LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Basic Operations on Matrices.

2. Generation of Various Signals such as Unit impulse, unit step, square,

saw tooth, triangular, sinusoidal, ramp etc.

3. Operations on signals and sequences such as addition, multiplication,

scaling, shifting, folding, computation of energy and average power.

4. Mesh and Nodal analysis of electrical circuits.

5. Application of network theorems such as Thevenin’s, Norton’s,

Superposition etc. to electrical networks.

6. Locating Zeroes and poles and plotting the pole-zero maps in S plane
and for the given TF

7. Simulation of DC circuits

8. Measurement of Active power of three phase circuit for balanced oads.

9. Simulation of single-phase diode bridge rectifiers with filter for R and

RL loads.
 VISION

MISSION

QUALITY POLICY
 PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL
OBJECTIVES

PEO1: PROFESSIONALISM & CITIZENSHIP

To create and sustain a community of learning in which students
acquire knowledge and learn to apply it professionally with due
consideration for ethical, ecological and economic issues.
PEO2: TECHNICAL ACCOMPLISHMENTS
To provide knowledge based services to satisfy the needs of society and
the industry by providing hands on experience in various technologies
in core field.
PEO3: INVENTION, INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY
To make the students to design, experiment, analyze, interpret in the
core field with the help of other multi disciplinary concepts wherever
applicable.
PEO4: PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
To educate the students to disseminate research findings with good
soft skills and become a successful entrepreneur.
PEO5: HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
To graduate the students in building national capabilities in technology,
education and research.
 CODE OF CONDUCT FOR THE LABORATORIES

 All students must observe the Dress Code while in the laboratory.

 Sandals or open-toed shoes are NOT allowed.

 Foods, drinks and smoking are NOT allowed.

 All bags must be left at the indicated place.

 The lab timetable must be strictly followed.

 Be PUNCTUAL for your laboratory session.

 Program must be executed within the given time.

 Noise must be kept to a minimum.

 Workspace must be kept clean and tidy at all time.

 Handle the systems and interfacing kits with care.

 All students are liable for any damage to the accessories due to their own negligence.

 All interfacing kits connecting cables must be RETURNED if you taken from
the labsupervisor.

 Students are strictly PROHIBITED from taking out any items from the laboratory.

 Students are NOT allowed to work alone in the laboratory without the Lab Supervisor

 USB Ports have been disabled if you want to use USB drive consult lab supervisor.

 Report immediately to the Lab Supervisor if any malfunction of the accessories, is

there.

Before leaving the lab

 Place the chairs properly.

 Turn off the system properly

 Turn off the monitor.

 Please check the laboratory notice board regularly for updates.

 Experiment No-1

BASIC OPERATIONS ON MATRICES

AIM: Generate a matrix and perform basic operation on matrices using MATLAB software.
Software Required: MATLAB software

Theory:
MATLAB treats all variables as matrices. Vectors are special forms of matrices and contain
only one row or one column. Whereas scalars are special forms of matrices and contain only
one row and one column. A matrix with one row is called row vector and a matrix with single
column is called column vector.
The first one consists of convenient matrix building functions, some of which are given
below.
1. eye - identity matrix
2. zeros - matrix of zeros
3. ones - matrix of ones
4. diag - extract diagonal of a matrix or create diagonal matrices
5. triu - upper triangular part of a matrix
6. tril - lower triangular part of a matrix
7. rand - ran
commands in the second sub-category of matrix functions are
1. size- size of a matrix
2. det -determinant of a square matrix
3. inv- inverse of a matrix
4. rank- rank of a matrix
5. rref- reduced row echelon form
6. eig- eigenvalues and eigenvectors
7. poly- characteristic polynomialdomly generated matrix
Program:
% Creating a column vector
>> a=[1;2;3]
a=
1
2
3
% Creating a row vector
>> b=[1 2 3]
b=
123
% Creating a matrix
>> m=[1 2 3;4 6 9;2 6 9]
m=
123
469
269
% Extracting sub matrix from matrix
>> sub_m=m(2:3,2:3)
sub_m =
69
69
% extracting column vector from matrix
>> c=m (:,2)
c=
2
6
6
% extracting row vector from matrix
>> d=m (3,:)
d =
269
% creation of two matrices a and b
>> a=[2 4 -1;-2 1 9;-1 -1 0]
a=
2 4 -1
-2 1 9
-1 -1 0
>> b=[0 2 3;1 0 2;1 4 6]
b =
023
102
146
% matrix multiplication
>>
x1=a
*bx1
=
308
10 32 50
 -1 -2 -5
% element to element multiplication
>>
x2=a.
*bx2
=
0 8 -3
-2 0 18
-1 -4 0
% matrix addition
>>
x3=a
+bx3
=
262
-1 1 11
036
% matrix subtraction
>> x4=a-b
x4 =
2 2 -4
-3 1 7
-2 -5 -6
% matrix division
>> x5=a/b
x5 =
-9.0000 -3.5000 5.5000
12.0000 3.7500 -5.7500
3.0000 0.7500 -1.7500
% element to element division
>> x6=a./b
Warning: Divide by zero.
x6 =
Inf 2.0000 -0.3333
-2.0000 Inf 4.5000
-1.0000 -0.2500 0
% inverse of matrix a
>> x7=inv(a)
x7 =
-0.4286 -0.0476 -1.7619
0.4286 0.0476 0.7619
-0.1429 0.0952 -0.4762
% transpose of matrix a
>> x8=a'
x8 =
2 -2 -1
4 1 -1
-1 9 0
RESULT: Matrix operations are performed using MATLAB software.
 EXPERIMENT NO-2

Generation of signals and sequences

AIM: Generate various signals and sequences (Periodic and aperiodic), such as Unit Impulse,
Unit Step, Square, Saw tooth, Triangular, Sinusoidal, Ramp, Sinc.

Software Required: Matlab software

Theory: If the amplitude of the signal is defined at every instant of time then it is called
continuous time signal. If the amplitude of the signal is defined at only at some instants of
time then it is called discrete time signal. If the signal repeats itself at regular intervals then it
is called periodic signal. Otherwise they are called aperiodic signals.
EX: ramp,Impulse,unit step, sinc- Aperiodic signals
square,sawtooth,triangular sinusoidal – periodic signals.

Ramp sinal: The ramp function is a unitary real function, easily computable as the mean of
the independent variable and its absolute value.This function is applied in engineering. The
name ramp function is derived from the appearance of its graph.

r(t)= t when

0 else

Unit impulse signal: One of the more useful functions in the study of linear systems is the
"unit impulse function."An ideal impulse function is a function that is zero everywhere but at
the origin, where it isinfinitely high. However, the area of the impulse is finite
Y(t)= 1 when t=0
=0 other wise
Unit step signal: The unit step function and the impulse function are considered to be
fundamental functions in engineering, and it is strongly recommended that the reader
becomes very familiar with both of these functions.
0 if t < 0
u(t)= 1 if t > 0If
t=0

Sinc signal: There is a particular form that appears so frequently in communications

engineering, that we give it its own name. This function is called the "Sinc function”.
The Sinc function is defined in the following manner:
if and sinc(0) =1
The value of sinc(x) is defined as 1 at x = 0, since
PROCEDURE:-
 Open MATLAB
 Open new M-file
 Type the program
 Save in current directory
 Compile and Run the program
 For the output see command window\ Figure window

PROGRAM:

% Generation of signals and sequences

clc;
clear all;
close all;
%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
%generation of unit impulse signal
t1=-1:0.01:1
y1=(t1==0);
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t1,y1);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('unit impulse signal');
%generation of impulse sequence
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(t1,y1);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('unit impulse sequence');
%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

%generation of unit step signal

t2=-10:1:10;
y2=(t2>=0);
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(t2,y2);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('unit step signal');
%generation of unit step sequence
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(t2,y2);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('unit step sequence');
%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

%generation of square wave signal

t=0:0.002:0.1;
y3=square(2*pi*50*t);
figure;
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t,y3);
axis([0 0.1 -2 2]);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('square wave signal');
%generation of square wave sequence
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(t,y3);
axis([0 0.1 -2 2]);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('square wave sequence');
%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

%generation of sawtooth signal

y4=sawtooth(2*pi*50*t);
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(t,y4);
axis([0 0.1 -2 2]);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('sawtooth wave signal');
%generation of sawtooth sequence
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(t,y4);
axis([0 0.1 -2 2]);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('sawtooth wave sequence');
%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

%generation of triangular wave signal

y5=sawtooth(2*pi*50*t,.5);
figure;
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t,y5);
axis([0 0.1 -2 2]);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title(' triangular wave signal');
%generation of triangular wave sequence
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(t,y5);
axis([0 0.1 -2 2]);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('triangular wave sequence');
%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
%generation of sinsoidal wave signal
y6=sin(2*pi*40*t);
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(t,y6);
axis([0 0.1 -2 2]);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title(' sinsoidal wave signal');
%generation of sin wave sequence
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(t,y6);
axis([0 0.1 -2 2]);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('sin wave sequence');
%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

%generation of ramp signal

y7=t;
figure;
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t,y7);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('ramp signal');
%generation of ramp sequence
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(t,y7);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('ramp sequence');
%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

%generation of sinc signal

t3=linspace(-5,5);
y8=sinc(t3);
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(t3,y8);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title(' sinc signal');
%generation of sinc sequence
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(y8);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('sinc sequence');

Result: Various signals & sequences generated using Matlab software.

output:
 EXPERIMENT NO-3
Basic Operations on Signals and sequences
AIM: perform the operations on signals and sequences such as addition, multiplication,
scaling, shifting, folding and also compute energy and power.

Software Required: Matlab software.

Theory:

Signal Addition

Addition: any two signals can be added to form a third signal,

z (t) = x (t) + y (t)

Multiplication :

Multiplication of two signals can be obtained by multiplying their values at every instants . z
z(t) = x (t) y (t)

Time reversal/Folding:

Time reversal of a signal x(t) can be obtained by folding the signal about t=0.
Y(t)=y(-t)

Signal Amplification/Scaling : Y(n)=ax(n) if a < 1 attnuation

a >1 amplification

Time shifting: The time shifting of x(n) obtained by delay or advance the signal in time by
using y(n)=x(n+k)

If k is a positive number, y(n) shifted to the right i e the shifting delays the signal

If k is a negative number, y(n ) it gets shifted left. Signal Shifting advances the signal
Energy:

Average power
Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

% generating two input signals

t=0:.01:1;
x1=sin(2*pi*4*t);
x2=sin(2*pi*8*t);
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t,x1);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('input signal 1');
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(t,x2);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('input signal 2');

% addition of signals
y1=x1+x2;
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(t,y1);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('addition of two signals');

% multiplication of signals
y2=x1.*x2;
subplot(2,2,4);
plot(t,y2);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('multiplication of two signals');
% scaling of a signal1
A=2;
y3=A*x1;
figure;
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t,x1);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('input signal')
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(t,y3);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('amplified input signal');

% folding of a signal1
h=length(x1);
nx=0:h-1;
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(nx,x1);
xlabel('nx');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('input signal')
y4=fliplr(x1);
nf=-fliplr(nx);
subplot(2,2,4);
plot(nf,y4);
xlabel('nf');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('folded signal');

%shifting of a signal 1
figure;
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(t,x1);
xlabel('time t');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('input signal');
subplot(3,1,2);
plot(t+2,x1);
xlabel('t+2');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('right shifted signal');
subplot(3,1,3);
plot(t-2,x1);
xlabel('t-2');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('left shifted signal');
%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~%operations on
sequences n1=1:1:9;
s1=[1 2 3 0 5 8 0 2 4];
figure;
subplot(2,2,1);
stem(n1,s1);
xlabel('n1');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('input sequence1');
s2=[1 1 2 4 6 0 5 3 6];
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(n1,s2);
xlabel('n2');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('input sequence2');

% addition of sequences
s3=s1+s2;
subplot(2,2,3);
stem(n1,s3);
xlabel('n1');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('sum of two sequences');

% multiplication of sequences
s4=s1.*s2;
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(n1,s4);
xlabel('n1');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('product of two sequences');
%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

% program for energy of a sequence

z1=input('enter the input sequence');
e1=sum(abs(z1).^2);
disp('energy of given sequence is');e1

% program for energy of a signal

t=0:pi:10*pi;
z2=cos(2*pi*50*t).^2;
e2=sum(abs(z2).^2);
disp('energy of given signal is');e2

% program for power of a sequence

p1= (sum(abs(z1).^2))/length(z1);
disp('power of given sequence is');p1

% program for power of a signal

p2=(sum(abs(z2).^2))/length(z2);
disp('power of given signal is');p2

OUTPUT:

enter the input sequence[1 3 2 4 1]

energy of given sequence is

e1 = 31

energy of given signal is

e2 = 4.0388

power of given sequence is

p1 = 6.2000

power of given signal is

p2 = 0.3672

Result: Various operations on signals and sequences are performed.

Output:
 Experiment No-4
Mesh and Nodal analysis of electrical circuits.
Aim – analyzing mesh and node of electrical circuit.
Software Required: Matlab software

we will find current which is flowing through resistor RB and the power supplied by the
voltage source of 10V.

First, let’s assign currents for each loop as I1, I2 and I3 and the power supplied by the
source is 10*I1 as we can see from the circuit.
Now, let’s write the loop equations for each loop:
Loop 1:
10(I1−I2)+30(I1−I3)−10=0
-10I1−10I2−30I3=10⋯(1)

Loop 2:
10(I2−I1)+15I2+5(I2−I3)=0
−10I1+30I2−5I3=0⋯(2)
Loop 3:
30(I3−I1)+5(I3−I2)+30I3=0
−30I1−5I2+65I3=0⋯(3)
MATLAB CODING-
clear all;close all;clc
% Loop Analysis using Matlab
R_Mat = [40 -10 -30;
-10 30 -5; % Impedance (or Resistance) Matrix obtain from Loop equations
-30 -5 65];
V_vec = [10 0 0]'; % Voltage Vector (again from Loop equations)
%% % Loop Currents Calculations
I_Loop = inv(R_Mat)*V_vec;
% Calculate current flowing through Resistor R_B
I_RB = I_Loop(3) - I_Loop(2); % (I=I3-I2)
fprintf('The current flowing through Resistor R_B is %8.3f A \n',I_RB)
% Calculate the total power supplied by 10V source
P_Source = I_Loop(1)*10; % (P=10*I_1)
fprintf('The power supplied by voltage source of 10V is %8.4f watts
\n',P_Source)

Results:
The current flowing through Resistor R_B is 0.037 A
The power supplied by voltage source of 10V is 4.7531 watts

*we will find node voltages for a very simple resistive circuit using Nodal Analysis.

While applying KCL, we will assume that currents leaving the node are positive and entering
the node are negative. Keeping that fact in mind, let’s write node voltages for each node in the
circuit.
Node 1
(V1−V2 )10+(V1−V3)10−5=0
0.15V1−0.1V2−0.05V3=5⋯(1)
Node 2:
 (V2−V1)10+V250+(V2−V3)40=0
−0.10V1+0.145V2−0.025V3=0⋯(2)
Node 3:
(V3−V1)20+(V3−V2)40−2=0
−0.05V1−0.025V2+0.075V3=2⋯(3)

Matlab coding
clear all;close all;clc
% Nodal Analysis using Matlab
Y_Mat = [ 0.15 -0.1 -0.05;
-0.1 0.145 -0.025; % Admittance Matrix (YV=I) obtain from Node equations
-0.05 -0.025 0.075];
I_vec = [5;
0; % Current Vector (again from Node equations)
2];
%% Node Voltages Calculation
fprintf('Nodal voltages V1, V2 and V3 are \n')
V_Node = inv(Y_Mat)*I_vec

Results:
Nodal voltages V1, V2, and V3 are
V_Node =
404.2857
350.0000
412.8571
 EXPERIMENT NO: 5

VERIFICATION OF NETWORK THEOREMS

I) SUPERPOSITION THEOREM.
II) THEVENIN’S THEOREM.
III) MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM.

AIM: To verify Superposition theorem, Thevenin‟s theorem, Norton‟s theorem and Maximum power
Transfer theorem.
SOFTWARE USED : MULTISIM / MATLAB Simulink

SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:
“In a linear network with several independent sources which include equivalent sources due to initial
conditions, and linear dependent sources, the overall response in any part of the network is equal to
the sum of individual responses due to each independent source, considered separately, with all other
independent sources reduced to zero”.

Procedure:
Step 1:
1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram by using MULTISIM/MATLAB
Simulink.

2. Measure the response „I‟ in the load resistor by considering all the sources 10V, 15V and 8V
in the network.

Step 2:
1. Replace the sources 15V and 8V with their internal impedances (short circuited).

2. Measure the response „I1‟ in the load resistor by considering 10V source in the network.

Step 3:
1. Replace the sources 10V and 8V with their internal impedances (short circuited).

2. Measure the response „I2‟ in the load resistor by considering 15V source in the network.

Step 4:
1. Replace the sources 10V and 15V with their internal impedances (short circuited).

2. Measure the response „I3‟ in the load resistor by considering 8V source in the network.
The responses obtained in step 1 should be equal to the sum of the responses obtained in step 2, 3 and
4.
I=I1+I2+I3
Hence Superposition Theorem is verified.

1
Continuous

powergui Step 1 : By Considering All Sources In The Network Step 2 : By Considering 10 V Sources In The Network

R1=10 Ohms V2=15V R2=12 Ohms R3=1 Ohm R1=10 Ohms V2=0V R2=12 Ohms R3=1 Ohm

RL=15 RL=15 Ohms

Ohms
V1=10V V3=8 V1=10V
V

- +

+
-
i

i
0.11 0.2667
11

Step 4 : By Considering 8V Sources In The Network

Step 3 : By Considering 15 V Sources In The Network

R1=10 Ohms V2=0V R2=12 Ohms R3=1 Ohm

R1=10 Ohms V2=15V R2=12 Ohms R3=1 Ohm

RL=15 Ohms
RL=15
Ohms V3=8V
V3=0 V1=0V
V1=0V
V

- +
+

i
0.1778
-
i

-
0.333
3

Current through Load Resistor 15 Ohms :

Considerning 10V Source I1: 0.2667A With all the sources in the network I = 0.1111A
Considering 15V Source I2 : - 0.3333A I=I1+I2+I3
Considering 8V Source I3 : 0.1778A
Hence SuperPosition Theorem is Verified.
Total Current : I1+I2+I3=0.2667-0.3333+0.1778
=0.1112A

7
THEVENIN’S THEOREM:

“Any two terminal network consisting of linear impedances and generators may be replaced at the two
terminals by a single voltage source acting in series with an impedance. The voltage of the equivalent
source is the open circuit voltage measured at the terminals of the network and the impedance, known
as Thevenin‟s equivalent impedance, ZTH, is the impedance measured at the terminals with all the
independent sources in the network reduced to zero ”.

Procedure:

Step 1:

1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram by using MULTISIM/MATLAB

Simulink.

2. Measure the response „I‟ in the load resistor by considering all the sources in the network.

Step 2: Finding Thevenin’s Resistance(RTH)

1. Open the load terminals and replace all the sources with their internal impedances.

2. Measure the impedance across the open circuited terminal which is known as Thevenin‟s
Resistance.

Step 3: Finding Thevenin’s Voltage(VTH)

1. Open the load terminals and measure the voltage across the open circuited terminals.

2. Measured voltage will be known as Thevenin‟s Voltage.

Step 4: Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

1. VTH and RTH are connected in series with the load.

VTH
2. Measure the current through the load resistor IL = .
RTH+RL

Current measured from Thevenin‟s Equivalent Circuit should be same as current obtained from the
actual circuit.

I = IL.

Hence Thevenin‟s Theorem is Verified.

Continuous THEVENIN'S THEOREM

powergui Step 1 : By Considering All Sources In The Network

Step 2: Finding Thevenin's Resistance

R1=10 Ohms V2=15V R2=12 Ohms R3=1 Ohm R1=10 Ohms V2=0V R2=12 Ohms R3=1 Ohm

RL=15 Ohms
V3=8V
V1=10V Z V3=0V
V1=0V

- +
i
0.1111

Step 4 : Thevenin's Equivalent Network

Step 3 : Finding Thevenin's Voltage

Rth=5.4545 Ohms
R1=10 Ohms V2=15V R2=12 Ohms R3=1 Ohms

Open circuited RL RL=15 Ohms

V1=2.273V
V 3=8V
V1=10V
v +
-

- +
i
0.1111

Open Circuit Voltage Vth = 2.273V With all the sources in the network Current through Load Resistor 15 Ohms : I=0.1111A
Thevenin's Resistance = 5.4545Ohms
Current through Load Resistor 15 Ohms IL = 0.1111A I=IL

Hence Thevenin's Theorem is Verified.

9
NORTON’S THEOREM:

“Any two terminal network consisting of linear impedances and generators may be replaced at its two
terminals, by an equivalent network consisting of a single current source in parallel with an
impedance. The equivalent current source is the short circuit current measured at the terminals and the
equivalent impedance is same as the Thevenin‟s equivalent impedance”.

Procedure:

Step 1:

1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram by using MULTISIM/MATLAB

Simulink.

2. Measure the response „I‟ in the load resistor by considering all the sources in the network.

Step 2: Finding Norton’s Resistance(RN)

1. Open the load terminals and replace all the sources with their internal impedances.

2. Measure the impedance across the open circuited terminal which is known as Norton‟s
Resistance.

Step 3: Finding Norton’s Current(IN)

1. Short the load terminals and measure the current through the short circuited terminals.

2. Measured current is be known as Norton‟s Current.

Step 4: Norton’s Equivalent Circuit

1. RN and IN are connected in parallel to the load.

INRN
2. Measure the current through the load resistor IL = .
RN+RL

Current measured from Norton‟s Equivalent Circuit should be same as current obtained from the
actual circuit.

I = IL.

Hence Norton‟s Theorem is Verified.

Co ntinuo us NORTON'S THEOREM

powe rgui Step 1 : By Considering All Sources In The Network Step 2: Finding Norton's Resistance

R1=10 Ohms V2=15V R2=12 Ohms R3=1 Ohm R1=10 Ohms V2=0V R2=12 Ohms R3=1 Ohm

RL=15 Ohms

V1=10V
V3=8V
V1=0V Z V3=0V

- +
i
0.1111

Step 3 : Finding Norton's Current

Step 4 : Norton's Equivalent Network

R1=10 Ohms V2=15V R2=12 Ohms R3=1 Ohms

Rth=5.4545 Ohms RL=15 Ohms

Open circuited RL
PS-Simulink
- +

V3=8V Converter
i

V1=10V
0.4167
0.1111 S PS

+
Current Sensor
f(x)=0

-
I
Solver
Configuration

Electrical Reference
Norton's Current = 0.4167 A With all the sources in the network Current through Load Resistor 15 Ohms : 0.1111A
Norton's Resistance = 5.4545Ohms
Current through Load Resistor 15 Ohms = 0.1111A
Hence Norton's Theorem is Verified.
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM:

“In any circuit the maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance is equal to the
source resistance. The source resistance is equal to the Thevenin‟s equal resistance ”.

Procedure:

Step 1:

1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram by using Multisim/MATLAB Simulink.

2. Measure the Power across the load resistor by considering all the sources in the network.

Step 2: Finding Thevenin’s Resistance(RTH)

1. Open the load terminals and replace all the sources with their internal impedances.

2. Measure the impedance across the open circuited terminal which is known as Thevenin‟s
Resistance.

Step 3: Finding Thevenin’s Voltage(VTH)

1. Open the load terminals and measure the voltage across the open circuited terminals.

2. Measured voltage will be known as Thevenin‟s Voltage.

Step 4: Measuring Power for different Load Resistors

1. VTH and RTH are connected in series with the load.

2. Measure power across the load by considering RL=RTH.

V2
3. Measure power by using P = TH .
4RL

4. Verify the power for different values of load resistors(i.e. RL>RTH and RL<RTH)

Power measured from the above steps results in maximum power dissipation when RL=RTH.

Hence Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is verified.

Continuous MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

powergui Step 1 : By Considering All Sources In The Network

Step 2: Finding Thevenin's Resistance

R1=10 Ohms V2=15V R2=12 Ohms R3=1 Ohm R1=10 Ohms V2=0V R2=12 Ohms R3=1 Ohm

V3=8V
V1=10V RL=5.4545 Ohms Z V3=0V
V1=0V

Step 4 : Power in Load Resistors with RL=RTH, RL>RTH, RL<RTH

Step 3 : Finding Thevenin's Voltage

Rth=5.4545 Ohms Rth=5.4545 Ohms
Rth=5.4545 Ohms

R1=10 Ohms V2=15V R2=12 Ohms R3=1 Ohms

Vth=2.273V
Vth=2.273V Vth=2.273V
Open circuited RL RL=6 Ohms
V1=10V RL=5.4545 Ohm s RL=5 Ohms
V3=8V
+
v -

Power across Load when RL=6 Ohms

Open Circuit Voltage Vth = 2.273V Out1
Thevenin's Resistance = 5.4545Ohms Out2 Power across Load when RL=5 Ohms
Power acroos the load in the original circuit =0.2367 Watts Conn1
Power across Load circuit when RL=Rth=5.4545 is = 0.2368 Watts Out3 Power acroos load when RL=RTH
Power across Load when RL=5 Ohms is =0.2364 Watts
Out4
Power across Load when RL=6 Ohms is = 0.2367 Watts Power in Original Circuit
Power Measurements for different resistors
 M-File Program for Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

clc;
close all;
clear all;

v=input('Enter the Voltage in Volts :');

rth=input('Enter the value of Thevenins Resistance:');
rl=1:0.0001:12;
i=v./(rth+rl);
p=i.^2.*rl;
plot(rl,p);
grid;
title('Maximum Power');
xlabel('Load Resistance in Ohms------->');
ylabel('Power Dissipation in watts-------->');

Maximum Power
0.24

0.22
Power Dissipation in watts ------->

0.2

0.18

0.16

0.14

0.12
0 5 10 15 20 25
Load Resistance in Ohms ------ >

Results and Discussions: Super Position Theorem, Thevenin‟s Theorem, Norton‟s Theorem and
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem are verified by using MATLAB Simulink /MULTISIM.
 The various circuit components are identified and circuits are formed in simulation
environment.
 Use of network theorem in analysis can be demonstrated in this simulation exercise
 EXPERIMENT NO-6
Locating Poles and Zeros in s-plane & z-plane

AIM: Write the program for locating poles and zeros and plotting pole-zero maps in s-plane
and z-plane for the given transfer function.

Software Required: Matlab software

Theory:

Z-transforms
The Z-transform, like many other integral transforms, can be defined as either a one-sided or
two-sided transform.

Bilateral Z-transform

The bilateral or two-sided Z-transform of a discrete-time signal x[n] is the function X(z)
defined as

Unilateral Z-transform

Alternatively, in cases where x[n] is defined only for n ≥ 0, the single-sided or unilateral Z-
transform is defined as

In signal processing, this definition is used when the signal is causal.

The roots of the equation P(z) = 0 correspond to the 'zeros' of X(z)

The roots of the equation Q(z) = 0 correspond to the 'poles' of X(z)

Example:
Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
%enter the numerator and denamenator cofficients in square brackets
num=input('enter numerator co-efficients');

den=input('enter denominator co-efficients');

% find poles and zeros

poles=roots(den)
zeros=roots(num)

% find transfer function H(s)

h=tf(num,den);

% plot the pole-zero map in s-plane

sgrid;
pzmap(h);
grid on;
title('locating poles and zeros on s-plane');

%plot the pole zero map in z-plane

figure
zplane(poles,zeros);
grid on;
title('locating poler and zeros on z-plane');

Result: Pole-zero maps are plotted in s-plane and z-plane for the given transfer function.

Output:
enter numerator co-efficients[1 -1 4 3.5]

enter denominator co-efficients[2 3 -2.5 6]

poles =

-2.4874

0.4937 + 0.9810i

0.4937 - 0.9810i

zeros =

0.8402 + 2.1065i

0.8402 - 2.1065i

-0.6805