S.A.

ENGINEERING COLLEGE, CHENNAI

(An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna University)
DEPARTMENT OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND DATA SCIENCE

AD1612A R PROGRAMMING FOR DATA SCIENCE

QUESTION BANK

UNIT I

INTRODUCTION TO R PROGRAMMING

PART A

1. Define R programming.
R programming is an open-source programming language and software environment
primarily used for statistical computing and data analysis. It provides a wide variety of
tools for data manipulation, visualization, and statistical modeling, making it a popular
choice in fields like data science, statistics, and machine learning.
2. List out any five features of R.
 Open Source: R is free to use and has a vast community of contributors.
 Data Handling: It offers powerful data manipulation capabilities through packages like
dplyr and tidyr.

 Statistical Analysis: R is equipped with a wide range of statistical functions and

techniques.
 Graphics and Visualization: It supports high-quality visualizations with packages like
ggplot2.

 Extensibility: R can be extended through packages to integrate with other languages and
technologies.
3. Differentiate between R and Python in terms of functionality.
R is specifically designed for statistics and data analysis, with extensive libraries for
statistical modeling and visualization (e.g., ggplot2, dplyr).

Python is a general-purpose programming language widely used in web development, data

science, and machine learning, with libraries like pandas, matplotlib, and scikit-
learn.

R is preferred for specialized statistical tasks.

While Python is more flexible for a wider range of applications, including machine
learning and software development.
4. What are the applications of R?
R is used in various fields such as:
 Data Science and Analytics: Analyzing and visualizing data to gain insights.
 Machine Learning: Building predictive models using libraries like caret and
randomForest.
 Bioinformatics: Analyzing genomic and biological data.
 Statistical Research: Conducting statistical analysis for research in areas like economics
and psychology.
 Finance: Risk analysis, portfolio management, and time-series forecasting.

5. Compare R with other technologies.

 R vs. SQL: R is focused on advanced statistical analysis and visualization, while SQL is
specialized for querying and managing relational databases.
 R vs. MATLAB: Both are used for data analysis, but R is free and open-source, while
MATLAB is commercial and more focused on engineering applications.
 R vs. Excel: R offers more advanced statistical functions and is scalable for larger
datasets, while Excel is more user-friendly for basic data analysis and smaller datasets.

6. Why do we use the command- install.packages (file.choose(),repos=NULL)?

The command install.packages(file.choose(), repos=NULL) is used to install an R
package from a local file rather than from a CRAN repository. The file.choose() function
prompts the user to select a package file (usually with a .tar.gz or .zip extension), and the
repos=NULL argument ensures that the package is installed from the selected file, not from
the internet.

7. List out some packages in R, which can be used for data imputation?
 mice: Multiple Imputation by Chained Equations, which provides a method for imputing
missing data.
 Amelia: A package for multiple imputation that handles both continuous and categorical
data.
 missForest: An algorithm that imputes missing data using random forests.
 Hmisc: Contains functions like aregImpute() for imputing missing values.
 knnImputation: A method based on the k-nearest neighbor algorithm to impute missing
values.

8. How to get the name of the current working directory in R?

To get the name of the current working directory in R, you can use the function getwd().
Syntax: getwd()
This command returns the absolute path of the current working directory where R is
looking for or saving files.

9. What is the result of sqrt(25) in R? How do you compute the square root of a number in
R?
The result is 5. The sqrt() function computes the square root of 25, returning 5 as the output.
It works for both perfect squares and non-perfect squares, returning the principal square
root.
10. What function is used to load an installed package into the R session?
After installing a package, you need to load it into your R session using the library()
function. For instance, library(ggplot2) loads the ggplot2 package, allowing you to use its
functions for data visualization. If the package is not installed, R will show an error
message.
11. Which function in R lists all objects currently in the workspace?
The ls() function lists all objects (variables, functions, etc.) in the current workspace. For
example, if you run ls(), R will display the names of all objects stored in the memory. You
can also use ls(pattern = "my") to filter objects by a pattern in their names.
12. How can you remove a variable x from the R workspace?
To remove a variable or object from the workspace in R, use the rm() function. For
example, running rm(x) will remove the variable x. If you want to remove all objects in
the workspace, you can use rm(list = ls()) to clear everything.
13. How do you check the type of a variable x in R?
To check the type of a variable x, use the typeof() or class() functions. typeof(x) returns
the internal type of the object (like "integer" or "double"), while class(x) shows the object’s
class (e.g., "data.frame" or "matrix"). Both functions help to understand the structure of
the data.
14. What function can you use to view the structure of an object in R?
You can use the str() function to view the structure of an object in R. It gives you a compact
summary of the object, including its type, length, and the first few elements. For example,
str(x) shows how x is organized, whether it's a vector, matrix, data frame, etc.
15. What is the output of 5 %% 2 in R?

The output is 1. The %% operator in R is the modulus operator, which returns the remainder
of the division of 5 by 2. Since 5 divided by 2 leaves a remainder of 1, 5 %% 2 evaluates
to 1. This operator is useful for determining if a number is divisible by another.

16. How would you assign the value 10 to a variable y in R?

To assign the value 10 to a variable y in R, use the assignment operator <- or the = operator.
For example, both y <- 10 and y = 10 assign the value 10 to the variable y. The <- operator
is generally preferred in R for assignments.

17. How do you write a while loop in R to print numbers from 1 to 5?

x <- 1
while (x <= 5) {
print(x)
x <- x + 1
}
This while loop prints numbers from 1 to 5 by incrementing x on each iteration. The loop
continues as long as the condition x <= 5 holds true. Once x exceeds 5, the loop stops.
18. How do you define a simple function in R that adds two numbers?
add_two_numbers <- function(a, b) {
return(a + b)
}
This function, add_two_numbers, takes two arguments a and b, adds them together, and
returns the result. You can call the function by passing two numbers, like
add_two_numbers(3, 5) to get 8
19. What does the return() function do in a user-defined function in R?
The return() function specifies the output of a user-defined function in R. It returns a value
from the function to the caller and terminates the function's execution. For example,
return(a + b) returns the result of adding a and b from the function to wherever it was
called.
 PART – B

1. Explain how R can be used as a scientific calculator. Demonstrate basic operations with
examples.
2. Discuss how to install and load R packages. Explain the difference between
install.packages() and library().
3. Explain how the workspace functions in R, focusing on ls(), rm(), and get(). Show how
to save and load the workspace using examples, and discuss how these functions enhance
the R workflow.
4. Discuss how to inspect variables in R using functions like str(), class(), typeof(), and
summary() with examples.
5. Explain the different types of operators in R with examples and discuss how operator
precedence works in complex expressions.
6. Explain how to use conditional statements and loops in R with examples and discuss the
advantages and scenarios where each is useful.
7. Explain the importance of functions in R. Describe how to define user-defined functions,
handle arguments, and use return() with examples of nested functions and discuss
function scope in R.
 UNIT- 2

DATA STRUCTURES AND DATA MANIPULATION

PART- A

1. How do you create a vector in R?

In R, a vector can be created using the c() function. For example, vec <- c(1, 2, 3, 4)
creates a numeric vector containing the numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4. Vectors can be of various
types, such as numeric, character, or logical.

2. How do you combine two vectors in R?

To combine two vectors, use the c() function. For example, combined <- c(vec1, vec2)
combines vectors vec1 and vec2 into a new vector combined. This operation simply appends
the elements of the second vector to the first one.

3. How do you create a matrix in R?

A matrix in R is created using the matrix() function. For example, mat <- matrix(1:6,
nrow = 2, ncol = 3) creates a 2x3 matrix with values 1 to 6. The function arranges the
values into rows and columns.

4. How can you transpose a matrix in R?

You can transpose a matrix in R using the t() function. For example, t(mat) transposes
the matrix mat, swapping rows and columns. This operation is useful for altering the
orientation of data.

5. How do you create a list in R?

A list in R is created using the list() function. For example, my_list <- list(1, "apple",
TRUE) creates a list containing a numeric value, a string, and a logical value. Lists can
store elements of different types.

6. How do you access elements in a list in R?

Elements in a list are accessed using double square brackets [[ ]]. For example,
my_list[[2]] accesses the second element, which is "apple" in this case. You can also use
the $ operator if the list elements are named.

7. How do you create a data frame in R?

 A data frame in R is created using the data.frame() function. For example, df <-
data.frame(Name = c("Alice", "Bob"), Age = c(25, 30)) creates a data frame with columns
"Name" and "Age" and respective data.

8. How do you access a specific column in a data frame?

We can access a specific column in a data frame using the $ operator. For example,
df$Name accesses the "Name" column of the data frame df. Alternatively, you can use
indexing like df[, 1] to access the first column.

9. How do you detect outliers in R using the IQR method?

Outliers can be detected using the Interquartile Range (IQR) method. First, calculate
the IQR: IQR(x). Then, define the upper and lower bounds: lower_bound <- quantile(x,
0.25) - 1.5 * IQR(x) and upper_bound <- quantile(x, 0.75) + 1.5 * IQR(x). Any values
outside these bounds are considered outliers.

10. How can you normalize data in R?

Data can be normalized in R by scaling values to a range, usually 0 to 1. This can be

done using the formula: normalized_data <- (x - min(x)) / (max(x) - min(x)). This scales

11. How do you extract a substring from a string in R?

We can extract a substring in R using the substring() function. For example,

substring("Hello World", 1, 5) extracts "Hello", which is from position 1 to position 5 of
the string.

12. How do you replace text in a string using regular expressions?

Use the gsub() function to replace text with regular expressions. For example,
gsub("apple", "orange", "I have an apple") replaces "apple" with "orange", returning "I
have an orange".

13. How do you convert a string to a Date object in R?

To convert a string to a Date object, use the as.Date() function. For example,
as.Date("2024-12-16") converts the string "2024-12-16" to a Date object. You can specify
the format with the format argument if necessary.
14. How do you extract the year from a Date object in R?

To extract the year from a Date object, use the format() function. For example,
format(as.Date("2024-12-16"), "%Y") returns the year "2024". This function can also
extract other components like month and day using different format codes.
 PART- B

1. Explain what vectors are in R. Discuss how to create a vector using different methods.
2. Demonstrate vector operations such as element-wise addition, subtraction, and logical
comparisons.
3. Discuss the difference between arrays and matrices in R.
4. Explain how to create arrays and matrices, and how to manipulate their dimensions with
examples.
5. Explain the concept of lists in R and how they differ from vectors. Discuss how to create
and access elements in a list.
6. Explain the concept of data frames in R. Discuss how to create a data frame and access
its elements.
7. Discuss the process of data transformation in R, such as scaling, normalization, and log
transformations with examples.
8. Explain the different string manipulation functions available in R.
9. Provide examples of how regular expressions are used in string matching and
replacement in R.
10. Discuss how R handles date and time formats. Explain how to create date and time
objects using functions.
 UNIT-3
WORKING WITH DATA
PART- A

1. How do you read a CSV file in R?

To read a CSV file in R, use the read.csv() function. For example, data <-
read.csv("file.csv") reads the CSV file "file.csv" into the data frame data. You can specify
additional arguments like header = TRUE to indicate if the first row contains column
names.

2. How do you read an Excel file in R?

To read an Excel file, you can use the readxl package and the read_excel() function.
For example, library(readxl); data <- read_excel("file.xlsx") reads an Excel file into a data
frame. You can also specify sheet names using the sheet argument.

3. How do you read a text file in R?

To read a text file in R, use the read.table() function. For example, data <-
read.table("file.txt", header = TRUE, sep = "\t") reads a tab-separated text file with headers
into a data frame. The sep argument specifies the delimiter.

4. What function is used to read a large file line-by-line in R?

We can use the readLines() function to read a large text file line-by-line. For
example, lines <- readLines("file.txt") reads all lines from the file into a character vector.
This is helpful for processing large files without loading the entire content into memory.

5. How do you save a data frame to a CSV file in R?

To save a data frame to a CSV file, use the write.csv() function. For example,
write.csv(data, "output.csv", row.names = FALSE) saves the data frame data to
"output.csv", excluding row names.

6. How can you save an R object to a file using save()?

To save an R object, such as a data frame, to a file, use the save() function. For
example, save(data, file = "data.RData") saves the data object in an R binary format, which
can later be loaded using load("data.RData").
7. How do you make an HTTP request in R?
We can use the httr package to make HTTP requests. For example, library(httr);
response <- GET("https://api.example.com") sends a GET request to the specified URL
and stores the response. The content of the response can be accessed using
content(response).

8. How do you interact with a REST API in R?

To interact with a REST API, use the httr package for sending requests. For example,
GET("https://api.example.com/data") retrieves data from the API. You can parse the
response with content(response, "parsed") to work with JSON or XML data.

9. How do you scrape data from a website in R?

To scrape data, use the rvest package. For example, library(rvest); webpage <-
read_html("http://example.com") loads the HTML content of a webpage. You can then
extract data using functions like html_nodes() and html_text().

10. How do you parse tables from a webpage using web scraping in R?
Use the html_table() function from the rvest package to parse HTML tables. For
example, table <- webpage %>% html_nodes("table") %>% html_table() extracts tables
from the webpage. The result is a list of data frames, one for each table.

11. How do you handle missing values in a data frame?

We can handle missing values using the na.omit() function to remove rows with
missing data. For example, clean_data <- na.omit(data) removes any rows with NA values.
Alternatively, you can replace missing values with NA using data[is.na(data)] <- 0.

12. How can you rename columns in a data frame?

To rename columns, use the colnames() function. For example, colnames(data) <-
c("new_name1", "new_name2") renames the columns of the data frame data. You can also
rename specific columns by indexing, e.g., colnames(data)[1] <- "new_name".
13. What is the purpose of the attach() function in R?
The attach() function makes the columns of a data frame directly accessible by their
names. For example, after attach(data), you can reference columns as if they were regular
variables (e.g., Age instead of data$Age).

14. How do you detach a data frame in R?

To detach a data frame, use the detach() function. For example, detach(data) removes
the data frame from the R search path, so you no longer need to reference it with data$.

15. How do you create a frequency table in R?

We can create a frequency table using the table() function. For example,
table(data$Gender) creates a frequency table of the Gender column in the data data frame,
showing the count of each unique value.

16. How do you order a factor variable in R?

We can order a factor variable using the factor() function with the levels argument. For
example, data$Category <- factor(data$Category, levels = c("Low", "Medium", "High"))
orders the Category factor in the desired order, allowing for logical sorting.
 PART- B

1. Explain the process of reading different types of data files in R. Describe how to read
CSV, Excel, and built-in datasets.
2. Discuss how to handle missing values or data inconsistencies during the data import
process.
3. Explain how to inspect and validate the imported data for correctness.
4. Discuss the process of reading text files in R. Explain how to read both small and large
text files using functions.
5. Explain how to write and save data to files in R. Discuss how to save data frames to CSV,
Excel, or text files.
6. Discuss how to make HTTP requests and interact with REST APIs in R. Explain how to
use the httr package.
7. Explain the process of web scraping in R using the rvest package. Discuss how to extract
data from HTML web pages.
8. Discuss how to handle challenges such as dynamic content loading and data cleaning
during web scraping.
9. How to handle messy data in R, including missing values, inconsistent data formats, and
duplicates?
10. Explain the importance of renaming columns in a data frame and how to do it in R.
Discuss how to rename individual columns, multiple columns, and handle issues with
inconsistent or non-descriptive names.
11. Explain the purpose of the attach() and detach() functions in R. Discuss how these
functions simplify the access to data frame columns.
12. How to tabulate data in R and create simple frequency tables. Explain how to use the
table() function to summarize categorical variables?
13. Discuss the concept of factor variables in R and explain how to order them.
14. Explain how to convert a character vector to a factor and specify the order of levels with
examples.
 UNIT- 4

GRAPHICS AND VISUALIZATION

PART – A

1. How can you visualize data using the ggplot2 package in R?

The ggplot2 package in R uses the Grammar of Graphics to create data visualizations.
We can create plots by mapping aesthetics like x, y, color, and size to data variables. For
example, ggplot(data, aes(x = variable1, y = variable2)) + geom_point() creates a scatter
plot. Customizations such as titles, labels, and themes can enhance visual appeal.

2. How can you refine and customize charts using themes in ggplot2?
Themes in ggplot2 modify the non-data elements of a plot, such as background,
gridlines, and text. Built-in themes like theme_bw() and theme_minimal() offer different
styles. You can also create custom themes by adjusting specific components, such as font
size and color. Customizing themes improves the overall readability and presentation of
plots.
3. What is the purpose of a scatter plot in data visualization?
A scatter plot is used to visualize the relationship between two continuous variables.
Each point on the plot represents an observation, with its position determined by the values
of the variables. For example, plotting height vs. weight can reveal trends or correlations.
It helps to identify patterns, clusters, and outliers in the data.

4. What information does a box plot provide in data visualization?

A box plot displays the distribution of a continuous variable, showing the median,
quartiles, and potential outliers. The box represents the interquartile range (IQR), and the
whiskers show the range of the data. Box plots help in comparing distributions across
multiple groups, identifying variability, and detecting outliers.

5. How can combining box plots and scatter plots be useful?

Combining box plots and scatter plots provides a comprehensive view of the data.
The box plot shows the distribution and summary statistics, while the scatter plot visualizes
individual data points. This combination is useful for understanding both the overall
 distribution and the relationship between variables, especially when identifying outliers
and trends.

6. What is the purpose of histograms in data visualization?

A histogram is used to visualize the distribution of a single continuous variable by
dividing the data into bins and counting the number of observations in each bin. It helps to
understand the shape of the data, such as whether it follows a normal distribution. The
geom_histogram() function in ggplot2 creates histograms in R.

7. How can you build dynamic graphics for reporting in R?

Dynamic graphics in R can be created using ggplot2 in combination with packages
like plotly or shiny. These packages allow you to add interactivity, such as zooming,
hovering, and dynamic updates. This makes visualizations more engaging and helps users
explore the data more effectively in real-time.

8. How can you query data using SQL in R?

SQL queries can be executed in R using the sqldf package, which allows SQL
commands to be applied to data frames. You can use SQL statements like SELECT, FROM,
and WHERE to filter, select, and manipulate data. For example, sqldf("SELECT * FROM
data WHERE age > 30") filters the data based on a condition.

9. How are SQL functions like SELECT, WHERE, and ORDER BY used in data querying?
SQL functions like SELECT are used to specify which columns to retrieve, FROM
indicates the data source, and WHERE filters data based on conditions. The ORDER BY
clause sorts the results, while LIMIT restricts the number of rows. Functions like MAX()
and MIN() return the maximum and minimum values, respectively, for a column.

10. How does the dplyr package help in data wrangling?

The dplyr package provides a set of functions for efficient data manipulation.
Functions like select(), filter(), and mutate() are used to select columns, filter rows, and
create new variables. The arrange() function is used to sort data, and summarize() helps to
calculate summary statistics. These functions simplify and speed up the process of cleaning
and transforming data.
 PART – B

1. Explain the process of visualizing data using the ggplot2 package in R.

2. Discuss the concept of the Grammar of Graphics and how it is applied in ggplot2 to create
a wide range of plots.
3. Discuss how to customize aesthetics, such as color, size, and shape.
4. How can you use themes in ggplot2 to refine and customize charts and graphs?
5. How to modify text elements, axis labels, and plot backgrounds to improve the presentation
of your data visualizations?
6. Explain how scatter plots are useful for visualizing the relationship between two
continuous variables with examples.
7. Discuss the importance of scatter plots in identifying trends and outliers.
8. Explain the purpose of box plots and how they are constructed using ggplot2.
9. Discuss the key components of a box plot, including the median, quartiles, and outliers.
10. Describe how you can combine scatter plots and box and whisker plots to visualize the
relationship between variables and the distribution of the data.
11. Explain how to create histograms using ggplot2 to visualize the distribution of a single
continuous variable.
12. Discuss how to choose appropriate bin widths and how different bin sizes affect the visual
representation of the data.
13. How to use ggplot2 in combination with interactive packages like plotly or shiny to create
dashboards and reports?
14. Explain in detail about query data using SQL statements in R.
15. Discuss the usage of the sqldf package or R’s database connection functions to perform
SQL operations on data frames or external databases.
16. How to use SQL functions like SELECT, FROM, WHERE, IS, LIKE, ORDER BY, LIMIT,
MAX(), and MIN() in data querying with examples.
17. Explain data wrangling using the dplyr package in R.
18. Explain the core functions of dplyr, such as select(), filter(), mutate(), arrange(), and
summarize().
 UNIT- 5
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
PART- A

1. How do you import data files into R?

Data files can be imported into R using functions like read.csv() for CSV
files,read.table() for tabular data, and read_excel() from the readxl package for Excel
files. The data() function can also be used to load built-in datasets. These functions
read the file and store the data in R as a data frame or other appropriate format.

2. What are some common file formats that can be imported into R, and which
functions are used to import them?
Common file formats include CSV (read.csv()), Excel (readxl::read_excel()), and
text files (read.table()). For specific data sources, functions like readRDS() for R data
files and DBI for databases can also be used. These functions load the data into R for
analysis.

3. How can you export data from R?

Data can be exported from R using functions like write.csv() to save data frames
as CSV files, write.table() for tab-delimited files, or write.xlsx() from the openxlsx
package for Excel files. These functions allow you to specify file paths and formatting
options like row names or delimiters.

4. How do you export a data frame to a CSV file in R?

We can export a data frame to a CSV file using the write.csv() function. For
example, write.csv(my_data, "output.csv", row.names = FALSE) saves the my_data
data frame to "output.csv" without row names.

5. How can you output the results of statistical analysis in R?

We can output the results using print() for basic output, summary() for model
results, or cat() for formatted strings. Additionally, R Markdown can be used for
dynamic reporting to produce HTML, PDF, or Word documents containing the analysis
and results.
6. How can you output results in R?
Results in R can be outputted using functions like print() for displaying basic
outputs, cat() for formatted output, or write() for saving results to a file. For generating
reports, you can use R Markdown to integrate R code with formatted text and output it
to HTML, PDF, or Word formats.

7. What are the basic descriptive statistics you can calculate in R?

In R, basic descriptive statistics include the mean(), median(), sd() (standard
deviation), var() (variance), and summary() functions for obtaining the summary
statistics (e.g., min, max, quartiles). The summary() function provides a quick
overview of a data frame's numeric variables.

8. What is the purpose of the summary() function in R?

The summary() function in R provides a summary of a data frame or vector,
including the minimum, maximum, median, mean, and quartiles for numeric data. It
gives a quick overview of the distribution and central tendencies of the data.

9. How can you perform data aggregation in R?

Data aggregation in R can be done using the aggregate() function or by using the
dplyr package's group_by() and summarize() functions. These allow you to group data
by one or more variables and calculate summary statistics like sum, mean, or count for
each group.

10. How do you use the aggregate() function in R for data aggregation?
The aggregate() function is used to apply summary statistics to grouped data. For
example, aggregate(x ~ group, data = df, FUN = mean) calculates the mean of x for
each unique value in group within the data frame df.

11. How do you represent multivariate data in R?

Multivariate data can be represented in R using visualization techniques like pairs
plots (pairs()), principal component analysis (PCA) using prcomp(), or ggplot2 for
scatter plots of multiple variables. These methods help explore relationships between
more than two variables simultaneously.
12. How can you visualize multivariate data using ggplot2?
We can visualize multivariate data in ggplot2 by mapping multiple variables to
aesthetics like color, size, or shape. For example, ggplot(data, aes(x = var1, y = var2,
color = var3)) + geom_point() visualizes relationships between var1, var2, and var3
using a scatter plot with color encoding.

13. How can you factorize and optimize code in R?

Code factorization in R involves simplifying and breaking complex expressions
into smaller functions or steps. Optimization can be done using functions like optim()
for numerical optimization or by profiling code with the Rprof() function to identify
bottlenecks. Vectorization also improves performance by avoiding loops.

14. What is the benefit of vectorizing code in R?

Vectorizing code in R improves performance by eliminating the need for explicit
loops. Operations are performed on entire vectors at once, which is more efficient in
R. For example, instead of looping through a vector, you can directly perform
operations like sum(x) or x * 2.

15. What does the dplyr package in R provide for statistical analysis?
The dplyr package provides functions for data manipulation, such as filter() for
subsetting data, mutate() for creating new variables, arrange() for sorting data, and
summarize() for calculating summary statistics. It simplifies the process of wrangling
data before analysis.

16. Which statistical libraries are commonly used in R?

R has several statistical libraries such as stats for basic statistical functions,
ggplot2 for data visualization, dplyr for data manipulation, lme4 for linear mixed-
effects models, and car for regression analysis. These libraries provide functions for
hypothesis testing, regression, and various advanced statistical techniques.
17. How can missing data be handled in R?
Missing data can be handled using functions like na.omit() to remove missing
values or is.na() to detect them. You can also impute missing values using techniques
like mean imputation or predictive 20odelling, depending on the analysis.

18. How can you save the output of statistical analysis to a text file in R?
We can save the output to a text file using sink(). For example, sink(“output.txt”)
directs the output of R commands to “output.txt”. After running analysis or commands,
sink() should be turned off with sink() to stop writing to the file.
 PART- B

1. Discuss the various methods to import data files into R.

2. Compare the functions read.csv(), read.table(), and read_excel().
3. How can you handle issues like row names, delimiters, and column formats during
export? Explain with example.
4. Explain how to generate reports using R Markdown and output them in different
formats like HTML, PDF, or Word.
5. How can you integrate R code with textual explanations in a report?
6. Explain how to perform descriptive statistical analysis in R. Discuss key functions
such as mean(), median(), sd(), summary(), and quantile().
7. Give some examples of calculating central tendency, dispersion, and range for a
given dataset.
8. How can aggregation help in data analysis, particularly in grouping data for further
analysis?
9. What are the methods for representing and analyzing multivariate data in R.
Explain how to use pairs() for visualizing relationships between multiple variables
and prcomp() for performing Principal Component Analysis (PCA)?
10. Explain the process of optimizing and factorizing code in R. Discuss how to
identify inefficiencies in code using profiling tools.
11. Discuss the various statistical libraries in R and their applications.
12. How libraries like stats, ggplot2, dplyr, lme4, and car are used for different
statistical analyses, such as hypothesis testing, regression modeling, and data
visualization explain with examples?