where f is not defined.

Example 7. Sketch the graph of the function and describe how the graph is related to
1
the graph of f (x) = .
x
1
1. g(x) = −
x+2
Solution. With respect to the graph of f , the graph of g is obtained by reflection
in the x-axis followed by a horizontal shift two units to the left.
1
2. h(x) = +3
x−1
Solution. With respect to the graph of f , the graph of h is obtained by a horizontal
shift one unit to the right followed by a vertical shift three units upward.
3
Example 8. Sketch the graph of g(x) = by hand.
x−2
3 3
 
• The point 0, − is the y-intercept because g(0) = − .
2 2
• There are no x-intercept because 3 6= 0.

• The line x = 2 is the vertical asymptote, the solution of x − 2 = 0.

• The line y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote because degree of N(x) < degree of D(x).

• Additional points

x -4 1 1.5 1.8 1.95 1.99 2 2.01 2.05 2.2 2.5 3 5

g(x) -0.5 -3 -6 -15 -60 -300 ? 300 60 15 6 3 1

6
 14

12

10

−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10
−2

−4

−6

−8

−10

−12

−14

Note that the graph of g above is a vertical stretch and a right shift of the graph of
1
f (x) = because
x
3 1
 
g(x) = =3 = 3f (x − 2).
x−2 x−2
2x − 1
Example 9. Sketch the graph of f (x) = by hand.
x
• There are no y-intercepts , because x = 0 is not in the domain.
1 1
• The point ( , 0) is the x-intercept, because 2x − 1 = 0 when x = .
2 2
• The line x = 0 is a vertical asymptote, solution of denominator.

• The line y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote, because degree of N(x) = degree of D(x).

• Additional points

x -4 -1 0 1/4 4
f (x) 2.25 3 ? -2 1.75
7
 10

−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10

−2

−4

−6

−8

−10

Example 10. Sketch the graph of

x
f (x) =
x2 −x−2
Solution. Factor the denominator to get
x x
f (x) = = .
x2 − x − 2 (x + 1)(x − 2)
Therefore, we note that
• The point (0, 0) is the y-intercept, because f (0) = 0.
• The point (0, 0) is the x-intercept, because the numerator is 0 when x = 0.
• The lines x = −1 and x = 2 are the vertical asymptotes because they are the zeros
of the denominator.
• The line y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote, because degree of N(x) < degree of
D(x).
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 • Additional points

x -3 -1 -0.5 1 2 3
f (x) -0.3 ? 0.4 -0.5 ? 0.75

−8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

−7

−8

Example 11. Sketch the graph of

x2 − 9
f (x) = .
x2 − 2x − 3
Solution. Factorizing the numerator and denominator to get

x2 − 9 (x − 3)(x + 3) x+3
f (x) = = = , x 6= 3.
x − 2x − 3
2 (x − 3)(x + 1) x+1

• The point (0, 3) is the y-intercept because f (0) = 3.

• The point (−3, 0) is the x-intercept, because x + 3 = 0 when x = −3.

9
 • The line x = −1 is a vertical asymptote, the solution of denominator.

• The line y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote, because degree of N(x) =degree of D(x).

3
• The point (3, ) is a hole, because f is not defined at x = 3.
2
• Additional points

x -5 -2 -1 -0.5 1 3 4
f (x) 0.5 -1 ? 5 2 ? 1.4

10

−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10

−2

−4

−6

−8

−10

Slant Asymptotes
Consider a rational function whose denominator is of degree 1 or greater. If the degree
of the numerator is exactly one more that the degree of the denominator, then the graph
of the function has a slant(or oblique) asymptote.

10
Example 12. The graph of
x2 − x
f (x) =
x+1
has a slant asymptote as shown below.
Solution. To find the equation of a slant asymptote, use long division. For instance, by
dividing x + 1 into x2 − x we have

x2 − x 2
f (x) = =x−2+ .
x+1 x+1

10

−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10

−2

−4

−6

−8

−10

So, the graph of f approaches the line y = x − 2.

Example 13. Sketch the graph of

x2 − x − 2
f (x) = .
x−1

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Solution. Write in two ways
x2 − x − 2 (x − 2)(x + 1)
(i) f (x) = =
x−1 x−1
x2 − x − 2 2
(ii) f (x) = =x− .
x−1 x−1
• The point (0, 2) is an y-intercept, because f (0) = 2.
• The points (−1, 0) and (2, 0) are the x-intercepts, because f (−1) = 0 and f (2) = 0.
• There are no horizontal asymptote, because degree of N(x) > degree of D(x).
• The line y = x is the slant asymptote.
• Additional points

x -2 0.5 1 1.5 3
f (x) -1.33 4.5 ? -2.5 2

10

−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10

−2

−4

−6

−8

−10

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