Chapter 1: Integration

Determining distance from velocity is one of many applications of integration. Integrals are used in a wide
variety of mechanical and physical applications. In this chapter, we first introduce the theory behind integration
and use integrals to calculate areas. From there, we develop the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, which helps
us understand the relationship between differentiation and integration. We then study some basic integration
techniques and briefly examine some applications.

Specifically, in this chapter, we will study…

1.1 Approximating Areas

Use sigma (summation) notation to calculate sums and powers of integers.
Use the sum of rectangular areas to approximate the area under a curve.
Use Riemann sums to approximate area.

1.2 The Definite Integral

State the definition of the definite integral.
Explain the terms integrand, limits of integration, and variable of integration.
Explain when a function is integrable.
Describe the relationship between the definite integral and net area.
Use geometry and the properties of definite integrals to evaluate them.
Calculate the average value of a function.

1.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Describe the meaning of the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals.
State the meaning of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1.
Use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1, to evaluate derivatives of integrals.
State the meaning of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2.
Use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2, to evaluate definite integrals.
Explain the relationship between differentiation and integration.

1.4 Integration Formulas and the Net Change Theorem

Apply the basic integration formulas.
Explain the significance of the net change theorem.
Use the net change theorem to solve applied problems.
Apply the integrals of odd and even functions.

1.5 Substitution
Use substitution to evaluate indefinite integrals.
Use substitution to evaluate definite integrals.

1
1.6 Integrals Involving Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Integrate functions involving exponential functions.
Integrate functions involving logarithmic functions.

1.7 Integrals Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Integrate functions resulting in inverse trigonometric functions

These notes are based on the OpenStax textbook titled ‘Calculus – Volume 2’ by Strang, Herman, and
Herman, Edwin “Jed”, et al. The course content is offered under CC Attribution license. Content in these
lecture notes are offered this same license.

2
1.1: Approximating Areas

How Far Did the Car Go?

Example 1: Suppose you’re out for a 1-hour car ride. You note your instantaneous speed every 10 minutes.

1 2 1 3 1 4 2 5
Time 𝑡 (hours) 0 6
=
6 3
=
6 2
=
6 3 6
1

Speed 𝑣(𝑡) (miles/hour) 0 25 39 52 62 60 45

a. Estimate the distance the car traveled in 3 different ways.

Method 1:

Method 2:

Method 3:

3
b. Geometrically, what do our three estimates represent?

4
Approximating Area

The example just completed shows us that finding the area under the
graph of a function is a useful and meaningful exercise.

For a continuous function 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) defined on [𝑎, 𝑏], how do we

find (or at least estimate) the area under its graph?

We can approximate the area by partitioning the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] into 𝑛

equal width subintervals with

𝑎 = 𝑥5 , 𝑥6 , 𝑥7 , … , 𝑥9 = 𝑏

and approximating the area over each subinterval [𝑥:;6 , 𝑥: ] using rectangles. In this calculation, we will refer to
=;>
the width of each subinterval as Δ𝑥 = 9
.

Let’s label these quantities on interval [𝑎, 𝑏] to better understand them.

𝑎 𝑏

In finding the area of a rectangle, the height we choose can be the function value at any point in the interval
[𝑥:;6 , 𝑥: ], but for now, let’s use the left endpoint, or the right endpoint.

5
6
Example 1: Consider the area 𝐴 under the graph of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 7 over [0, 1].

a) Estimate 𝐴 using 𝐿A . Sketch a graph showing 𝐿A .

b) Estimate 𝐴 using 𝑅A . Sketch a graph showing 𝑅A .

c) Check your answer using the calculator at https://www.geogebra.org/m/h4P4cjsT. Do they match?

d) Use the above calculator to fill out the table below.

𝑛 𝐿9 𝑅9
10

20

40

80

160

e) What patterns do you notice in the 𝐿9 and 𝑅9 values?

7
Example 2: Consider the area 𝐴 under the graph of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 C − 2𝑥 + 2 over [−1, 1].

a) Estimate 𝐴 using 𝐿F . Sketch a graph showing 𝐿F .

b) Estimate 𝐴 using 𝑅F . Sketch a graph showing 𝑅F .

8
Sigma (Summation) Notation

Since Riemann sums involve adding together many similar looking terms, the sigma notation allows for brevity
when expressing them.
9

𝑎6 + 𝑎7 + ⋯ + 𝑎9 = H 𝑎:
:I6

In this notation, 𝑖 is referred to as the index, and 𝑎: is referred to as the 𝒊-th term.

Note that it’s not necessary for the index to start at 1 or end at 𝑛. It may start and end at any integer.

Example 3: Evaluate the following.

a) Evaluate each of the following.

i. ∑A:I5 4

ii. ∑NOI7 𝑗

iii. ∑CQI;6 𝑘 7

b) Express each sum in part a) with index starting with 1.

9
10
Example 4: Evaluate the following sum.

H((2𝑖 )7 − 5𝑖 + 3)
:I6

Example 5: Express the following Riemann Sums using sigma notation, but do not evaluate.

a) 𝑅65 for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 4 − 𝑥 7 over [0, 2].

b) 𝐿75 for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = √2𝑥 − 1 over [1, 5].

11
1.2: The Definite Integral

Definition and Notation

Now, let’s formally define and give notation to the area under the graph of
a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) over closed, bounded interval [𝑎, 𝑏].

So, which functions are integrable from a practical perspective? We won’t prove it, but for our purposes, the
following functions will always be integrable on [𝑎, 𝑏]:

• Continuous functions
• Discontinuous functions with finite number of jump or removable discontinuities

Note that when infinities are involved with integrals – functions with an infinite discontinuity, or integrated
over an unbounded interval such as [𝑎, ∞) – we will need special definitions. These will come later.

6
Example 1: Evaluate ∫5 𝑥 7 𝑑𝑥 exactly using the definition of the definite integral.

12
 6
Example 2: Evaluate ∫;6 𝑥 C − 2𝑥 + 2 𝑑𝑥 exactly using the definition of the definite integral.

13
Area and the Definite Integral

Let’s explore the geometric interpretation of the definite integral.

A
Example 3: Evaluate ∫5 6 − 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 in two ways:

a) Using the limit definition.

b) Interpreting it geometrically.

Since the area above the horizontal axis counts as positive and the area below the horizontal axis counts as
negative, the definite integral geometrically represents the signed area or the net signed area.

14
Here are some important properties of the definite integral.

𝑑𝑥

15
Example 4: Use the geometric interpretation of the definite integral, the properties of the definite integral, and
any previous results to evaluate each of the following integrals.

7
a) ∫5 3 + √4 − 𝑥 7 𝑑𝑥

6
b) ∫;6 𝑥 C − 5𝑥 7 + 3 𝑑𝑥

;7
c) ∫7 |𝑥| 𝑑𝑥

C 2−𝑥 𝑥<1
d) ∫5 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 where 𝑓(𝑥) = Y
1 − [1 − (𝑥 − 2)7 1≤𝑥≤3

16
 7 7 6
Example 5: Consider ∫5 𝑥 7 𝑑𝑥 and ∫5 ]F 𝑥 7 + 3^ 𝑑𝑥.

a) How do the values of compare? Answer without evaluating. Explain.

b) Bound the second integral between two values.

Average Value of a Function

If you want to find the average value of a set of numbers – say the average of your quiz scores (out of 15), 12,
13.5, 11, 15, 14.5, 10, 14 – how do you find it? You add up the values and divide by the total number of values:

67 _ 6C.A _ 66 _ 6A _ 6F.A _ 65 _ 6F
Average quiz score = a
≈ 12.86

17
How would you find the average value of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) over interval [𝑎, 𝑏]? It turns out to involve the
definite integral!

How does this formula come about?

Example 6: Find the average value of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 C − 2𝑥 + 2 over the interval [−1, 1].

18
1.3: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

In this section, we finally establish the connection between integrals and derivatives – the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus! But before we state it, we need the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals, which is required
for its proof.

The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals

Quite simply, the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals states that for continuous functions, the average value of
the function over an interval will actually be achieved at a point within the interval.

0 𝑥<0
( )
Example 1: Consider the function 𝑓 𝑥 = d𝑥 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2.
2 𝑥>2

Find 𝑐 such that 𝑓(𝑐 ) = 𝑓ave over the interval [0, 3].

19
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 1: Integrals and Antiderivatives

What is this theorem saying? And why is it true?

20
The function 𝐹 is sometimes referred to as the area accumulation function or simply accumulation function,
and as you now know, is an antiderivative of 𝑓.

0 𝑥<0
( )
Example 2: Consider the function 𝑓 𝑥 = d𝑥 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2.
2 𝑥>2
k
a) Use the geometric interpretation of the definite integral to express 𝐹 (𝑥) = ∫5 𝑓 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 as a piecewise
defined function.

b) Check that 𝐹 l (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥).

21
Important observations

• The area accumulation function 𝐹 “smooths out” any sharp corners that 𝑓 has. This can be seen in the
last example.

• Though we haven’t seen in an example, the area accumulation function 𝐹 removes any jump and
removable discontinuities that the graph of 𝑓 may have.

Example 3: Evaluate the following derivatives.

m k
a) n∫5 √𝑡 + 𝑡 7 𝑑𝑡o
mk

m 6
b) p∫k sinF 𝑡 𝑑𝑡t
mk

m kw
c) p∫ cos(𝑡 7 ) 𝑑𝑡t
mk ;6

m 7| xyz {
d) p∫ 𝑑𝑡t
mk k {

22
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 2: The Evaluation Theorem

Why is this true?

Example 4: Evaluate the following definite integrals using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 2.

6
a) ∫;6 𝑥 C − 2𝑥 + 2 𝑑𝑥

23
 F 7 ; √{
b) ∫6 {
𝑑𝑡

•/F
c) ∫5 (2 + sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 ) 𝑑𝜃

6/7 6
d) ∫;6/7 ]𝑥 + √6 ; k •
^ 𝑑𝑥

24
 A
e) ∫5 (𝑣 + 1)(3𝑣 − 1) 𝑑𝑣

C
f) ∫;6 |4 − 𝑥 7 | 𝑑𝑥

25
1.4: Integration Formulas and the Net Change Theorem

The net change theorem considers the integral of a rate of change function.

=
The second expression, ∫> 𝐹′(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎), essentially says:

When you integrate the rate of change function over [𝑎, 𝑏], the answer is the net change in the function
over that interval.

The first expression can be simply derived from the second expression by adding 𝐹 (𝑎) to each side:
=
𝐹 (𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) = ƒ 𝐹′(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
>
=
𝐹 (𝑏) = 𝐹 (𝑎) + ƒ 𝐹′(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
>

This means, in order to find 𝐹(𝑏), you start with 𝐹(𝑎) and add the net change in 𝐹 from 𝑎 to 𝑏.

Example 1: An I.V. is inserted into the bloodstream of a patient and dispenses fluid at the rate of 𝑟(𝑡) ounces
6N5
per minute, where 𝑡 is the number of minutes since the I.V. is inserted. What does the quantity ∫5 𝑟(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
represent in practical terms?

26
 65
Example 2: Let 𝑎(𝑡) be the acceleration of an object, in m/sec 7 , after 𝑡 seconds. Suppose ∫A 𝑎(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = −10.
Interpret the meaning of that in the context of the problem.

Example 3: The population of a town begins at 100,000 and changes at the rate of 𝑟(𝑡) people per year. Find a
mathematical expression for the population of the town after 3 years.

Example 4: Write an integral that represents the change in the area 𝐴(𝑠) = 𝑠 7 of a square when the side length
doubles from 𝐵 units to 2𝐵 units. Evaluate the integral to ensure your answer is correct.

6
Example 5: The velocity of a moving object, in ft/sec, is given by 𝑣(𝑡) = 4 − 7 𝑡 over 𝑡 = 0 to 10 seconds.

a) Describe the motion of the object.

b) Find the total displacement of the object over 𝑡 = 0 to 10 seconds.

27
 c) Find the total distance traveled by the object over 𝑡 = 0 to 10 seconds.

Integrating Even and Odd Functions

Example 6: From the families of functions you learned about in precalculus, list several examples of even
functions, odd functions and functions that are neither even nor odd.

EVEN ODD NEITHER

28
Example 7: Suppose that 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are even functions, and ℎ(𝑥) and 𝑗(𝑥) are odd functions. What can
you say about whether the following functions are even, odd or neither?

a) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥)

b) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + ℎ(𝑥 )

c) 𝑓 (𝑥 )ℎ(𝑥 )

d) ℎ(𝑥)𝑗(𝑥)

e) ℎ(𝑗(𝑥 ))

On your own, figure out whether the following functions are even, odd or neither.

ℎ(𝑥) + 𝑗(𝑥), 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥), 𝑔(𝑥)/ℎ(𝑥), 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 )), 𝑔‹ℎ(𝑥 )Œ, ℎ(𝑔(𝑥))

29
Example 8: Use the properties of even and odd functions to evaluate the following integrals.

•/7
a) ∫;•/7 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

•/C
b) ∫;•/C tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

•/C
c) ∫;•/C sin(𝑥 C ) 𝑑𝑥

C xyz• k
d) ∫;C ]𝑥 7 + √6_k • ^ 𝑑𝑥

30
1.5: Substitution

Recall from Math 1A the notation that we used for the antiderivative of a function. Based on the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus, we extend the definite integral notation to express the general antiderivative of a function.
We call this the indefinite integral. For example,

kw
∫ 𝑥 7 𝑑𝑥 = C
+ 𝐶, ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶, etc.

Generally speaking, finding antiderivatives of functions is much more difficult than taking the derivative. There
are many techniques that we will develop to integrate functions. In this section, we begin with the first of these
techniques, called substitution. Let’s begin with an example.

Example 1: Find ∫ 2𝑥 cos(𝑥 7 ) 𝑑𝑥.

Example 2: Evaluate each of the following indefinite integrals.

a) ∫ 𝑡 7 (5 − 𝑡 C )• 𝑑𝑡

31
 w
b) ∫ √3 + 5𝑥 𝑑𝑥

c) ∫ sin 𝑡 √1 + cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

xyz √k
d) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√k

e) ∫ 𝑥√𝑥 + 2 𝑑𝑥

32
 6_k
f) ∫ 6 _ k • 𝑑𝑥

g) ∫ sin 2𝑥 (1 + cos7 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Substitution for Definite Integrals

33
Example 3: Evaluate each of the following definite integrals.

7 k•
a) ∫5 (k w _ N)•
𝑑𝑥

7 [6 _ 6/k
b) ∫6 k•
𝑑𝑥

•/F
c) ∫5 sec 7 𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

34
1.6: Integrals Involving Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

In this section, we focus on integrals involving exponential and logarithmic functions.

Example 1: Evaluate the following integrals.

a) ∫ 𝑒 Fk 𝑑𝑥

b) ∫ 𝑒 k/A 𝑑𝑥

6 C 7
c) ∫5 𝑒 k ]‘ | − 2^ 𝑑𝑥

35
 1
ƒ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑥| + 𝐶
𝑥

Let’s check that the formula is correct using differentiation.

Example 2: Evaluate each of the following integrals.

6
a) ∫ Ck_7 𝑑𝑥

b) ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

36
 “z(xyz k)
c) ∫ ”•z k
𝑑𝑥

‘ (“z k)•
d) ∫6 k
𝑑𝑥

6 C–
e) ∫5 C– _6
𝑑𝑡

37
1.7: Integrals Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions

In this section, we focus on integrals yielding inverse trigonometric functions. Though the book doesn’t, we will
also include inverse hyperbolic functions.

Using differentiation, let’s check that the first two formulas are correct.

38
Example 1: Evaluate the following integrals.

mk
a) ∫ √—
; Fk •

7 6
b) ∫5 F _ k•
𝑑𝑥

7 mk
c) ∫√7 |k|√k • ; 6

xyz˜™ k
d) ∫ √6 • 𝑑𝑥
;k

39
 m{
e) ∫
{√6 ; “z• {

6/7 š›x(•œš”•z {)
f) ∫5 6 _ {•
𝑑𝑡

Integrals Resulting in Inverse Hyperbolic Functions (Optional)

Our book doesn’t cover these, but sometimes remembering the derivatives of inverse hyperbolic functions as
well as their formulas using the natural log can help with integration.

Let’s first review those formulas from Math 1A

sinh;6 𝑥 = ln ]𝑥 + [𝑥 7 + 1 ^ 𝑑 1
(sinh;6 𝑥 ) =
𝑑𝑥 √1 + 𝑥 7

cosh;6 𝑥 = ln ]𝑥 + [𝑥 7 − 1 ^ ; 𝑥 ≥ 1 𝑑 1
(cosh;6 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 7 − 1
1 1+𝑥
tanh;6 𝑥 = ln ¡ ; |𝑥| < 1
2 1−𝑥 𝑑 1
(tanh;6 𝑥 ) =
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑥7

40
Using these, we can establish the following antiderivative formulas.

m¢ ¢
• ∫ √>• _¢• = sinh;6 ]> ^ + 𝐶6 = ln‹𝑢 + √𝑢7 + 𝑎7 Œ + 𝐶

m¢ ¢
• ∫ √¢•;>• = cosh;6 ]> ^ + 𝐶6 = ln‹𝑢 + √𝑢7 − 𝑎7 Œ + 𝐶; if 𝑢 ≥ 𝑎

m¢
(It actually turns out that ∫ √¢• = ln¤𝑢 + √𝑢7 − 𝑎7 ¤ + 𝐶, which makes the formula work for all |𝑢| ≥ |𝑎|.)
;> •

m¢ 6 ¢ 6 >_¢
• ∫ >•;¢• = > tanh;6 ]> ^ + 𝐶6 = 7> ln ]>;¢ ^ + 𝐶; if |𝑢| < |𝑎|

m¢ 6 ¢_>
(It actually turns out that ∫ >•;¢• = 7> ln ¥¢;>¥ + 𝐶, which makes the formula work for all |𝑢| ≠ |𝑎|.)

Example 2: Evaluate the following integrals.

mk
a) ∫ √k •
;F

mk
b) ∫ √6
_ —k •

mk
c) ∫ k • _ 7k

41
42
Chapter 2: Applications of Integration

From geometric applications such as surface area and volume, to physical applications such as mass and work,
to growth and decay models, definite integrals are a powerful tool to help us understand and model the world
around us.

Specifically, in this chapter, we will study…

2.1 Areas between Curves

Determine the area of a region between two curves by integrating with respect to the independent
variable.
Find the area of a compound region.
Determine the area of a region between two curves by integrating with respect to the dependent
variable.

2.2 Determining Volumes by Slicing

Determine the volume of a solid by integrating a cross-section (the slicing method).
Find the volume of a solid of revolution using the disk method.
Find the volume of a solid of revolution with a cavity using the washer method.

2.3 Volumes of Revolution: Cylindrical Shells

Calculate the volume of a solid of revolution by using the method of cylindrical shells.
Compare the different methods for calculating a volume of revolution.

2.4 Arc Length of a Curve and Surface Area

Determine the length of a curve, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), between two points.
Determine the length of a curve, 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦), between two points.
Determine the length of a curve for parametric curves.
Find the surface area of a solid of revolution.

2.5 Physical Applications

Determine the mass of a one-dimensional object from its linear density function.
Determine the mass of a two-dimensional circular object from its radial density function.
Calculate the work done by a variable force acting along a line.
Calculate the work done in pumping a liquid from one height to another.
Find the hydrostatic force against a submerged vertical plate.

2.6 Moments and Centers of Mass

Find the center of mass of objects distributed along a line.
Locate the center of mass of a thin plate.
Use symmetry to help locate the centroid of a thin plate.
Apply the theorem of Pappus for volume.

43
2.7 Integrals, Exponential Functions, and Logarithms

2.8 Exponential Growth and Decay

These notes are based on the OpenStax textbook titled ‘Calculus – Volume 2’ by Strang, Herman, and
Herman, Edwin “Jed”, et al. The course content is offered under CC Attribution license. Content in these
lecture notes are offered this same license.

44
2.1: Areas between Curves

Area of a Region between Two Curves

Consider functions 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) with 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) over [𝑎, 𝑏].
What is the area of the region bounded by the graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑔 over [𝑎, 𝑏]?

6 6
Example 1: Sketch the region bounded by the curves 𝑦 = k , 𝑦 = k • , 𝑥 = 2, and find the area of the region.

45
Areas of Compound Regions

Example 2: Let 𝑅 be the region between the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑥 7 , 𝑦 = 2k over [0,3]. Find the area of 𝑅.

6
Example 3: Let 𝑅 be the region bounded by 𝑦 = w√𝑥 , 𝑦 = 4 − F 𝑥 and the 𝑥-axis. Find the area of 𝑅.

46
Example 4: Reconsider the region 𝑅 given in the previous example. Find the area of the region, but by
integrating in 𝑦 instead.

47
2.2: Determining Volumes by Slicing

Not just area, but the definite integral can be used to find the volume of certain three-dimensional solids’
volume. After studying this section, you will have the tools to derive the formulas of volumes you know from
F
geometry – for example, the volume of a sphere with radius 𝑟 is 𝑉 = C 𝜋𝑟 C .

Volume and the Slicing Method

6
Example 1: Show that the volume of a cone with base radius 𝑅 and height ℎ and height ℎ is 𝑉 = C 𝜋𝑅7 ℎ.

Example 2: Imagine a solid 𝑆 with a circular base of radius 𝑅, whose cross-sections perpendicular the base and
parallel to each other are squares. Find the volume of 𝑆.

48
Solids of Revolution

Next we look at problems involving finding the volume of a solid of revolutions. This involves taking a region
in the 𝑥𝑦-plane and revolving it about an axis. In this class, our axes of revolution will be horizontal or vertical
lines.

A region in the 𝑥𝑦-plane Revolved about the 𝑥-axis Producing a solid of revolution

Example 3: Consider the region 𝑅 in Quadrant I bounded by the graphs of 𝑦 = 2 − √𝑥, the 𝑥-axis, and the 𝑦-
axis.

a) Sketch the region 𝑅.

49
 b) Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving 𝑅 about the 𝑥-axis.

c) Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving 𝑅 about the 𝑦-axis.

The method used in the previous example is often referred to as the Disk Method since the “slices” are shaped
like disks.

Sometimes, when finding volumes of solids of revolution, the “slices” are shaped like washers (a smaller disk
removed from a larger disk). Finding the volume of a solid by adding up volumes of washers is referred to as
the Washer Method.
50
 6
Example 4: Consider the region 𝑅 in Quadrant I bounded by the graphs of 𝑦 = k, 𝑦 = 𝑥, and the line 𝑥 = 4.

a) Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving 𝑅 about the 𝑥-axis.

b) Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving 𝑅 about the 𝑦-axis. (Set up the integral only.)

51
c) Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving 𝑅 about the line 𝑦 = 4. (Set up only.)

d) Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving 𝑅 about the line 𝑥 = 4. (Set up only.)

e) Find the volume of the solid whose base is 𝑅 and cross sections parallel to the 𝑦-axis are semi-circles.
(Set up only.)

52
Example 5: Find the volume of the bead-shaped solid obtained by drilling a cylinder of radius 2 from a solid
sphere of radius 5.

53
2.3: Volumes of Revolution: Cylindrical Shells

Example 1: Consider region 𝑅 bounded by the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 5)7 and the 𝑥-axis. Find the volume of the
solid obtained by revolving 𝑅 about the 𝑦-axis.

The Method of Cylindrical Shells

54
 6
Example 2: Show that the volume of a cone with base radius 𝑅 and height ℎ is 𝑉 = C 𝜋𝑅7 ℎ, using cylindrical
shells.

Example 3: Consider the region 𝑅 bounded by the graphs of 𝑦 7 − 𝑥 7 = 1 and the line 𝑦 = 2.

a) Sketch 𝑅.

55
 b) Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving 𝑅 about the line 𝑥 = 2 in two ways:

i. Using washers. (Set up the integral only.)

ii. Using cylindrical shells. (Set up the integral only.)

Example 4: Consider the region 𝑅 bounded by the graphs of 𝑦 = √𝑥, the line 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥 and the 𝑦-axis.

a) Sketch 𝑅.

56
 b) Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving 𝑅 about the line 𝑦 = −1 in two ways:

i. Using washers. (Set up the integral only.)

ii. Using cylindrical shells. (Set up the integral only.)

Example 5: Find the volume of the bead-shaped solid obtained by drilling a cylinder of radius 2 from a solid
sphere of radius 5 using cylindrical shells.

57
2.4: Arc Length of a Curve and Surface Area

Arc Length

In this section, we use definite integrals to find the arc length of a curve. We can think of arc length as the
distance you would travel if you were walking along the path of the curve. Many real-world applications
involve arc length. If a rocket is launched along a parabolic path, we might want to know how far the rocket
travels. Or, if a curve on a map represents a road, we might want to know how far we have to drive to reach our
destination.

Consider function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) defined over [𝑎, 𝑏]. So how do we go about finding the length of the graph?

Important note about 𝒇: Notice in the second picture that the hypotenuse is a straight line. To make the
assumption that the graph of 𝑓 approaches a straight line as you “zoom in” close – that is, as Δ𝑥 → 0 – we need
the assumption that the function is at least differentiable!

58
If we are given 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦) defined over [𝑐, 𝑑], we can find the arclength using similar logic.

6 6
Example 1: Find the exact length of the curve given by 𝑦 = F 𝑥 7 − 7 ln 𝑥 over 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2.

59
 6
Example 2: Find the exact length of the curve given by 𝑥 = C [𝑦(𝑦 − 3) over 1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 9.

Area of Surface of Revolution

Next, we use definite integrals to find the area of a surface of revolution. Surface area is the total area of the
outer layer of an object.

In the last image, notice that we essentially need to find the surface area of each frustum of a cone and add them
up to find the total surface area.

Using geometry, we can derive that the surface area of the frustum of the
cone is

-™ _-•
𝑆 = 2𝜋 ] 7
^𝑙
= 2𝜋𝑟̅ 𝑙 where 𝑟̅ is the average of 𝑟6 and 𝑟7

You can see the full derivation of this formula in our textbook.

60
Example 3: Find the exact area of the surface obtained by rotating the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 C over 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 about the
𝑥-axis.

61
Example 4: Find the exact area of the surface obtained by rotating the curve 𝑥 = [9 − 𝑦 7 over 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2
about the 𝑦-axis.

In general, it’s NOT necessary that you must integrate in 𝑥 if revolving about the 𝑥-axis, or that you must
integrate in 𝑦 if revolving about the 𝑦-axis.

In fact, it’s good to think of the surface area integrals symbolically as:

𝑆 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑦 𝑑𝑠 if revolving the given curve about the 𝑥-axis

𝑆 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑠 if revolving the given curve about the 𝑦-axis

These are symbolic representations of the integrals. The actual integrals you do will be definite integrals, so put
appropriate 𝑥 limits of 𝑦 limits depending on the variable of integration.

62
Example 5: Set up and evaluate an integral that represent the area of the surface generated by revolving the
curve 𝑦 = √1 + 𝑥, 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3, about the 𝑥-axis…

a) By integrating with respect to 𝑥.

b) By integrating with respect to 𝑦.

c) Was one integral easier to evaluate than the other?

63
2.5: Physical Applications

Integration has many applications in mechanical physics. This section looks at three applications:

• Mass and density

• Work
• Hydrostatic force and pressure

We will focus only on work.

Work Done by a Force

Work, a concept from physics, is a measure of the amount of effort it takes to move an object.

You may recall from physics that

work = force × displacement

Typically, since force and displacement are both vectors, the above is a cross product. For our applications,
however, motion will be in one dimension, so we will work with them like real numbers.

In this section, we will deal with two types of forces:

• Force applied in stretching or compressing a spring:

Suppose a spring is in a horizontal position and attached
to a wall. Then, the force required to displace the other
end of the spring by 𝑥 is given by the formula 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝑘𝑥,
where 𝑘 is a constant (fixed for a given spring, known as
spring constant). This formula is known as Hooke’s Law.

• Force due to gravity: Force due to gravity is simply

weight.

o Imperial units: Units of weight are pounds (lb).

So, the units of force in these units are lbs, and the units of work are ft-lbs.

o Scientific units: 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔, where 𝑚 is the mass (typically, in kg) and 𝑔 is the acceleration due to
kg∙m
gravity, which is 9.8 m/sec 2 . So, the units of force in these units are sec 2 = 𝑁, which are
Newtons, and units of work are N∙m = J, which are Joules.
64
Example 1: We have a 5-lb book.

a) Find the work done in lifting the book 3 feet.

b) Find the work done in lowering the book 3 feet.

Example 2: Find the work done in lifting a 3-kg book 1 meter up.

Example 3: A spring has a natural length of 10 cm. It takes 2 J to stretch the spring to 15 cm. How much work
would it take to stretch the spring from 15 cm to 20 cm?

65
Example 4: A heavy cable, 50 feet long, weights 3 lbs/ft, and hangs over the edge of a building that’s 120 feet
high.

a) How much work is required to pull the cable up to the top of the building?

b) Now suppose that a large 200-lb container is attached to the bottom of the cable. It contains liquid,
which is leaking out at the rate of 0.1 lb/sec. If the cable and container are being pulled up at the rate of
0.5 ft/sec, how much additional work is required to pull up the container?

66
Work Done in Pumping

Example 5: A tank of water is shaped like a triangular cylinder. The top of the tank is shaped like a rectangle
and has dimensions 4 m × 10 m. Cross-sections of the tank perpendicular to the ground and the length of the
tank are equilateral triangles. Suppose there is a spout 1 meter above the tank from which water can drain out.
Suppose the tank is full. How much work is required to empty the trunk from the spout? We will need the fact
that water weighs 62.4 lbs/ft 3 .

Example 6: Reconsider part a) of Example 4: A heavy cable, 50 feet long, weights 3 lbs/ft, and hangs over the
edge of a building that’s 120 feet high. How much work is required to pull the cable up to the top of the
building?

Express the integral for the required work using the “slicing” approach we used in the previous example.

67
2.6: Moments and Center of Mass

In this section, we consider centers of mass (also called centroids, under certain conditions) and moments. The
basic idea of the center of mass is the notion of a balancing point. You may have seen performers who spin
plates on the ends of sticks. The performers try to keep several of them spinning without allowing any of them
to drop. If we look at a single plate (without spinning it), there is a sweet spot on the plate where it balances
perfectly on the stick. Mathematically, that sweet spot is called the center of mass of the plate.

Let’s begin thinking about a childhood experience: playing on a seesaw (or a teeter-totter). Imagine two
children – one heavier than the other – trying to ride a seesaw. If they sit the same distance from the fulcrum,
they cannot ride very well, but if the heavier child sits closer to fulcrum, both sides can go up and down. The
position of the fulcrum is at the center of the mass of the system, the two sides are “balanced”, allowing the
seesaw ride to be enjoyable.

So what makes the seesaw balance nicely is when

𝑚6 𝑑6 = 𝑚7 𝑑7

If we call the position of the first mass 𝑥6 , the position of the second mass 𝑥7 , and the position of the fulcrum 𝑥̅ ,

then
𝑚6 (𝑥̅ − 𝑥6 ) = 𝑚7 (𝑥7 − 𝑥̅ )

Solving for 𝑥̅ gets us that

𝑚6 𝑥6 + 𝑚7 𝑥7
𝑥̅ =
𝑚6 + 𝑚7

68
This idea generalizes to if we have more than just two masses (say more than two children riding the seesaw).
In fact, if we have masses 𝑚6 , 𝑚7 , … , 𝑚9 positioned at 𝑥6 , 𝑥7 , … , 𝑥9 respectively, then the center of mass (the
position of the fulcrum so the system balances) is given by

𝑚6 𝑥6 + 𝑚7 𝑥7 + ⋯ + 𝑚9 𝑥9 ∑9:I6 𝑚: 𝑥:
𝑥̅ = = 9
𝑚6 + 𝑚7 + ⋯ _𝑚9 ∑:I6 𝑚:

Here, the expression in the numerator is known as the first moment of the system with respect to the origin.
Notice that the denominator is simply the total mass of the system.

Example 1: Consider three masses, 20 kg, 40 kg and 25 kg, position at 1m, 4m, 6m, respectively. Find the
center of mass of the system.

69
The idea of finding the center of mass extends easily to two dimensions. If we position masses 𝑚6 , 𝑚7 , … , 𝑚9 at
positions (𝑥6 , 𝑦6 ), (𝑥7 , 𝑦7 ), … , (𝑥9 , 𝑦9 ) respectively, then they balance at (𝑥̅ , 𝑦¾) with

𝑚6 𝑥6 + 𝑚7 𝑥7 + ⋯ + 𝑚9 𝑥9 𝑚6 𝑦6 + 𝑚7 𝑦7 + ⋯ + 𝑚9 𝑦9
𝑥̅ = and 𝑦¾ =
𝑚6 + 𝑚7 + ⋯ _𝑚9 𝑚6 + 𝑚7 + ⋯ _𝑚9

Example 2: Consider three masses, 2 kg, 5 kg and 7 kg, position at (−1,4), (2,1), and (1, −1), respectively.
Find the center of mass of the system.

70
Center of Mass of Thin Plates

So far, we have done no calculus, but now, to find the “sweet spot” where a plate (not
just a round one) will balance, can be found using our current understanding of center
of mass.

Consider a thin plate with uniform mass density, 𝜌. What is the center of mass of such
a plate? That is, what is the location (𝑥̅ , 𝑦¾) where this plate would balance?

To determine 𝑥̅ and 𝑦¾, we will use the following approach:

• Divide up the plate into 𝑛 thin rectangles

• Find (𝑥:∗ , 𝑦:∗ )for each plate
• Rethink of the mass system as 𝑛 point masses positioned at
(𝑥6∗ , 𝑦6∗ ), (𝑥7∗ , 𝑦7∗ ), … , (𝑥9∗ , 𝑦9∗ )
• Find the center of mass, (𝑥̅ , 𝑦¾) of the system in the previous bullet.

71
The geometric center of a region is known as its centroid. For a lamina with constant density, the case we have
examined, the centroid is simply the center of mass.

Example 3: Consider the region 𝑅 bounded by the graphs of 𝑦 = √𝑥, 𝑦 = 6 − 𝑥, and the 𝑦-axis. Find the
centroid of 𝑅.

72
Theorem of Pappus

For the proof of this theorem, please see our textbook.

Example 4: Let 𝑅 be the circle given by (𝑥 − 3)7 + 𝑦 7 = 4. Use the Theorem of Pappus to find the volume of
the torus generated by revolving 𝑅 about the 𝑦-axis.

73
74
Chapter 3: Techniques of Integration

From geometric applications such as surface area and volume, to physical applications such as mass and work,
to growth and decay models, definite integrals are a powerful tool to help us understand and model the world
around us.

Specifically, in this chapter, we will study…

3.1 Integration by Parts

Recognize when to use integration by parts.
Use the integration-by-parts formula to solve integration problems.
Use the integration-by-parts formula for definite integrals.

3.2 Trigonometric Integrals

Solve integration problems involving products and powers of sin𝑥 and cos𝑥.
Solve integration problems involving products and powers of tan𝑥 and sec𝑥.
Use reduction formulas to solve trigonometric integrals.

3.3 Trigonometric Substitution

Solve integration problems involving the square root of a sum or difference of two squares.

3.4 Partial Fractions

Integrate a rational function using the method of partial fractions.
Recognize simple linear factors in a rational function.
Recognize repeated linear factors in a rational function.
Recognize quadratic factors in a rational function.

3.5 Other Strategies for Integration

3.6 Numerical Integration

Approximate the value of a definite integral by using the midpoint and trapezoidal rules.
Determine the absolute and relative error in using a numerical integration technique.
Estimate the absolute and relative error using an error-bound formula.
Recognize when the midpoint and trapezoidal rules over- or underestimate the true value of an
integral.
Use Simpson’s rule to approximate the value of a definite integral to a given accuracy.

3.7 Improper Integrals

Evaluate an integral over an infinite interval.
Evaluate an integral over a closed interval with an infinite discontinuity within the interval.
Use the comparison theorem to determine whether a definite integral is convergent.

These notes are based on the OpenStax textbook titled ‘Calculus – Volume 2’ by Strang, Herman, and
Herman, Edwin “Jed”, et al. The course content is offered under CC Attribution license. Content in these
lecture notes are offered this same license.
75
3.1: Integration by Parts

The way the Substitution method is inspired by the Chain Rule, Integration by Parts is inspired by the Product
Rule.

Why is this true?

Example 1: Evaluate ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

76
Example 2: Evaluate ∫ 𝑥 7 𝑒 k 𝑑𝑥.

Example 3: Evaluate ∫(𝑥 C − 5𝑥 7 + 2𝑥 + 1) sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Example 4: Evaluate ∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

77
Example 5: Evaluate ∫ 𝑥 arctan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Example 6: Evaluate ∫ 𝑒 k sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

6
Example 7: Evaluate ∫5 arcsin(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥.

78
 F
Example 8: Evaluate ∫6 𝑒 √k 𝑑𝑥.

Example 9: Evaluate ∫ cos(ln 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥.

79
3.2: Trigonometric Integrals

In this section, we focus on evaluating integrals of trigonometric function, their powers and combinations.

Integrals involving Sine and Cosine

We already know that

∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶 and ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶

What about other combinations?

Example 1: Evaluate ∫ sin7 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Power Reducing Identities

1 − cos(2𝑥)
sin7 𝑥 =
2
7
1 + cos(2𝑥)
cos 𝑥 =
2

Example 2: Evaluate ∫ cosC 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

80
Example 3: Evaluate ∫ sinC 𝑥 cos F 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Here are some other identities (you may have skipped them in your trig class) that are occasionally useful.

81
Example 4: Evaluate ∫ sin(2𝑥 ) cos(7𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.

Integrals involving Tangent and Secant

Example 5: Evaluate ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Example 6: Evaluate ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Next, let’s review the basic facts relating secant and tangent.

1 + tan7 𝑥 = sec 7 𝑥
sec 7 𝑥 − 1 = tan7 𝑥
m
mk
(tan 𝑥 ) = sec 7 𝑥
m
(sec 𝑥 ) = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
mk

82
Example 7: Evaluate ∫ tan7 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Example 8: Evaluate ∫ tanC 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Example 9: Evaluate ∫ sec C 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

83
Example 10: Evaluate ∫ tan7 𝑥 sec F 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Example 11: Evaluate ∫ tanC 𝑥 sec C 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

84
Integrals involving Cotangent and Cosecant

The strategy for doing integrals involving cotangent and cosecant is very similar to those involving the tangent
and secant functions, so we won’t do additional examples.

However, here is a summary of the relevant identities and formulas you will need.

1 + cot 7 𝑥 = csc 7 𝑥
csc 7 𝑥 − 1 = cot 7 𝑥
m
mk
(cot 𝑥 ) = − csc 7 𝑥
m
(csc 𝑥 ) = − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥
mk

Finally, note that we have certainly not looked at all possible combinations or integrals of trigonometric
functions. However, this section provides you with the basic tools of dealing with trigonometric integrals.

85
3.3: Trigonometric Substitution

In this section, we focus on special types of substitutions: Trigonometric Substitutions.

Appropriate
Angle Transformed
Expression Trigonometric Substitution
Restriction Expression
Identity

[𝑎7 − 𝑥 7 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 [𝑎7 − 𝑥 7

𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 •
−7 ≤𝜃 ≤
• = [𝑎7 − 𝑎7 sin7 𝜃
1 − sin7 𝜃 = cos7 𝜃 7
𝑎>0 = 𝑎[1 − sin7 𝜃
;6
constant 𝜃 = sin 𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃

[𝑎7 + 𝑥 7 𝑥 = 𝑎 tan 𝜃 [𝑎7 + 𝑥 7

𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 sec 7 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 •
−7 <𝜃 <
• = [𝑎7 + 𝑎7 tan7 𝜃
1 + tan7 𝜃 = sec 7 𝜃 7
𝑎>0 = 𝑎[1 + tan7 𝜃
;6
constant 𝜃 = tan 𝑥 = 𝑎 sec 𝜃

[𝑥 7 − 𝑎7 𝑥 = 𝑎 sec 𝜃 • [𝑥 7 − 𝑎7
0 ≤ 𝜃 < 7,
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = [𝑎7 sec 7 𝜃 − 𝑎7
sec 7 𝜃 − 1 = tan7 𝜃
𝑎>0 𝜋≤𝜃<
C•
= 𝑎[tan7 𝜃
;6
constant 𝜃 = sec 𝑥 7
= 𝑎 tan 𝜃

Example 1: Evaluate ∫ √4 − 𝑥 7 𝑑𝑥, and check your answer.

86
 6
Example 2: Evaluate ∫ (k •;—)w/• 𝑑𝑥.

87
 F 6
Example 3: Evaluate ∫5 √6• _ { •
𝑑𝑡 in two ways:

a) Using a trigonometric substitution.

b) Using a hyperbolic substitution.

88
 k•
Example 4: Evaluate ∫ √7k;k • 𝑑𝑥.

89
3.4: Partial Fractions

In this section, we explore taking antiderivatives of rational functions.

k;•
Example 1: Evaluate ∫ k • _ k ; • 𝑑𝑥.

90
 𝑷(𝒙)
Partial Fraction Decomposition of :
𝑸(𝒙)

k• _ k _ 6
Example 2: Evaluate ∫ (k_6)• (k_7) 𝑑𝑥.

91
 k Å _ Ck •_ k ; 7F
Example 3: Evaluate ∫ k• _ —
𝑑𝑥.

92
 6
Example 4: Evaluate ∫ k w _ N 𝑑𝑥.

93
3.5: Other Strategies for Integration

In this section, our book primarily explores using tables of integral or using technology to evaluate integrals.
We will focus on using tables, and looking at some examples to develop skill around how to approach an
integral in which the technique to use is not obvious.

Example 1: Evaluate the following integrals using Tables of Integrals (Appendix A in our textbook).

∫ 𝑥√𝑥 F − 9 𝑑𝑥

Example 2: Evaluate the following integrals without the use of integral tables.
6
a) ∫ k ™/• _ k ™/w 𝑑𝑥

94
 6
b) ∫ 6 _ 7‘ | ; ‘ ˜| 𝑑𝑥

6
c) ∫5 𝑥[2 − √1 − 𝑥 7 𝑑𝑥

95
3.6: Numerical Integration

It turns out that many functions do not have antiderivatives that can be expressed in closed form. For example,

‘|
∫ k
𝑑𝑥 ∫ sin(𝑥 7 ) 𝑑𝑥 ∫ √1 + 𝑥 C 𝑑𝑥

are each an example of a function whose antiderivative cannot be found in closed form.

Yet, integrals remain essential in many applications. Hence, we now return to numerical techniques of
integration.

We have already seen 𝐿9 and 𝑅9 , the Riemann sums using the left end point and the right end point,
respectively as heights of rectangles used to estimate the value of a definite integral.

In this section, we will explore three other techniques –Midpoint Rule, Trapezoidal Rule, and Simpson’s Rule –
and the respective errors they make in estimating the value of a definite integral.

The Midpoint Rule

C ‘|
Example 1: Estimate ∫6 k
𝑑𝑥 using 𝑀F .

96
The Trapezoidal Rule

Why? Where does this formula come from?

ÈÉ _ ÊÉ
NOTE: The trapezoid sum, 𝑇9 , is the average of the left and right sums, 𝐿9 and 𝑅9 . That is, 𝑇9 = 7
.

C ‘|
Example 2: Estimate ∫6 k
𝑑𝑥 using 𝑇F .

97
Simpson’s Rule

Instead of finding the area under the graph of a line segment, as done with 𝐿9 , 𝑅9 , 𝑀9 , 𝑇9 , Simpson’s Rule uses
parabolas that best fit the graph of a function and use them to estimate the area under the graph of a function.

Where does this formula come from?

98
 C ‘|
Example 3: Estimate ∫6 k
𝑑𝑥 using 𝑆F .

Errors in Estimation
When estimating quantities, it’s very important to understand the approximate possible error we may have made
for the estimate to be useful and reliable. Let’s observe the patterns in the errors made by various techniques.
A
Let 𝐼 = ∫6 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥. This is an integral that we can evaluate easily using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus,
Part 2.

Using Integration by Parts with 𝑢 = ln 𝑥 and 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥, we get that

A
∫6 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 )|6A
= (5 ln 5 − 5) − (1 ln 1 − 1)
= 5 ln 5 − 4
≈ 4.04718956217

99
Now, let’s estimate the value of the integral using the various approximation techniques we have with different
values of 𝑛.

𝑛 𝐿9 𝑅9 𝑀9 𝑇9 𝑆9
10 3.714703 4.358478 4.052464 4.036591 4.046953
20 3.883583 4.205471 4.048519 4.044527 4.047173
40 3.966051 4.126995 4.047523 4.046523 4.047188
80 4.006787 4.087259 4.047273 4.047023 4.047189
160 4.027030 4.067266 4.047210 4.047148 4.04719

The errors in our estimates above are given in the table below. We will define error as:

Error = Actual Value – Estimated Value

𝑛 𝐸È 𝐸Ê 𝐸Í 𝐸Î 𝐸Ï
10 0.332487 -0.311288 -0.005274 0.010599 0.000237
20 0.163607 -0.158281 -0.001329 0.002663 0.000017
40 0.081139 -0.079805 -0.000333 0.000667 0.000002
80 0.040403 -0.040069 -0.000083 0.000167 0.000001
160 0.020160 -0.020076 -0.000020 0.000042 0.000000

What observations can you make about the patterns in the estimates and the corresponding errors?

100
 =
The following formulas give us bounds on the maximum possible absolute error made in estimating ∫> 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
using the various rules: 𝑀9 , 𝑇9 , 𝑆9 .

The absolute error refers to the absolute value in the error: |Error| = |Actual Value – Estimated Value|

C ‘|
Example 4: Suppose we are interested in estimating 𝐼 = ∫6 𝑑𝑥.
k

a) Find the maximum error made in estimating 𝐼 using 𝑇65 .

101
b) What minimum value of 𝑛 would be required to ensure that 𝑀9 estimates 𝐼 within 0.0001 of the actual
value?

c) What minimum value of 𝑛 that would be required to ensure that 𝑆9 estimates 𝐼 within 0.0001 of the
actual value?

102
3.7: Improper Integrals

Is the area between the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 1/𝑥 and the 𝑥-axis over the interval [1, ∞) finite or infinite? If this
same region is revolved about the 𝑥 -axis, creating an infinite “horn”, is the volume finite or infinite? What
about the surface area of that horn?

Image credit: onlyphysics.org

Surprisingly, the area of the region described is infinite, but the volume of the solid obtained by revolving this
region about the 𝑥 -axis is finite! And yet, the surface area of the horn is again infinite!

Determining these answers requires extending the definition of the definite integrals to be able to evaluate a
definite integral over an unbounded interval. We will also explore integrating over bounded intervals across
vertical asymptotes. Such integrals are called improper integrals.

Before we see the full definition, let’s look at an example.

Ð 6 { 6
Example 1: Find ∫6 k
𝑑𝑥. Do this by first evaluating ∫6 k
𝑑𝑥 and then taking the limit at 𝑡 → ∞.

103
Example 2: Evaluate:
Ð 6
a) ∫6 k•
𝑑𝑥

104
 Ð 6
b) ∫6 𝑑𝑥
√k

Key Fact
Ð
1 converges 𝑝>1
ƒ 𝑑𝑥 Y
6 𝑥Ñ diverges 𝑝≤1

Ð
Example 3: Evaluate ∫5 𝑒 ;k 𝑑𝑥, if it converges.

Ð 6
Example 4: Evaluate ∫;Ð 6_k •
𝑑𝑥, if it converges.

105
What if we wish to integrate over a bounded interval but it contains a vertical asymptote? Then, at that point,
the function is not continuous, hence, the definite integral is not defined according to our original definition
from Section 1.2.

106
 6 6
Example 5: For what values of 𝑝 > 0 does ∫5 kÓ
𝑑𝑥 converge?

Key Fact
6
1 converges 𝑝<1
ƒ 𝑑𝑥 Y
5 𝑥Ñ diverges 𝑝≥1

107
 •
Example 6: Does ∫5 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 converge? If so, find its value.

6 6
Example 7: Express ∫5 k “z k
𝑑𝑥 using limits of definite integrals. (Evaluation of the resulting integrals is left as
an exercise.)

Comparison Theorem

108
Example 8: Without evaluating, determine if the following integrals converge or diverge. Show your argument
and the use of the Comparison Theorem clearly.

Ð š›x• k
a) ∫5 k _ ‘|
𝑑𝑥

6 xÔš• k
b) ∫5 k√k
𝑑𝑥

Ð ”•z ˜™ k
c) ∫7 k • ;6
𝑑𝑥

TIP: When using the Comparison Theorem, we typically compare the given integral to one of the following
integrals:
6 6 Ð 6 Ð
∫5 kÓ
𝑑𝑥 ∫6 kÓ
𝑑𝑥 ∫5 𝑒 ;k 𝑑𝑥

109
Probability

The probability of an event is a numerical value between 0 and 1 of that event occurring, with:

• 0 indicating that the event is impossible, and

• 1 indicating that the event occurs with certainty

Typically, the probability of an event occurring is expressed in terms of a random variable 𝑋.

Though not a technical definition, a randomly variable 𝑋 can be thought of as representing the possible
outcomes of a randomized experiment. The outcomes of a randomized experiment can be anything depending
on the experiment.

Hence, a random variable could potentially be of many varieties, but in this section, we will focus purely on
those that take on numerical values only.

Further, a numerical random variable 𝑋 could be of two varieties:

• Discrete: Takes on discrete values only, such as 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …

Examples: 1) 𝑋 = number of children a randomly selected person has
2) 𝑋 = number of times a coin is flipped before a ‘head’ appears

• Continuous: Takes on values on a continuum

Examples: 1) 𝑋 = length of time a customer has to wait before being served at a bank
2) 𝑋 = distance that a community college student lives from the campus

NOTE: When working with probabilities of a numerical random variable 𝑋, we reserve an (uppercase) 𝑋 to
refer to the random variable, and we use (lowercase) 𝑥 to refer to values that the random variable takes on.

Example 1: Consider the random variable

𝑋 = total number of tails from tossing an unfair coin twice, assuming the coin has 0.6 likelihood
of heads and 0.4 likelihood of tails

Express the probability distribution function for 𝑋, and sketch the corresponding histogram.

110
How do we work with continuous random variable?

We define a probability density function, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), that satisfies:

• 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for all 𝑥

Ð
• ∫;Ð 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 1
m
• 𝑃(𝑐 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑑 ) = ∫× 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 is the probability that 𝑋 takes on a value between 𝑐 and 𝑑

We will only be dealing with the second variety in this section – continuous random variables.

Example 2: Suppose a shuttle that takes passengers from long-term parking to the terminal at an airport arrives
every 20 minutes. Let

𝑋 = amount of time a passenger must wait for the shuttle to go from long-term parking to the terminal

a) Find the probability density function for 𝑋. Give a formula for the function and sketch its graph.

b) Find the probability that a randomly selected passenger has to wait less than 6 minutes for the shuttle.

The distribution in the previous example, with a constant probability density function, is known as the uniform
distribution, written 𝑋~𝑈(𝑎, 𝑏), where 𝑎 is the minimum value 𝑋 takes on, and 𝑏 is the maximum.
7
Example 3: Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = Y𝑘(4𝑥 − 𝑥 0≤𝑥≤4
0 otherwise

a) For what value of 𝑘 is 𝑓 a probability density function?

111
 b) Find 𝑃(𝑋 > 3).

Measures of Central Tendency

When computing the “average” value that a random variable takes on, there are two commonly used measures:
mean and median.

The mean for a finite number of 𝑛 data values is obtained by adding up the values and dividing by 𝑛.

How do we do this if we are given a probability density function for a continuous random variable?

Let’s look for inspiration in a discrete example. Let’s revisit Example 1.

𝑋 = total number of tails from tossing an unfair coin twice, assuming the coin has 0.6 likelihood
of heads and 0.4 likelihood of tails

Recall that the probability distribution function was: 𝑋 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥)

0 0.36
1 0.48
2 0.16

If 100 people do this experiment, what is the average number of tails?

112
Key Fact:

For a discrete random variable 𝑋 that takes on values 𝑥6 , 𝑥7 , … , 𝑥9 , the mean value of 𝑋 is given by
9

𝜇 = H 𝑥: 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥: )
:I6

Using this, we can get a formula for the mean value of a continuous random variable 𝑋.

Key Fact:

For a continuous random variable 𝑋 that takes over [𝑎, 𝑏] with probability density function 𝑓, the mean value of
𝑋 is given by
=
𝜇 = ƒ 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
>

If the random variable 𝑋 that takes over (−∞, ∞)with probability density function 𝑓, the mean value of 𝑋 is
given by
Ð
𝜇 = ƒ 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
;Ð

Which is an improper integral.

113
There is another measure of center that’s sometimes used: median. The median value for a numerical random
variable is the “middle” value – that is, about half of the values of 𝑋 fall below the median and about half of the
values of 𝑋 fall above the median.

Mathematically, for a continuous random variable 𝑋, with probability density function 𝑓, taking on values over
(−∞, ∞), the median is computed by finding the value 𝑀 that satisfies

Í Ð
ƒ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ƒ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
;Ð Í

Measures of Variability

The two most commonly used measures of variability – numbers that attempt to show the spread in the values
that a random variable takes on – are variance and standard deviation.

Suppose that a random variable 𝑋, with probability density function 𝑓, takes on values over (−∞, ∞). Then, the
variance is defined as the mean value of the square of the difference between each value of 𝑋 and the mean, 𝜇.
That is,

Variance of 𝑋 = Expected value of (𝑋 − 𝜇)7

Ð
= 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋) = 𝜎 7 = ∫;Ð(𝑥 − 𝜇)7 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

The standard deviation is simply the square root of the variance of 𝑋:

Standard deviation of 𝑋 = [𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋) = 𝜎

You can think of the standard deviation of 𝑋 roughly as the average amount that the values of 𝑋 deviate from
the mean.

Example 4: Recall Example 2:

𝑋 = amount of time a passenger must wait for the shuttle to go from long-term parking to the terminal
(shuttle arrives every 20 minutes)

a) Find the mean value of 𝑋.

114
 b) Find the variance of 𝑋.

c) Find the standard deviation of 𝑋.

Example 5: The length of time, 𝑋, until something occurs – typically an accident – is often modeled by the
exponential distribution, written 𝑋~Exp(𝜆).

;ßk
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = Y𝜆 𝑒 𝑥≥0
0 𝑥<0

a) Find the mean value of 𝑋.

115
 b) Suppose the length of time until the screen breaks on a certain type of phone follows the exponential
distribution with a mean of 500 hours of use. Find the probability distribution function.

c) Find the probability that the screen on a randomly selected phone of this type lasts at least 700 hours.

d) Find the median length of time until the screen breaks on this type of phone.

The normal distribution – also known as the Gaussian distribution – is the “bell-shaped” curve. It’s one of the
most widely applicable distributions. Many continuous random variables are distributed normally:

• Height of human males (or females)

• Length of a species of fish
• Score of a standardized exam – they are designed that way

116
Typically, the parameters of the normal distribution are 𝜇 and σ, the mean and standard deviation. If 𝑋 is
normally distributed with mean 𝜇 and standard deviation σ, we write 𝑋~𝑁(𝜇, 𝜎), with probability density
function

1 (k;á)•
;
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 7â •
𝜎√2𝜋

Example 6: Suppose that the weight of newborn babies in the United States is normally distributed with a mean
of about 7 pounds and a standard deviation of 1.1 pounds.

a) Find the probability that a randomly selected baby born in the U.S. weighs between 5 lbs and 8 lbs.

b) Find the probability that a randomly selected baby born in the U.S. weighs less than 6 lbs.

117
118
Chapter 7 (Vol 2): Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates
From this chapter, we will only be looking at one sections (two if you count review from 7.1): Section 7.2. We
focus on integral calculus with parametric curves.

Specifically, in this chapter, we will study…

7.2 Calculus of Parametric Curves

Find the area under a parametric curve.
Use the equation for arc length of a parametric curve.
Apply the formula for surface area to a volume generated by a parametric curve.

These notes are based on the OpenStax textbook titled ‘Calculus – Volume 2’ by Strang, Herman, et al. The
course content is offered under CC Attribution license. Content in this course is offered under this license.

119
7.2: Calculus of Parametric Curves – Area, Arc Length and Surface Area

Brief Review of Parametric Equations

When graphing curves in 2 dimensions (say 𝑥, 𝑦), we use one of the following methods to give an algebraic
representation of the curve

Method 1: As a function, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) or 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦), where we express one variable explicitly in terms of
the other variable.
Examples: 𝑦 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥, 𝑥 = 𝑦 + ln 𝑦

Method 2: As a relation, 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐, in which the relationship between 𝑥 and 𝑦 is expressed implicitly.
Example: 𝑥 ln 𝑦 − 𝑦 arctan 𝑥 = 1

Method 3: As parametric equations, 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡), where both 𝑥 and 𝑦 are expressed as function
of a parameter 𝑡.
𝑥 = 3 + cos 𝑡
Example: Y , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋
𝑦 = −1 + sin 𝑡

In motion examples, 𝑡 is often thought of as time, and (𝑥, 𝑦) represents the position of an object at that time

Please review Section 7.1 on your own to the extent necessary for you to refresh your understanding of
parametric equations.

Here are some examples of curves you may or may not be familiar with expressed as parametric equations.
{_6
𝑥=𝑡 𝑥= C 𝑥 =2+𝑡
1) Line: 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 1 ã𝑦 = 3𝑡 − 1 or ä or Y
𝑦=𝑡 𝑦 = 5 + 3𝑡
Of course, there are other possibilities.

𝑥 = 3 + 5 cos 𝑡 𝑥 = 3 + 5 sin 𝑡
2) Circle: (𝑥 − 3)7 + 𝑦 7 = 25 Y or Y or
𝑦 = 5 sin 𝑡 𝑦 = 5 cos 𝑡

𝑥 = 3 − 5 cos 𝑡 𝑥 = 3 + 5 sin 𝑡
Y or Y
𝑦 = 5 sin 𝑡 𝑦 = −5 cos 𝑡

120
 (k_7)• (å;6)• 𝑥 = −2 + 3 cos 𝑡
3) Ellipse: + =1 Y (one possibility)
— 6• 𝑦 = 1 + 4 sin 𝑡

𝑥 = cosh 𝑡
4) Hyperbola: 𝑥 7 − 𝑦 7 = 1 Y
𝑦 = sinh 𝑡

𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 − 𝑎 sin 𝑡
5) Cycloid: Y over 𝑡 ≥ 0 (usually)
𝑦 = 𝑎 − 𝑎 cos 𝑡

So far, we have used integrals to find many geometric quantities, such as area, volume, arclength, surface area.
Let’s see what these calculations are like when we are given a curve as parametric equations.

Area Under a Parametric Curve

Why is this true?

121
Example 1: Find the area under the graph of one cycle of the cycloid, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋

𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 − 𝑎 sin 𝑡
Y
𝑦 = 𝑎 − 𝑎 cos 𝑡

𝑥 = 1 − 𝑡7
Example 2: Find the area enclosed by the loop of the curve Y
𝑦 = 𝑡 − 𝑡C

122
Arc Length

Why is this true?

Example 3: Find the arc length of the curve given by:

𝑥 = 𝑒 ;{ cos 𝑡 𝜋
Y over 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤
𝑦 = 𝑒 ;{ sin 𝑡 2

123
Surface Area

Recall from before that

𝑆 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑦 𝑑𝑠 if revolving the given curve about the 𝑥-axis

𝑆 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑠 if revolving the given curve about the 𝑦-axis

In the context of parametrically defined curves, we have

= 7 7
If a curve is revolved about the 𝑥-axis 𝑆 = ∫> 2𝜋 𝑦(𝑡)æ‹𝑥 l (𝑡)Œ + ‹𝑦 l (𝑡)Œ 𝑑𝑡

= 7 7
If a curve is revolved about the 𝑦-axis 𝑆 = ∫> 2𝜋 𝑥(𝑡)æ‹𝑥 l (𝑡)Œ + ‹𝑦 l (𝑡)Œ 𝑑𝑡

𝑥 = cosC 𝑡 •
Example 4: Consider the curve 𝐶 given by Y over 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 7 .
𝑦 = sinC 𝑡

a) Find the area of the surface generated by revolving 𝐶 about the 𝑥-axis.

b) Set up, but do not evaluate, an integral that represents the area of the surface generated by revolving 𝐶
about the 𝑦-axis.

124
Chapter 4: Introduction to Differential Equations

Many real-world phenomena can be modeled mathematically by using differential equations. Population
growth, radioactive decay, predator-prey models, and spring-mass systems are four examples of such
phenomena. In this chapter we study some of these applications.

Specifically, in this chapter, we will study…

4.1 Basics of Differential Equations

Identify the order of a differential equation.
Explain what is meant by a solution to a differential equation.
Distinguish between the general solution and a particular solution of a differential equation.
Identify an initial-value problem.
Identify whether a given function is a solution to a differential equation or an initial-value
problem.

4.2 Direction Fields and Numerical Methods

Draw the direction field for a given first-order differential equation.
Use a direction field to draw a solution curve of a first-order differential equation.
Use Euler’s Method to approximate the solution to a first-order differential equation.

4.3 Separable Equations

Use separation of variables to solve a differential equation.
Solve applications using separation of variables.

4.4 The Logistic Equations

Describe the concept of environmental carrying capacity in the logistic model of population
growth.
Draw a direction field for a logistic equation and interpret the solution curves.
Solve a logistic equation and interpret the results.

These notes are based on the OpenStax textbook titled ‘Calculus – Volume 2’ by Strang, Herman, and
Herman, Edwin “Jed”, et al. The course content is offered under CC Attribution license. Content in these
lecture notes are offered this same license.

125
4.1: Basics of Differential Equations

Calculus is the mathematics of change, and rates of change are expressed using derivatives. A natural way of
describing certain phenomena is in terms of their rates of change. Differential equation do exactly this.

Ordinary differential equations (ODEs) involve an unknown function of only one variable.

Partial differential equations (PDEs) contain partial derivatives since the unknown function is based on more
than one independent variable. You will learn about partial derivatives in Math 1D.

The order of a differential equation refers to the order of the highest derivative that appears in the differential
equation.

We will also classify a differential equation as linear or non-linear. A linear differential equation is linear in
𝑦, 𝑦 l , 𝑦′′, etc, where 𝑦 is the unknown function.

Example 1: Classify each of the following differential equations by the categories given.

Differential Equation Order Linear or non-Linear

𝑑𝑦
− 𝑥7 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥

𝑦′ + 2𝑥𝑦 7 = −2

𝑦′′ + 2𝑥𝑦′ − 𝑦 = 2𝑥

𝑑7 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 C
− ¡ + 𝑥𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 7 𝑑𝑥

𝑥𝑦 lll + 𝑥𝑦 l + 3𝑦 = 𝑥

126
General and Particular Solutions

Example 2: What functions 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑥) satisfy the following differential equation?

𝑦′ = ln 𝑥

In the previous example, notice that the given differential didn’t have just one solution. It had infinitely many
solutions.

𝑦 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶 is said to the general solution of the differential equation, where 𝐶 is any real number.

If we take a particular value of 𝐶, say 𝐶 = 2, then 𝑦 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 2 is an example of a particular solution of

the differential equation.

Example 2: Check that the family of functions given by 𝑦 = 2𝑒 ;k + 𝑥 − 1 satisfies the differential equation
𝑦 l = 𝑥 − 𝑦.

Initial Value Problems

A differential equation, together with one of more initial values is an initial value problem. An initial value
refers to a specific requirement for the solution and/or one of the derivatives of the solution, such as it must pass
through a particular point (𝑥5 , 𝑦5 ). When solving an initial value problem, once we find the general solution, we
use the given initial condition(s) to find the particular solution.

127
Example 3: Consider the differential equation 𝑦 l = (2𝑥𝑦)7.
C
a) Check that the family of functions given by 𝑦 = − ç _ Fk w is the general solution to the differential
equation.

6
b) Find the particular solution that passes through ]1, − 7^. Another way of stating this problem is: Solve
6
the initial value problem 𝑦 l = (2𝑥𝑦)7 , 𝑦(1) = − 7.

A Population Growth Model

Example 4: One of the simplest population growth models asserts that the rate of change of a population varies
directly with the population size.

a) Why is this description make sense for how populations tend to grow?

128
 b) Let 𝑃(𝑡) be the population at time 𝑡. Express the description as a differential equation. Use 𝑟 for the
constant of variation.

c) What is the general solution to this differential equation?

d) Let’s apply this model to the population of a small town. If this population doubles every 20 years, what
must be the value of 𝑟?

e) Now suppose that at time 𝑡 = 0, the population of the town is 12,000. Find the particular solution to the
differential equation.

Example 5: A model of the spread of a disease (or a rumor) is that the rate of infection is jointly proportional to
the number of infected people (since they can spread the disease) and the number of people who are susceptible
but not yet infected.

Express this information in the form of a differential equation. Let 𝑆 be the total number of susceptible people
in the population and 𝐼 be the number of infected people at time 𝑡.

129
4.2: Direction Fields and Numerical Methods

Similar to how many functions don’t have an antiderivative in closed form, most differential equations that one
writes down cannot be solved with the solution function (or curve) in closed form.

In this section, we will focus on first order differential equations of the form 𝑦 l = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦), and learn that:

• Visualizing differential equations graphically as direction fields can help us “see” the solution curves.

• Using a numerical method, such as Euler’s method, can help us numerically find the values of a solution
to an initial value problem.

Using Direction Fields

Example 1: The direction field for the

k
differential equation 𝑦 l = å is given to the
right. Sketch a solution curve that passes
through:

a) (2,3)

b) (4, −2)

c) (1,1)

130
Example 2: Consider the given direction
field for the differential equation

𝑦 l = 0.01(𝑦 − 1)7 (𝑦 + 4)(𝑦 − 5)

Find all of the equilibrium solutions and

classify them as stable, unstable or semi-
stable.

131
Euler’s Method

må
Example 3: Consider the initial value problem mk = 𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑦(0) = 1.

a) Estimate 𝑦(2) using Euler’s Method using step size ℎ = 0.5.

132
b) Estimate 𝑦(2) using Euler’s Method using step size ℎ = 0.5.

𝑛 𝑥9 𝑦9

10

c) Do you expect the estimates in parts a) and b) to be overestimates or underestimates of 𝑦(2)?

må
d) The general solution to mk = 𝑥 + 𝑦 is 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑒 k − 𝑥 − 1. Using this, solve the initial value problem.

e) Compute 𝑦(2) using the exact solution and compare the Euler’s Method estimates to it.

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4.3: Separation of Variables

In this section, we learn how to solve one class of differentiable equations: Separable Equations.

Example 1: Determine if the following differential equations are separable. If they are, express them in
standard form.
kå
a) 𝑦 l = 6 _ å

b) 𝑦 l = sin 𝑥 + 𝑒 å

c) 𝑦 l = 𝑥 + 𝑥 ln 𝑦

Example 2: Solve each of the following differential equations.

må
a) mk
=𝑦−1

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 b) 𝑦 l = 𝑒 å 𝑥 7

må
c) 𝑡 m{ = [1 − 𝑦 7

Applications of Separation of Variables

Example 3: Most drugs in the bloodstream decay according to the equation 𝑦 l = 𝑐𝑦, where 𝑦 is the
concentration of the drug in the bloodstream. If the half-life of a drug is 2 hours, what fraction of the initial dose
remains after 6 hours?

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Example 4: A tank contains 1 kilogram of salt dissolved in 100 liters of water. A salt solution of 0.1 kg salt/L is
pumped into the tank at a rate of 2 L/min. The solution is kept well mixed and drains at the same rate. Solve for
the amount of salt in the tank at time 𝑡.

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Example 5: You are organizing an ice cream social. The outside temperature is 80°F and the ice cream is at
10°F. After 15 minutes, the ice cream temperature has risen by 20°F. What is the temperature of the ice cream
after 𝑡 minutes?

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4.4: The Logistic Equation

In section 4.1, we saw the exponential model for population growth. In that model, the size of the population 𝑃,
at time 𝑡, is given by the differential equation

𝑑𝑃
= 𝑟𝑃
𝑑𝑡

Which has the general solution

𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑃5 𝑒 -{

The problem with this model is that while there are plenty of resources, populations do tend to grow
exponentially. However, as resources start to become scarce, the population would no longer grow
exponentially.

This brings us to the logistic model, also known as the Verhulst model, which addresses this issue.

How does the logistic equation address capacity issues?

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Here is the direction field for the logistic equation with some solution curves.

Now that we know how to solve separable equations, we can solve the differential equation for the logistic
model.

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Example 1: A population of deer inside a park has a carrying capacity of 200 and a growth rate of 2%. If the
initial population is 50 deer, what is the population of deer at any given time?

Example 2: In this example, let’s explore some common adjustments made to the logistic model based on the
context for a population. As before, let 𝑃(𝑡) be the population at time 𝑡. Express each scenario given below as a
differential equation.

a) Starting with the logistic model, suppose the population decreases by a constant number 𝐴 per unit time.
This model is applicable if a population has a constant emigration rate.

b) Starting with the logistic model, suppose the population decreases at a rate proportional to the
population. This model is applicable if we want to incorporate death separately. That is, for each unit
time, a certain fraction of the population dies. Suppose 100s% of the population dies per unit time.

c) In addition to having a certain maximum carrying capacity, some populations require a certain minimum
size – sometimes called threshold – to grow at all. Let’s call this threshold 𝑇.

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