1. What is Industrial Automation?

Making products under the control of computers and programmable controllers. Manufacturing assembly lines as well
as stand-alone machine tools (CNC machines) and robotic devices fall into this category. Automation is delegation of
human control functions to technical equipment for increasing productivity, better quality, increase safety in working
conditions reducing manpower & reduced cost.
2. What are the different components used in automation?
The components of automation system include
¾ Sensors for sensing the input parameters
¾ Transmitters for transmitting the raw signal in electrical form
¾ Control system which includes PLC, DCS & PID controllers
¾ Output devices/ actuators like drives, control valves.
3. What are the different control systems used in Automation?
¾ PID Controller based control system
¾ PLC based control system
¾ DCS based Control system
¾ PC Based automation system
4. What is PLC & what are its advantages?
A PLC is a solid state / computerized industrial computer that performs discrete or sequential logic in a factory
environment. It was originally developed to replace mechanical relays, timers, counters. PLCs are used successfully to
execute complicated control operations in a plant. Its purpose is to monitor crucial process parameters and adjust
process operations accordingly. A sequence of instructions is programmed by the user to the PLC memory and when
the program is executed, the controller operates a system to the correct operating specifications.
Advantages of PLCs
z Reliability in operation
z Flexibility in control techniques
z Flexibility in programming and reprogramming in the plant
z Large quantity of contacts
z Online/ offline modifications
z Cost effective for controlling complex systems
z Small physical size, shorter project time
z In-house simulation & testing of project
z Speed in operation
z Ability to communicate with computer systems in the plant.
z Ease of maintenance / troubleshooting
z Documentation
z Security
5. What is opto-coupler?
I/Os are not physically connected to the CPU. They are optically isolated. A diode transistor pair forms an opto-
coupler. A typical opto-coupler provides an isolation of 1.5KV.
6. Difference between PLC & Relay?
¾ PLC can be programmed whereas a relay cannot.
¾ PLC works for analog I/Os such a PID loops etc. whereas a relay cannot.
¾ PLC is much more advanced as compared to relay.
7. Difference between PLC & DCS?
DCS: The system uses multiple processors, has a central database and the functionality is distributed. That is the
controller sub system performs the control functions, the history node connects the data, the IMS node gives reports,
the operator station gives a good HML, the engineering station allows engineering changes to be made.
PLC: The system has processor & I/O’s and some functional units like basic modules and so on. Uses a SCADA for
visualization. Generally the SCADA does not use a central database.
8. Role of CPU ?
This component acts as a brain of the system.
CPU consist of Arithmetic Logic Unit, Program memory, Process image memory, Internal timers and counters, flags. It
receives information from I/P device, makes decisions depending upon the information and logic written and sends
information through the O/P devices. The CPU’s are distinguished with following features:
Memory capacity, Instruction set supported, communication option, time required to execute the control program.
9. Role of Power supply in PLC system?
Power supply provides system power requirement to processor, I/O and communication modules. Typically the power
supply has input voltage 120 V – 230 V AC or 24 V DC and back plane output current 2 A to 5 A at 5 V DC
10. Role of Rack or Chassis in PLC system?
A hardware assembly which houses the processor, communication and I/O modules. It does following functions.
¾ Power distribution
¾ Containment of I/O modules
¾ Communication path between I/O module and CPU
The chassis are available in different slots in various PLC systems. Additional chassis can be connected using chassis
interconnecting cable.
11. What is role of I/O modules?
Electronic plug in units used for interfacing the i/p and o/p device in the machine or process to be controlled.
I/P module receives data from i/p devices (Pushbutton, Switches, Transmitters) and send it to processor. The O/P
module receives data from processor and send it to output device (Relay, Valves).
Digital/Discrete:- Sends and Receives On/Off signal
Analog:- Sends and receives variable input or output signals
12. Role of EEPROM memory module?
This module is inserted into processor system for maintaining a copy of project (PLC program). This is helpful in case
of memory corruption or Extended power loss.
13. Difference Between Fixed and Modular PLCs?
In non modular PLCs the processor will have inbuilt power supply and I/Os in one unit.
The modular PLC, will have separate slots for components like Power supply, I/O modules. You can select the I/Os or
power supply as per the need.
14. What are the Types of I/Os?
¾ Local – These are the I/Os placed in the PLC main rack containing CPU. These I/Os are connected to
CPU through jackplane.
¾ Remote – These are the I/O placed at remote location from the main rack containing the CPU. These I/O’s are
to be connected on communication bus like control net, device net etc.
15. What is meaning of resolution in I/O cards in PLCs?
It is the minimum change in i/p parameter which can sensed by the i/p card. As far as Digital I/O is concerned it takes
only one bit for operation. In case of analog input the resolution determines how much bits are used for input or output.
For example a 12 bit resolution card means the input will come as 0 to 4095 count (2∧12). For 16 bit data the counts
will be from 0 – 65536(2∧16). More the resolution the data will be more accurate.
16. What is an Analog Input Module?
An I/O module that contains circuits that convert analog input signals to digital values that can be manipulated by the
processor. The signals for pressure, flow, level, temperature transmitters are connected to this module. Typically the
input signal in 4-20 mA, 0-10 V
17. What is Analog Output Module?
An I/O module that contains circuits that output an analog dc signal proportional to a digital value transferred to the
module from the processor. By implication, these analog outputs are usually direct (i.e., a data table value directly
controls the analog signal value).
18. What is meaning of universal analog input card?
Normally there are different cards for different signals. But in universal input card the same channels can be
configured for RTD, Thermocouple, Current or voltage input.
19. How I/O,s are connected to PLCs
¾ Digital I/P (Pushbutton, Switches)
¾ Analog I/P (Temp, Pressure, Flow, Level)
¾ Digital O/P (Solenoids valves, Contactors)
¾ Analog O/P (Control Valves, Speed)
20. Explain Source and Sink Concept?
Sinking Source type modules gives out the current to the field digital devices while sins type modules draw current
when the device is in high sate.
Sinking – When active the output allows the current to flow to a common ground.
Sourcing – When active, current flows from a supply, through the output device and to ground.
21. What is meaning of scan & Scan time in PLC?
Scan is reading the I/P, Processing the logic and updating the output by a processor & time required for scanning one
cycle is called scan time.
22. What is typical scan time in PLCs? What effects scan time?
Typically it is less than 1 ms – 2 ms in small plcs & 100 ms to 200 ms in bigger plcs. It depends on the complexity of
logic.
23. What is ladder diagram?
This is a programming language, which expresses a program as a series of “coils” and “contacts”, simulating the
operation of electromechanical relays. The resultant program is the equivalent of an equation, which is executed
continuously in a combinatorial manner. The advantage of this language is the familiarity many electricians have with
the simple operation of relays. Disadvantages include the complexity of large, cross-connected programs, and the
difficulty of expressing such non-binary functions as motion control and analog I/P.
24. What is redundancy?
The capacity to switch from primary equipment to standby equipment automatically without affecting the process
under control. Redundancy means provision for standby module. In case of failure of one module is running process,
the standby module takes over. Hot redundancy means the changeover of control from active processor to standby
processor in less than 1 scan time.
25. Need of redundancy
in critical processes, it is important to run the plant without failure. In such case it is important to have redundancy so
that even in one system fails the redundant system can take care without affecting plant.
26. Types of redundancy
CPU redundancy: In case of CPU failure the standby CPU takes care of the plant.
Power Supply redundancy: In case the power supply fails the standby power supply takes control of the situation.
Communication: Multiple communication channels are provided to take care of communication failure.
I/O Redundancy: Multiple I/O channels are provided to take care of input or output failure.
27. Make AND Gate, OR Gate, NAND Gate, NOR Gate & EXOR Gate logics in the form of ladder & discuss
various conditions.
28. All four combinations of Start-Stop Logic with clear understanding of XIO & XIC.
29. How PLC Reads inputs and switches the outputs, discuss?
30. What is the difference between Micrologix & SLC 5/03.
31. Which Com Ports are available in Micrologix & SLC, S7-200, TSX 3705 & discuss which software is used for
each.
32. Make ladder logic for a control system having one push button start stop control & restart again.
33. Design a complete control system for level control.

Programmable Logic Controller – Allen Bradley

1. What are the PLC ranges available in Rockwell?
¾ Pico : Non modular small PLCs
¾ Micrologix 1000, 1200 and 1500 Series
¾ SLC : SLC 5/01, 5/02, 5/03 ….
¾ Control Logix Flex Logic and Softlogic PLC
2. What is use of RS Linx software?
RS Linx software is used to perform following tasks.
¾ Configure communication drivers
¾ View configured drivers and active nodes
¾ Enable communication tasks such as uploading, downloading, going online, updating firmware and
sending messages.
3. What is use of RS Logix Software?
RS Logix is PLC programming software. It contains all the instructions needed for PLC programming. We can develop
the program, down load/upload the program, work on line/ off line and force the I/Os using the software.
RS Logix 500 is used for Micrologix and SLCs
RS Logix 5000 is used for Control Logix PLCs
4. What is the meaning of Upload and Download?
Upload means transferring the program data from PLC to PC
Download means transferring the program data from PC to PLC
5. What are the various communication interfaces supported by AB?
The commonly used communication protocol in AB includes DH+, DH485, ETH, Modbus, Device Net and Control Net.
Instrumentation System
1. What types of sensors are used for measuring different parameters?
¾ Temperature sensors – RTD, Thermocouple, Thermister
¾ Pressure Sensor – Borden Tube, Bellows, Strain gauge
¾ Flow Sensors
¾ Level Sensors
2. What is Encoder?
A feedback device which converts mechanical motion into electronic signal. Usually an encoder is a rotary device that
outputs digital pulses which correspond to incremental angular motion. The encoder consists of a glass or metal wheel
with alternating clear and opaque stripes that are detected by optical sensors to produce the digital outputs.
3. What is transmitter?
A transmitter is an electronic device that is generally mounted in the field in close proximity to a sensor. The sensor
(also known as a transducer) measures a physical variable such as temperature or pressure and outputs a very low
level electronic signal. The basic function of the transmitter is to provide the correct electrical power to turn on (or
excite) the sensor then to read the low level sensor signal, amplify it to a higher level electrical signal and send that
signal a long distance to a control or read-out device.

Since low-level electrical signals do not transmit long distances with great accuracy, installing a transmitter generally
gives a tremendous improvement in the accuracy of the information delivered to a larger control system. Typically the
output form the transmitter is 4-20 mA or 0-10 V.

¾ Sensor is a device that measures or detects a real-world condition, such as motion, heat or light and converts
the condition into an analog or digital representation. An optical sensor detects the intensity or brightness of
light, or the intensity of red, green and blue for color systems. usually in the form of an electrical or optical
signal.
¾ A transducer is a device, usually electrical, electronic, or electro-mechanical, that converts one type of
energy to another for various purposes including measurement or information transfer. In a broader sense, a
transducer is sometimes defined as any device that converts a signal from one form to another. RTD,
Thermocouple, Thermistor, Strain gauge, microphone, actuators and even an electric bulb is a transducer.
4. Why 4-20 mA preferred over 0-10 V signal?
The 0-10 V signal has tendency to drop because of line resistance. If the distance between sensor and input card is
more the signal will not properly represent the field value. The 4-20 mA will travel a long distance without dropping
signal value.
5. Why 4-20 mA preferred over 0-20 mA signal?
With 0-20 mA you can not distinguish between minimum field value and connection break. With 2-20 mA, internal
circuit can distinguish between connection break of minimum value. Normally when the value is minimum the
transmitter will give you 4 mA while in case of connection breakage it will give 0 mA.
6. Deference between 2 wire, 3 wire and 4 wire transmitter.
In 2 wire transmitter the power and signal are transmitted through same cable.
In 3 wire transmitter the data signal and power are with respect to common ground.
In 4 wire transmitter two wires for power supply and two for signals.
Only current transmitters can be used as 2 wire transmitters.
7. What is a “Smart” Transmitter?
A “Smart” transmitter is a transmitter that uses a microprocessor as the heart of the electronics. in addition, a “Smart”
transmitter will output some type of remote digital communications allowing you to read and set-up the device from a
remote position.
8. What is Field bus?
Field bus is a general term for a digital only, high speed communications protocol. The Key attribute to Field bus
communications is higher speed communications with the possibility of addressing multiple transmitters all on the
same field wiring. The foundation Field bus is a specific digital protocol that is often shortened to just be called field
bus. Other digital only communications such as Prefabs are also Field bus protocols.
9. What is Actuator?
In a closed- loop control system, the part of the final control element that translates the control signal into action by the
control device.
10. Explain Working of RTDs
Resistance Temperature Device works on the principles that the resistance of the material charges as its temperature
charges Temperature is determined by measuring resistance and then using the RTD Resistance vs Temp
characteristic to detect temperature. Typical elements used for RTD are Nickel, copper and Platinum, Platinum is
widely used in RTDs because of accuracy. PT 100 means at 0 deg temp 100 ohms resistance, A typical RTD consists
of a fine platinum wire wrapped around a mandrel and covered with a protective coating (glass or ceramic).
10. What are different types of RTDs? Explain Lead resistance compensation.
Two wire RTDs, 3 wire RTDs, Tungsten type, copper type, Platinum type, Nickle, Balco
11. Temperature measurement range supported by RTDs?
The RTD works on temperature range between-250 to 850 deg C.
12. Explain Working of Thermocouple & different types of Thermocouples?
Thermocouple consists of two strips or wires made up of different metals and joined at one end. The temperature at
that juncture induces and electromotive force (emf) between the other ends. As the temperature goes up the emf also
increases. Through standard charts and tables the corresponding temperature can be fond out.
The relationship between the thermocouple output and the temperature is quite non linear. Different metallurgies
produce different outputs. The different metallurgies and different linearity result in different thermocouple designations
as “J” “K” “N” “L”, etc.
13. What is Cold junction compensation?
The industry accepted standard for the temperature at open end is 0 deg C. Therefore tables and chart make the
assumption that the temp open end is 0 deg C. In industry the open ends are always at actual room temperature and
not0 deg C. The emf adjustment because of difference between the temp and 0 deg C is referred as Cold Correction
(CJ Correction)
14. Temperature measurement range supported by thermocouple?
The thermocouple works on temperature range ie- 270 to 2300.
15. Can one T/C signal be split in two separate instruments?
No. The T/C signal is a very low- level millivolt signal, and should only be connected to the device. Splitting to two
devices may result in bad readings or loss of signal. The is to use a “ dual” T/C probe, or convert one T/C output to a
4-20 mA signal by using a transmitter or signal conditioner, then the new signal can be sent can be sent more than
one instrument.
16. What are different flow meters used?
¾ Pressure differential Flow meters: Orifice plate type, Venturi Tube type, pitot tube
¾ Rotameters
¾ Magnetic Flow meter
¾ Ultrasonic Flow meter
¾ Turbine Flowmeter
17. Explain Different types of Level sensors.
¾ Capacitive
¾ Inductive
¾ Ultrasound
¾ Weight type
¾ Pressure type
¾ Float type
¾ Photoelectric
18. Explain measuring principle of Different types of pressure sensors.
¾ Bellow & Diapharm type
¾ LVDT
¾ Bourden Tube
¾ Wheatstone Bridge

19. How proximity Sensors function & where they are used?
¾ Capacitive
¾ Inductive
¾ Optical
 ¾ Ultrasonic
20. Different types of controllers used in industries.
¾ On-Off
¾ Proportional
¾ PID
21. Working principle of a Load cell / Strain gauge principle.
22. What is Control Valves?
The control valve, commonly named the final control element of control contains a pneumatic device that converts the
control signal from the controller in action, regulation the flow.
23. What is a solenoid?
Solenoid converts electrical energy into mechanical energy, generated magnetic field pulls / pushes plunger inside /
outside. Solenoids are available in both ac & dc.
24. Discuss difference between solenoid valve & control valve.
25. Discuss Difference Squirrel cage & wound rotor motors & their uses.
26. Different types of motor starters.
¾ DOL
¾ Star Delta
¾ Auto Transformer
¾ Part winding
27. Line diagrams of DOL & Star Delta Starters
28. Forward / Reverse Control Diagrams & Interlocking of motors.

Programmable Logic Controller- Siemens

1. What are the various PLC system in SIMATIC range?
Siemens has broadly 3 PLC ranges ie Siemens S7 200, 300 and 400
2. What are the software used with Siemens?
For S7 200 PLC programming Micro win
For S7 300 and 400 system: Simantic S7 manager
The SCADA software used by Siemens is Win CC. Earlier Siemans used COROS LS /B
3. Components of Siemens S7 300 Series PLC system?
CPUs (312 IFM, 313,314,IFM,314,315,2DP,316-2DP,318
Single Modules (SM), Digital I/O (SM321/322/323), Analog I/O (SM 331/332/334)
Function modules (FM) ex Positioning Modules, Closed Loop
Communication Processor ex CP 342-5 DP for Profibus
Interface module- For interconnecting individual racks (IM 360/361, IM 365 S/R)
4. What are the Communication Protocol used in Siemens?
Multi- Point Interface (MPI):
Data Transfer-187,5 kbits to 15 Mbit/ s,
Distance-50 m without RS 485 repeater /10 Km with repeater
Number of nodes- up to 32
Profibus
Data Transfer-12 Mbit/s,
Distance-23 Km with fibre optic cable
Number of nodes – up to 125

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition Software: Wonderware’s InTouch

1. What is SCADA? Role of MMI/HMI/SCADA in Industrial Automation
SCADA : Supervisory control and data acquisition
MMI : Man Machine Interface
HMI : Human machine Interface
This acts as an operator station. The operator can monitor as well as control the process parameters from this
stations. Apart from online process data the operator will have access to historical and real-time trends, alarms and
reports. The operator can give commands to control hardware for opening the valve, change the set point, start the
pump etc.
2. What are Features of SCADA software?
 The common features of SCADA include Dynamic process mimic, Tends, alarm, Connectivity with hardware, Recipe
management etc.
3. Applications of SCADA.
SCADA systems has many applications right industrial automation, power distribution to water management.
4. Some of the leading SCADA companies
¾ Invensys Wonder ware In Touch
¾ Siemens WinCC (Earlier COROS)
¾ Allen Bradley RS View (Earlier Control View)
¾ Intellution ifix (Earlier Fix DMACS)
¾ GE Fanuc Simplicity
5. Types of Wonder ware SCADA packages
¾ No. of I/Os- Wondeware In Touch comes is 64, 128, 256, 1000, and 64,000 tags package.
¾ Development+ Runtime + Network (DRN)/ Runtime + Network (R+N) and View Node
D+R+N: With this packers development and editing of the application is possible, Runtime monitoring and control of
the plant is possible and Networking is possible.
R+N: With this package development and editing of the application is NOT possible, Runtime monitoring and control
of the plant is possible and Networking is possible.
Factory Focus: With this package developments and editing of the application is N OT possible, Runtime monitoring
is possible but control of the plant is NOT possible and Networking is possible. This package is used a view node
6. What type of licensing patterns used in the SCADA software
Typically two types of licenses are used in the SCADA software
¾ Dongle Key : It is a hardware lock which can be put on the communication port of the PC.
¾ Software Lock: Hare the software code is the license. Typically can put the code while installation or transfer
the code from Floppy to hard- disk.
7. What is Symbol Factory?
Symbol Factory contains symbols which cab be readily used in the application. The symbol is contains include various
Tanks, Reactor, Pipes Icons, and Flags.
8. What are trends?
Trends means graphical representation of data.

“Real- time and “ Historical. You can configure both trend objects to display graphical representations of multiple tag
names over time. Real- time trends allow you allow you to chart up to four pens ( data values). While Historical trends
allow to chart up to pens.
Real-time trends are dynamic. They are updated continuously during runtime with whatever time span given in
configuration. You can not scroll the real- time trends to see previous data.
Historical trends provide you with a “ snapshot” of data from a time and data in the past. They are not dynamic Unlike
real- time trends historical trends are only updated when they instructed to do so either through the execution of a
Quick- Script or an action by the operator, for example, clicking a button, You can zoom in/ zoom out the trends. You
can also access the pervious data.
9. Security management
Security provides the ability to control whether or not specific operators are allowed to perform specific functions within
an application. Security is based on the concept of the operator “logging on” to the application and entering a “User
Name” and “Password.”
10. What is driver?
software which allows a computer to access the external devices using com ports or communication cards.
11. DeviceNet: A low-cost communication link that connects industrial devices to a network It is based on
broadcast – oriented communication protocol- the Controller Area Network (CAN).
12. Ethernet: The standard for local communications network developed jointly by Digital Equipment Corp, Xerox,
and Intel Ethernet base band coaxial cable transmits data at speed up to 10 megabits per second. Ethernet is used as
the underlying transport vehicle by several upper-level protocols, including TCP/ IP.
14. What is communication protocol?

15. How the communication protocols are distinguished?

The protocols are distinguished with following specifications
¾ No. of nodes supported, total network length, speed of communication.
16. Comparison between various Protocols used with AB
DH+ DH485 Device Net Control Net
Baud rate max 230.4 kbits/s 19.2 kbit/s 500 kbit/s 5 Mbit/s
No. of max. nodes 64 32 64 99
Network Length 3.048 Km 1.2 km 0.487 Km 30 km

What is Serial?

Serial is a very common protocol (not to be confused with Universal Serial Bus or USB) for device communication that
comes standard on just about every PC. Most computers include two RS-232 based serial ports. Serial is also a
common communication protocol that is used by many devices for instrumentation; Furthermore, serial
communication can be used for data acquisition.

The concept of serial communication is simple. The serial port sends and receives bytes of information one bit at a
time. This is slower than parallel communication. Parallel communication allows the transmission of an entire byte at
once. Serial communication is simpler and can be used over longer distances. In parallel communication, cabling
between equipment can be no more than 20 meters total, with no more than 2 meters between any two devices.
However in serial it can extend as much as 1200 meters.

Typically, serial is used to transmit ASCII data. Communication is completed using 3 transmission lines: (1) Ground,
(2) Transmit, and (3) Receive. Since serial is asynchronous, the port is able to transmit data on one line while
receiving data on another. Other lines are available for handshaking, but are not required. The important serial
characteristics are baud rate, data bits, stop bits, and parity. For two ports to communicate, these parameters must
match:

a. Baud rate: It indicates the number of bit transfers per second. For example, 300 baud is 300 bits per
second. When we refer to a clock cycle we mean the baud rate. For example, if the protocol calls for
a 4800 baud rate, then the clock is running at 4800Hz. This means that the serial port is sampling the
data line at 4800Hz.

b. Data bits: When the computer sends a packet of information, the amount of actual data may not be a
full 8 bits. Standard values for the data packets are 5, 7, and 8 bits. Which setting you choose
depends on what information you are transferring. For example, standard ASCII has values from 0 to
127 (7 bits). Extended ASCII uses 0 to 255 (8 bits). If the data being transferred is simple text
(standard ASCII), then sending 7 bits of data per packet is sufficient for communication. A packet
refers to a single byte transfer, including start/stop bits, data bits, and parity. Since the number of
actual bits depend on the protocol selected, the term packet is used to cover all instances.

c. Stop bits: used to signal the end of communication for a single packet. Typical values are 1, 1.5, and
2 bits. Since the data is clocked across the lines and each device has its own clock, it is possible for
the two devices to become slightly out of sync. Therefore, the stop bits not only indicate the end of
transmission but also give the computers some room for error in the clock speeds. The more bits that
are used for stop bits, the greater the lenience in synchronizing the different clocks, but the slower the
data transmission rate.

d. Parity: a simple form of error checking that is used in serial communication. For even and odd parity,
the serial port will set the parity bit (the last bit after the data bits) to a value to ensure that the
transmission has an even or odd number of logic high bits. For example, if the data was 011, then for
even parity, the parity bit would be 0 to keep the number of logic high bits even. If the parity was odd,
then the parity bit would be 1, resulting in 3 logic high bits.
2. What is RS-232? Back to Top

RS-232 is the serial connection found on PCs. It is used for many purposes, such as connecting a mouse,
printer, or modem, as well as industrial instrumentation. Because of improvements in line drivers and cables,
 applications often increase the performance of RS-232 beyond the distance and speed listed in the standard.
RS-232 is limited to point-to-point connections between PC serial ports and devices. RS-232 hardware can be
used for serial communication up to distances of 50 feet.

DB-9 pin connector

-------------
\12345/
\6789/
-------

Out of computer and exposed end of cable

Pin Functions for RS-232:

Data:

TXD (pin 3): Serial data output

RXD (pin 2): Serial data input

Handshake:

RTS (pin 7): Request to send

CTS (pin 8): Clear to send
DSR (pin 6): Data Set Ready
DCD (pin 1): Data Carrier Detect
DTR (pin 4): Data Terminal Ready

Ground:

GND (pin 5): Ground

Other:

RI (pin 9): Ring Indicator

3. What is RS-422?

RS-422 is the serial connection uses a differential electrical signal, as opposed to unbalanced signals
referenced to ground with the RS-232. Differential transmission, which uses two lines each for transmit and
receive signals, results in greater noise immunity and longer distances as compared to the RS-232. The
greater noise immunity and distance are big advantages in industrial environments.

4. What is RS-485?

RS-485 is an improvement over RS-422, because it increases the number of devices from 10 to 32 and
defines the electrical characteristics necessary to ensure adequate signal voltages under maximum load. With
this enhanced multidrop capability, you can create networks of devices connected to a single RS-485 serial
port. The noise immunity and multidrop capability make RS-485 the serial connection of choice in industrial
applications requiring many distributed devices networked to a PC or other controller for data collection, HMI,
or other operations. RS-485 hardware may be used for serial communication for up to 4000 feet of cable.
 DB-9 pin connector

-------------
\12345/
\6789/
-------

Out of computer and exposed end of cable

Pin Functions for RS-485 and RS-422:

Data: TXD+ (pin 8), TXD- (pin 9), RXD+ (pin 4),
RXD- (pin 5)
Handshake: RTS+ (pin 3), RTS- (pin 7), CTS+ (pin 2),
CTS- (pin 6)
Ground: GND (pin 1)

5. What is Handshaking?

The method used by RS-232 for communication allows for a simple connection of three lines: Tx, Rx, and
Ground. However, for the data to be transmitted, both sides have to be clocking the data at the same baud
rate. Even though this method is sufficient for most applications, it is limited in being able to respond to
problems such as the receiver getting overloaded. This is where serial handshaking can help. In this section
we will discuss three of the most popular forms of handshaking with RS-232: Software Handshaking,
Hardware Handshaking, and Xmodem.

a. Software Handshaking: The first form of handshaking we will discuss is software handshaking. This
style uses actual data bytes as control characters, similar to the way GPIB uses command strings.
The lines necessary are still the simple three line set of Tx, Rx, and ground since the control
characters are sent over the transmission line like regular data. The function SetXMode allows the
user to enable or disable the use of two control characters, XON and XOFF. These characters are
sent by the receiver of the data to pause the transmitter during communication.

As an example, assume that the transmitter begins to transmit data at a high baud rate. During the
transmission, the receiver finds that the input buffer is becoming full due to the CPU being busy with
other duties. To temporarily pause the transmission, the receiver sends XOFF, typically decimal 19 or
hex 13, until the input buffer has been emptied. Once the receiver is ready for more data it sends
XON, typically decimal 17 or hex 11, to resume communication. LabWindows will send XOFF when
its input buffer becomes half full. In addition, in case the XOFF transmission was corrupted,
LabWindows will also transmit XOFF when the buffer has reached 75% and 90% capacity. Obviously,
the transmitter must also be following this protocol for it to succeed.

The biggest drawback to this method is also the most important fact to keep in mind: decimal 17 and
19 are now off limits for data values. In ASCII transmissions this typically does not matter since these
values are non-character values; however, if the data is being transmitted via binary, it is very likely
that these values could be transmitted as data and the transmission would fail.

b. Hardware Handshaking: The second method of handshaking is to use actual hardware lines. Like
the Tx and Rx lines, the RTS/CTS and DTR/DSR lines work together with one being the output and
the other the input. The first set of lines are RTS (Request to Send) and CTS (Clear to Send). When a
receiver is ready for data, it will assert the RTS line indicating it is ready to receive data. This is then
 read by the sender at the CTS input, indicating it is clear to send the data. The next set of lines are
DTR (Data Terminal Ready) and DSR (Data Set Ready). These lines are used mainly for modem
communication. They allow the serial port and the modem to communicate their status. For example,
when the modem is ready for data to be sent from the PC, it will assert the DTR line indicating that a
connection has been made across the phone line. This is read in through the DSR line and the PC
can begin to send data. The general rule of thumb is that the DTR/DSR lines are used to indicate that
the system is ready for communication where the RTS/CT
S lines are used for individual packets of data.

In LabWindows, the function SetCTSMode enables or disables the use of hardware handshaking. If
the CTS mode is enabled, LabWindows employs the following rules:

When the PC sends data:

The RS-232 library must detect that its CTS line is high before sending data.

When the PC receives data:

If the port is opened and the input queue has room for data, the library raises RTS and DTR.
If the port's input queue is 90% full, the library lowers RTS and leaves DTR high.
If the port's input queue is nearly empty, the library raises RTS and leaves DTR high.
If the port is closed, the library lowers RTS and DTR.

c. XModem Handshaking: The last mode discussed here is the XModem file transfer protocol. This
protocol is very common in modem communication. Although it is often used for modem
communication, the XModem protocol can be used directly between other devices if they both follow
the protocol. In LabWindows, the actual implementation of XModem is hidden from the user. As long
as the PC is connected to another device using XModem protocol, the LabWindows' XModem
functions can be used to transfer files from one site to another. The functions are XModemConfig,
XModemSend, and XModemReceive.

XModem uses a protocol based on the following parameters: start_of_data, end_of_trans, neg_ack,
ack, wait_delay, start_delay, max_tries, packet_size. These parameters need to be agreed upon by
both sides, and standard XModem has a standard definition of these; however, they can be modified
through the XModemConfig function in LabWindows to meet any requirement. The way that these
parameters are used in XModem is by having the neg_ack character sent by the receiver. This tells
the sender that it is ready to receive data. It will try again with start_delay time in-between each try
until either it reaches max_tries or receives start_of_data from the sender. If it reaches max_tries it
will inform the user that it was unable to communicate with the sender. If it does receive start_of_data
from the sender, it will read the packet of information that follows. This packet contains the packet
number, the complement of the packet number as an error check, the actual data packet of
packet_size bytes, and a checksum on t
he data for more error checking. After reading the data, the receiver will call wait_delay and then send
ack back to the sender. If the sender does not receive ack, it will re-send the data packet max_tries or
until it receives ack. If it never receives the ack, it informs the user that it has failed to transfer the file.

Since the data must be sent in packets of packet_size bytes, when the last packet is sent, if there is
not enough data to fill the packet, the data packet is padded with ASCII NUL (0) bytes. This can
cause the received file to be larger than the original. It is also important to remember not to use
XON/XOFF with the XModem protocol since the packet number from the XModem transfer is very
likely to increment to the XON/OFF control character values, which would cause a breakdown in
communication.
What is process control: The automated control of a process. Process control is used extensively in oil refining,
chemical processing, electrical generation and the food and beverage industries where the creation of a product is
based on a continuous series of processes being applied to raw materials. Such systems typically deal with analog
signals from sensors and meters that are transmitted to specialized computers which cause the temperature, pressure
and flow to be continually adjusted. Process control makes extensive use of analog/digital and digital/analog
conversion.

Discrete manufacturing
Fabricating products by assembling components and subsystems into larger systems. The automated assembly line is
the prime example of discrete manufacturing such as in the making of automobiles, household appliances and
computer systems. Discrete manufacturing systems typically deal with digital inputs to programmable logic controllers
(PLCs) and programmable automation controllers (PACs) that cause motors and robotic devices to be activated.

PID is the most common control methodology in process control. It is a continuous feedback loop that keeps the
process flowing normally by taking corrective action whenever there is any deviation from the desired value
("setpoint") of the process variable (rate of flow, temperature, voltage, etc.). An "error" occurs when an operator
manually changes the setpoint or when an event (valve opened, closed, etc.) or a disturbance changes the load, thus
causing a change in the process variable.

The PID controller receives signals from sensors and computes corrective action to the actuators from a computation
based on the error (proportional), the sum of all previous errors (integral) and the rate of change of the error
(derivative).

What is OSI
Virtually all networks in use today are based in some fashion on the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) standard.
OSI was developed in 1984 by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), a global federation of national
standards organizations representing approximately 130 countries. The core of this standard is the OSI Reference
Model, a set of seven layers that define the different stages that data must go through to travel from one device to
another over a network.
The Layers
Think of the seven layers as the assembly line in the computer. At each layer, certain things happen to the data that
prepare it for the next layer. The seven layers, which separate into two sets, are:
Application Set
• Layer 7: Application - This is the layer that actually interacts with the operating system or application
whenever the user chooses to transfer files, read messages or perform other network-related activities.
• Layer 6: Presentation - Layer 6 takes the data provided by the Application layer and converts it into a
standard format that the other layers can understand.
• Layer 5: Session - Layer 5 establishes, maintains and ends communication with the receiving device.
Transport Set
• Layer 4: Transport - This layer maintains flow control of data and provides for error checking and recovery
of data between the devices. Flow control means that the Transport layer looks to see if data is coming
from more than one application and integrates each application's data into a single stream for the physical
network.
• Layer 3: Network - The way that the data will be sent to the recipient device is determined in this layer.
Logical protocols, routing and addressing are handled here.
• Layer 2: Data - In this layer, the appropriate physical protocol is assigned to the data. Also, the type of
network and the packet sequencing is defined.
• Layer 1: Physical - This is the level of the actual hardware. It defines the physical characteristics of the
network such as connections, voltage levels and timing.
 The seven layers of the OSI Reference Model
The OSI Reference Model is really just a guideline. Actual protocol stacks often combine one or more of the OSI
layers into a single layer.
Protocol Stacks
A protocol stack is a group of protocols that all work together to allow software or hardware to perform a function. The
TCP/IP protocol stack is a good example. It uses four layers that map to the OSI model as follows:
• Layer 1: Network Interface - This layer combines the Physical and Data layers and routes the data between
devices on the same network. It also manages the exchange of data between the network and other devices.
• Layer 2: Internet - This layer corresponds to the Network layer. The Internet Protocol (IP) uses the IP
address, consisting of a Network Identifier and a Host Identifier, to determine the address of the device it is
communicating with.
• Layer 3: Transport - Corresponding to the OSI Transport layer, this is the part of the protocol stack where the
Transport Control Protocol (TCP) can be found. TCP works by asking another device on the network if it is
willing to accept information from the local device.
• Layer 4: Application - Layer 4 combines the Session, Presentation and Application layers of the OSI model.
Protocols for specific functions such as e-mail (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, SMTP) and file transfer (File
Transfer Protocol, FTP) reside at this level.
As you can see, it is not necessary to develop a separate layer for each and every function outlined in the OSI
Reference Model. But developers are able to ensure that a certain level of compatibility is maintained by following
the general guidelines provided by the model.
The Basic Internet Process
Let's say that you are sitting at your computer, surfing the Web, and you get a call from a friend who says, "I just read
a great article! Type in this URL and check it out. It's at http://www.howstuffworks.com/web-server.htm." So you type
that URL into your browser and press return. And magically, no matter where in the world that URL lives, the page
pops up on your screen. At the most basic level possible, the following diagram shows the steps that brought that
page to your screen:

Your browser formed a connection to a Web server, requested a page and received it.
On the next page, we'll dig a bit deeper.
Behind the Scenes
If you want to get into a bit more detail on the process of getting a Web page onto your computer screen, here are the
basic steps that occurred behind the scenes:
• The browser broke the URL into three parts:
• The protocol ("http")
• The server name ("www.howstuffworks.com")
• The file name ("web-server.htm")
• The browser communicated with a name server to translate the server name "www.howstuffworks.com"
into an IP Address, which it uses to connect to the server machine.
• The browser then formed a connection to the server at that IP address on port 80.
• Following the HTTP protocol, the browser sent a GET request to the server, asking for the file
"http://www.howstuffworks.com/web-server.htm."
• The server then sent the HTML text for the Web page to the browser.
• The browser read the HTML tags and formatted the page onto your screen.

The Internet
So what is "the Internet"? The Internet is a gigantic collection of millions of computers, all linked together on a
computer network. The network allows all of the computers to communicate with one another. A home computer
may be linked to the Internet using a phone-line modem, DSL or cable modem that talks to an Internet service
provider (ISP). A computer in a business or university will usually have a network interface card (NIC) that directly
connects it to a local area network (LAN) inside the business. The business can then connect its LAN to an ISP using
a high-speed phone line like a T1 line. A T1 line can handle approximately 1.5 million bits per second, while a normal
phone line using a modem can typically handle 30,000 to 50,000 bits per second.
ISPs then connect to larger ISPs, and the largest ISPs maintain fiber-optic "backbones" for an entire nation or region.
Backbones around the world are connected through fiber-optic lines, undersea cables or satellite links. In this way,
every computer on the Internet is connected to every other computer on the Internet.
Clients and Servers
In general, all of the machines on the Internet can be categorized as two types: servers and clients. Those machines
that provide services (like Web servers ) to other machines are servers. And the machines that are used to connect to
those services are clients. When you connect to Yahoo! at www.yahoo.com to read a page, Yahoo! is providing a
machine (probably a cluster of very large machines), for use on the Internet, to service your request. Yahoo! is
providing a server. Your machine, on the other hand, is probably providing no services to anyone else on the Internet.
Therefore, it is a user machine, also known as a client.
A server machine may provide one or more services on the Internet. For example, a server machine might have
software running on it that allows it to act as a Web server, an e-mail server and an FTP server. Clients that come to a
server machine do so with a specific intent, so clients direct their requests to a specific software server running on the
overall server machine. For example, if you are running a Web browser on your machine, it will most likely want to talk
to the Web server on the server machine. Your Telnet application will want to talk to the Telnet server, your e-mail
application will talk to the e-mail server, and so on...
IP Addresses
To keep all of these machines straight, each machine on the Internet is assigned a unique address called an IP
address. IP stands for Internet protocol, and these addresses are 32-bit numbers, normally expressed as four
"octets" in a "dotted decimal number." A typical IP address looks like this:
216.27.61.137
The four numbers in an IP address are called octets because they can have values between 0 and 255, which is 28
possibilities per octet.
Every machine on the Internet has a unique IP address. A server has a static IP address that does not change very
often. A home machine that is dialing up through a modem often has an IP address that is assigned by the ISP when
the machine dials in. That IP address is unique for that session -- it may be different the next time the machine dials in.
This way, an ISP only needs one IP address for each modem it supports, rather than for each customer.
Domain Names
Because most people have trouble remembering the strings of numbers that make up IP addresses, and because IP
addresses sometimes need to change, all servers on the Internet also have human-readable names, called domain
names. For example, www.howstuffworks.com is a permanent, human-readable name. It is easier for most of us to
remember www.howstuffworks.com than it is to remember 209.116.69.66.
The name www.howstuffworks.com actually has three parts:
 • The host name ("www")
• The domain name ("howstuffworks")
• The top-level domain name ("com")
Domain names within the ".com" domain are managed by the registrar called VeriSign. VeriSign also manages ".net"
domain names. Other registrars (like RegistryPro, NeuLevel and Public Interest Registry) manage the other domains
(like .pro, .biz and .org).
Name Servers
A set of servers called domain name servers (DNS) maps the human-readable names to the IP addresses. These
servers are simple databases that map names to IP addresses, and they are distributed all over the Internet.
If you type the URL "http://www.howstuffworks.com/web-server.htm" into your browser, your browser extracts the
name "www.howstuffworks.com," passes it to a domain name server, and the domain name server returns the correct
IP address for www.howstuffworks.com. A number of name servers may be involved to get the right IP address. For
example, in the case of www.howstuffworks.com, the name server for the "com" top-level domain will know the IP
address for the name server that knows host names, and a separate query to that name server, operated by the
HowStuffWorks ISP, may deliver the actual IP address for the HowStuffWorks server machine.
Putting It All Together
Now you know a tremendous amount about the Internet. You know that when you type a URL into a browser, the
following steps occur:
• The browser breaks the URL into three parts:
• The protocol ("http")
• The server name ("www.howstuffworks.com")
• The file name ("web-server.htm")
• The browser communicates with a name server to translate the server name, "www.howstuffworks.com,"
into an IP address, which it uses to connect to that server machine.
• The browser then forms a connection to the Web server at that IP address on port 80.
• Following the HTTP protocol, the browser sends a GET request to the server, asking for the file
"http://www.howstuffworks.com/web-server.htm." (Note that cookies may be sent from browser to server
with the GET request -- see How Internet Cookies Work for details.)
• The server sends the HTML text for the Web page to the browser. (Cookies may also be sent from server
to browser in the header for the page.)
• The browser reads the HTML tags and formats the page onto your screen.

TCP/IP is the Internet Communication Protocol

The standard defines how electronic devices (like computers) should be connected to the Internet, and how data
should be transmitted between them. A communication protocol is a description of the rules computers must follow to
communicate with each other. Internet browsers and Internet servers use TCP/IP to connect to the Internet. Your
browser uses TCP/IP to access Internet servers, and servers use TCP/IP to send HTML back to your browser. Your e-
mail program uses TCP/IP to connect to the Internet for sending and receiving e-mails. Your Internet address
"125.23.31.59" is a part of the standard TCP/IP protocol. (And so is your domain name "www.someonesplace.com")

TCP When an application wants to communicate with another application via TCP, it sends a communication request.
This request must be sent to an exact address. After a "handshake" between the two applications, TCP will setup a
"full-duplex" communication between the two applications. The "full-duplex" communication will occupy the
communication line between the two computers until it is closed by one of the two applications.
IP is Connection-Less IP is for communication between computers. IP is a "connection-less" communication
protocol. It does not occupy the communication line between two communicating computers. This way IP reduces the
need for network lines. Each line can be used for communication between many different computers at the same time.
With IP, messages (or other data) are broken up into small independent "packets" and sent between computers via
the Internet. IP is responsible for "routing" each packet to its destination.

IP Routers When an IP packet is sent from a computer, it arrives at an IP router. The IP router is responsible for
"routing" the packet to its destination, directly or via another router. The path the packet will follow might be different
from other packets of the same communication. The router is responsible for the right addressing.

Data Packets When a workstation wishes to send data, it uses the client network software to enclose the data in a
'packet' containing a 'header' and a 'trailer'. The header and trailer contain information for the destination computer.
For example, the header contains the address of the destination computer. The exact form the packets take is
determined by the protocol the network uses.

When a data packet is put onto the network by a workstation, each computer on the network examines the packet to
see who it is intended for. The packet quickly dissipates if it is not recognised, allowing other packets to be sent. The
rate at which packets can be sent is called the 'bandwidth' (this has a somewhat different meaning to how bandwidth
is normally used). As an example, a bandwidth of 10 Megabits per second means that ten million individual 1s and 0s
can pass through the network in one second.

Industrial control network

A network used to connect devices for factory automation and process control applications. Such networks, which are
typically referred to as "buses," (Fieldbus, Modbus, PROFIBUS, etc.), are made up of sensors, actuators and
controllers. An industrial network provides data link services at layers 1 and 2 of the OSI model and a command set at
layer 7.

Network Designs
The two types of high-level network design are called client-server and peer-to-peer. Client-server networks feature
centralized server computers that store email, Web pages, files and or applications. On a peer-to-peer network,
conversely, all computers tend to support the same functions. Client-server networks are much more common in
business and peer-to-peer networks much more common in homes.

Clients and servers are devices that perform specific functions on a network. Client devices normally request and
receive information over the network. Mobile computers and most desktop PCs operate as clients. A server device
hosts files, databases, Web sites, or other applications. Server devices often feature higher-powered processors,
more memory, and larger disk drives than clients.

The main alternative to client/server networking is peer-to-peer networking, where network devices all perform
equivalent functions.

Peer-to-peer is a type of network design where all devices support roughly equivalent capabilities. In Peer-to-peer
networking certain devices have responsibility for providing or "serving" network information and other devices
consume or otherwise act as "clients" of those servers. Peer-to-peer networking is most common on small LANs,
particularly Windows home networks. Peer networking on the Internet gained widespread popularity.
Network topology
In networking, the term "topology" refers to the layout of connected devices on a network. This article introduces the
standard topologies of computer networking. Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types:

• bus
• ring
• star
• tree

More complex networks can be built as hybrids of two or more of the above basic topologies.

Bus Topology
Bus networks use a common backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared
communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector. A device wanting to communicate
with another device on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the
intended recipient actually accepts and processes the message.

Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't require much cabling compared to the alternatives. Bus
networks work best with a limited number of devices. If more than a few dozen computers are added to a network bus,
performance problems will likely result. In addition, if the backbone cable fails, the entire network effectively becomes
unusable.

Ring Topology
In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. All messages travel through a
ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or "counterclockwise"). A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop
and can take down the entire network. Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or school campuses.

Star Topology
Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection point called a "hub" that may
be a hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet.
Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network cable
will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub fails, however, the entire
network also fails.)

Tree topologies
Integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree
bus, and each hub functions as the "root" of a tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid approach supports future
expandability of the network much better than a bus.

Fieldbus
A control network used in process control and industrial automation. Fieldbuses are bi-directional, digital serial
networks. Examples of fieldbus networks are DeviceNet, ControlNet, Modbus and PROFIBUS. In the 1980s,
fieldbuses began to replace the parallel wiring used in 4-20 mA and +/-10 volt analog interfaces.

DeviceNet
An industrial control network primarily used in factory automation that supports up to 64 nodes with data rates from
125 Kbps to 500 Kbps. It is typically used to connect devices such as limit switches, photoelectric sensors, motor
starters, bar code readers and operator consoles. DeviceNet is based on the CIP protocol, which provides services at
layer 7 of the OSI model and the CAN bus.

Common Industrial Protocol A high-level protocol used for control networks that provides an object model for
services at layer 7 of the OSI model. DeviceNet, Ethernet/IP, ControlNet, CIP Sync and CIP Safety are examples of
control networks that use CIP.
CAN bus Controller Area Network bus, a rugged serial bus designed for industrial environments, introduced by Bosch
in 1986 replaced bulky wiring harnesses with a two-wire differential cable. CAN provides low-speed, fault-tolerant
transmission of 125 Kbps up to 40 meters, which can function over one wire if a short occurs.

PROFIBUS
(PROcess FIeldBUS) is an industrial control network used for factory automation, process control, motion control and
safety networks uses a master/slave architecture. It was introduced in 1993, PROFIBUS provides services at layers 1,
2 and 7 of the OSI model.

Modbus
A high-level protocol for industrial networks developed in 1979 by Modicon, Providing services at layer 7 of the OSI
model, it defines a request/response message structure for a client/server environment. Modbus runs over various
data links including its own Modbus+ token passing network and serial links such as RS-232 and RS-485.

It is widely used with TCP/IP over Ethernet. Individual device networks connected to Modbus+ or serial links hook into
Ethernet via gateways for transport over an IP network or the Internet.

Ethernet
Ethernet connects devices to a company or home network as well as to a cable modem or DSL modem for Internet
access. Almost all PCs and Macs come with 10/100 Ethernet ports that connect internally to circuits on the
motherboard. Ethernet can be added to older machines by plugging in a network adapter via PCI, PC Card or USB.

Ethernet port supports two speeds: 10 Mbps (10BaseT) and 100 Mbps (100BaseT). Computers also come with
10/100/1000 ports, which includes Gigabit Ethernet at 1 Gbps. Gigabit Ethernet (GigE) is commonly used as a high-
speed link between switches and servers. Ethernet devices negotiate with each other and transmit at the highest
speed possible. However, if a 100 Mbps switch is communicating with a 10 Mbps client, the slower speed is used.
Ethernet is wired in a star configuration with a hub or switch in the middle. Hubs, which predated switches, are shared
media devices. All stations attached to the hub share the total bandwidth. Switches provide each sender and receiver
pair with the full bandwidth and are significantly faster than hubs

Serial communication is a popular means of transmitting data between a computer and a peripheral device such as
a programmable instrument or even another computer. Serial communication uses a transmitter to send data, one bit
at a time, over a single communication line to a receiver. You can use this method when data transfer rates are low or
you must transfer data over long distances. Serial communication is popular because most computers have one or
more serial ports, so no extra hardware is needed other than a cable to connect the instrument to the computer or two
computers together.

Serial is a very common protocol (not to be confused with Universal Serial Bus or USB) for device communication that
comes standard on just about every PC. Most computers include two RS-232 based serial ports. Serial is also a
common communication protocol that is used by many devices for instrumentation; numerous GPIB-compatible
devices also come with an RS-232 port. Furthermore, serial communication can be used for data acquisition in
conjunction with a remote sampling device.

The concept of serial communication is simple. The serial port sends and receives bytes of information one bit at a
time. Although this is slower than parallel communication, which allows the transmission of an entire byte at once, it is
simpler and can be used over longer distances. For example, the IEEE 488 specifications for parallel communication
state that the cabling between equipment can be no more than 20 meters total, with no more than 2 meters between
any two devices; serial, however, can extend as much as 1200 meters.

Typically, serial is used to transmit ASCII data. Communication is completed using 3 transmission lines: (1) Ground,
(2) Transmit, and (3) Receive. Since serial is asynchronous, the port is able to transmit data on one line while
receiving data on another. Other lines are available for handshaking, but are not required. The important serial
characteristics are baud rate, data bits, stop bits, and parity. For two ports to communicate, these parameters must
match:
Baud rate: a speed measurement for communication. It indicates the number of bit transfers per second. For
example, 300 baud is 300 bits per second. When we refer to a clock cycle we mean the baud rate. For example, if the
protocol calls for a 4800 baud rate, then the clock is running at 4800Hz. This means that the serial port is sampling the
data line at 4800Hz. Common baud rates for telephone lines are 14400, 28800, and 33600. Baud rates greater than
these are possible, but these rates reduce the distance by which devices can be separated.

Data bits: a measurement of the actual data bits in a transmission. When the computer sends a packet of information,
the amount of actual data may not be a full 8 bits. Standard values for the data packets are 5, 7, and 8 bits. Which
setting you choose depends on what information you are transferring. For example, standard ASCII has values from 0
to 127 (7 bits). Extended ASCII uses 0 to 255 (8 bits). If the data being transferred is simple text (standard ASCII),
then sending 7 bits of data per packet is sufficient for communication. A packet refers to a single byte transfer,
including start/stop bits, data bits, and parity. Since the number of actual bits depend on the protocol selected, the
term packet is used to cover all instances.

Stop bits: used to signal the end of communication for a single packet. Typical values are 1, 1.5, and 2 bits. Since the
data is clocked across the lines and each device has its own clock, it is possible for the two devices to become slightly
out of sync. Therefore, the stop bits not only indicate the end of transmission but also give the computers some room
for error in the clock speeds. The more bits that are used for stop bits, the greater the lenience in synchronizing the
different clocks, but the slower the data transmission rate.

Parity: a simple form of error checking that is used in serial communication. There are four types of parity: even, odd,
marked, and spaced. Of course, the option of using no parity is also available. For even and odd parity, the serial port
will set the parity bit (the last bit after the data bits) to a value to ensure that the transmission has an even or odd
number of logic high bits. For example, if the data was 011, then for even parity, the parity bit would be 0 to keep the
number of logic high bits even. If the parity was odd, then the parity bit would be 1, resulting in 3 logic high bits.
Marked and spaced parity does not actually check the data bits, but simply sets the parity bit high for marked parity or
low for spaced parity. This allows the receiving device to know the state of a bit so as to enable the device to
determine if noise is corrupting the data or if the transmitting and receiving devices' clocks are out of sync.

Difference between Parallel & Serial Ports

A parallel port sends and receives data eight bits at a time over 8 separate wires. This allows data to be transferred
very quickly; however, the cable required is more bulky because of the number of individual wires it must contain.
Parallel ports are typically used to connect a PC to a printer and are rarely used for much else.

A serial port sends and receives data one bit at a time over one wire. While it takes eight times as long to transfer
each byte of data this way, only a few wires are required. In fact, two-way (full duplex) communications is possible with
only three separate wires - one to send, one to receive, and a common signal ground wire.