Q.I What is FA(Finite Automaton)? Explain with example.

Elaborate on
'Automaton and complexity'.

What is a Finite Automaton (FA)?

A Finite Automaton (FA) is a theoretical model of computation used to represent and
manipulate a set of strings over a finite alphabet. It is a mathematical abstraction that
consists of a finite number of states, transitions between those states, and an
acceptance condition. Finite automata are widely used in computer science for tasks
such as lexical analysis, pattern matching, and designing digital circuits.
Components of a Finite Automaton
A finite automaton is formally defined by a 5-tuple ( (Q, \Sigma, \delta, q_0, F) ), where:
1. Q: A finite set of states.
2. Σ (Sigma): A finite set of input symbols (alphabet).
3. δ (delta): A transition function ( \delta: Q \times \Sigma \rightarrow Q ) that
defines how the automaton moves from one state to another based on the input
symbol.
4. ( q_0 ): The initial state, where the computation begins ( ( q_0 \in Q ) ).
5. F: A set of accepting states ( ( F \subseteq Q ) ) that determine whether the input
string is accepted by the automaton.
Types of Finite Automata
1. Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA): For each state and input symbol, there is
exactly one transition to a next state. This means that the next state is uniquely
determined by the current state and input symbol.
2. Non-Deterministic Finite Automaton (NFA): For a given state and input symbol,
there can be multiple possible next states or even none at all. An NFA can also
have ε-transitions (transitions that occur without consuming an input symbol).

Example of a Finite Automaton

Let's consider a simple DFA that recognizes the language of all strings over the
alphabet ( \Sigma = {0, 1} ) that end with the substring "01".
1. States (Q): ( Q = {q_0, q_1, q_2} )
o ( q_0 ): Initial state
o ( q_1 ): Intermediate state (after reading '0')
 o ( q_2 ): Accepting state (after reading '01')
2. Alphabet (Σ): ( \Sigma = {0, 1} )
3. Transition Function (δ):
o ( \delta(q_0, 0) = q_1 )
o ( \delta(q_0, 1) = q_0 )
o ( \delta(q_1, 0) = q1 )
o ( \delta(q_1, 1) = q_2 )
o ( \delta(q_2, 0) = q_1 )
o ( \delta(q_2, 1) = q_0 )
4. Initial State (( q_0 )): The automaton starts in state ( q_0 ).
5. Accepting States (F): ( F = {q_2} )

Explanation of the Example

 The automaton starts in state ( q_0 ).
 If it reads a '0', it transitions to state ( q_1 ).
 If it reads a '1' while in state ( q_1 ), it transitions to the accepting state ( q_2 ).
 If it reads a '0' while in state ( q_2 ), it goes back to state ( q_1 ), and if it reads a '1',
it goes back to state ( q_0 ).
 The string is accepted if the automaton ends in state ( q_2 ) after reading the
entire input.
Automaton and Complexity
Automaton: An automaton is a mathematical model that describes a computational
system. Finite automata are one of the simplest forms of automata, and they are used
to recognize patterns and languages. They can be implemented in software and
hardware for various applications, including compilers, text processing, and network
protocols.
Complexity: The complexity of finite automata can be analyzed in terms of time and
space:
1. Time Complexity: The time complexity of a finite automaton is generally linear in
relation to the length of the input string. This is because the automaton
processes each input symbol exactly once, making the time complexity ( O(n) ),
where ( n ) is the length of the input.
 2. Space Complexity: The space complexity of a finite automaton is constant, (
O(1) ), since it only needs to maintain a finite number of states and does not
require additional memory that grows with the input size. The stack or additional
memory structures are not utilized in finite automata, unlike in pushdown
automata.
Finite automata are e icient for recognizing regular languages, but they have
limitations in terms of the complexity of languages they can recognize. For instance,
they cannot handle context-free languages, which require more powerful
computational models like pushdown automata or Turing machines. Understanding
the complexity of finite automata helps in designing e icient algorithms for pattern
matching and language recognition tasks.

2.Explain Pumping Lemma and its applications.

Pumping Lemma
The Pumping Lemma is a fundamental theorem in formal language theory, particularly
in the study of regular languages. It provides a property that all regular languages must
satisfy, and it is often used to prove that certain languages are not regular.
The Pumping Lemma states that for any regular language ( L ), there exists a constant (
p ) (the pumping length) such that any string ( s ) in ( L ) with a length of at least ( p ) can
be divided into three parts, ( s = xyz ), satisfying the following conditions:
1. Length Condition: ( |xy| \leq p ) (the length of the concatenation of ( x ) and ( y ) is
at most ( p )).
2. Non-Empty Condition: ( |y| > 0 ) (the string ( y ) is not empty).
3. Pumping Condition: For all ( n \geq 0 ), the string ( xy^nz ) is in ( L ) (repeating ( y )
any number of times, including zero, results in a string that is still in the
language).
Applications of the Pumping Lemma
The Pumping Lemma is primarily used to prove that certain languages are not regular.
Here are some common applications:
1. Proving Non-Regularity:
 o The most common application of the Pumping Lemma is to show that a
specific language cannot be recognized by any finite automaton, and
therefore is not regular. This is done by assuming that the language is
regular, applying the Pumping Lemma, and then deriving a contradiction.
o Example: To prove that the language ( L = { a^n b^n | n \geq 0 } ) is not
regular, we can assume it is regular and apply the Pumping Lemma. By
choosing a string ( s = a^p b^p ) (where ( p ) is the pumping length), we can
show that pumping ( y ) (which consists only of ( a )s) will lead to strings that
do not belong to ( L ), thus contradicting the assumption that ( L ) is regular.
2. Understanding Language Properties:
o The Pumping Lemma helps in understanding the limitations of regular
languages. It provides insight into the structure of regular languages and
the types of patterns they can represent.
3. Designing Compilers and Lexers:
o In compiler design, the Pumping Lemma can be used to ensure that the
regular expressions and finite automata used for lexical analysis are
correctly defined and do not inadvertently accept non-regular languages.
4. Testing Language Membership:
o While the Pumping Lemma itself does not provide a method for testing
membership in a language, it can be used to identify languages that cannot
be represented by finite automata, guiding the choice of more powerful
computational models (like context-free grammars) for those languages.
Example of Using the Pumping Lemma
Let’s consider the language ( L = { a^n b^n | n \geq 0 } ).
1. Assume ( L ) is Regular: Suppose ( L ) is regular. By the Pumping Lemma, there
exists a pumping length ( p ).
2. Choose a String: Let ( s = a^p b^p ). Clearly, ( |s| \geq p ).
3. Decompose ( s ): According to the Pumping Lemma, we can write ( s = xyz ) such
that:
o ( |xy| \leq p )
o ( |y| > 0 )
Since ( |xy| \leq p ), both ( x ) and ( y ) consist only of ( a )s. Let’s say ( y = a^k ) where ( k >
0 ).
 4. Pump ( y ): Now consider the string ( xy^2z = xa^{2k}z ). This string will have more
( a )s than ( b )s, specifically ( a^{p+k}b^p ).
5. Contradiction: The string ( xy^2z ) is not in ( L ) because it does not have the
same number of ( a )s and ( b )s. This contradicts our assumption that ( L ) is
regular.

3.Discuss the Chomsky Hierarchy of languages by taking suitable

example of each classification.

The Chomsky Hierarchy is a classification of formal languages based on their

generative power and the types of grammars that can generate them. It was introduced
by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s and consists of four levels, each corresponding to a
di erent class of languages and grammars. The hierarchy is as follows:
1. Type 0: Recursively Enumerable Languages
 Grammar Type: Unrestricted grammars
 Definition: These languages can be generated by a Turing machine. They are the
most general class of languages and can represent any computation that can be
performed algorithmically.
 Example: The language of all strings over the alphabet {a, b} that encode a Turing
machine's computation. For instance, the language of all strings that represent
valid encodings of Turing machines that halt on a given input.
2. Type 1: Context-Sensitive Languages
 Grammar Type: Context-sensitive grammars (CSG)
 Definition: These languages can be generated by a linear-bounded automaton
(LBA). The production rules in context-sensitive grammars can be of the form (
\alpha \rightarrow \beta ), where the length of ( \alpha ) is less than or equal to the
length of ( \beta ).
 Example: The language ( L = { a^n b^n c^n | n \geq 1 } ). This language consists of
strings with equal numbers of a's, b's, and c's. A context-sensitive grammar can
be constructed to generate this language, ensuring that the number of each
symbol is the same.
3. Type 2: Context-Free Languages
 Grammar Type: Context-free grammars (CFG)
  Definition: These languages can be generated by a pushdown automaton (PDA).
The production rules in context-free grammars are of the form ( A \rightarrow
\alpha ), where ( A ) is a non-terminal and ( \alpha ) is a string of terminals and/or
non-terminals.
 Example: The language ( L = { a^n b^n | n \geq 0 } ). This language consists of
strings with equal numbers of a's followed by b's. A context-free grammar can be
defined as follows:
o ( S \rightarrow aSb | \epsilon ) This grammar generates strings like "", "ab",
"aabb", "aaabbb", etc.
4. Type 3: Regular Languages
 Grammar Type: Regular grammars
 Definition: These languages can be generated by finite automata (either
deterministic or non-deterministic). The production rules in regular grammars are
of the form ( A \rightarrow aB ) or ( A \rightarrow a ), where ( A ) and ( B ) are non-
terminals and ( a ) is a terminal.
 Example: The language ( L = { a^n | n \geq 0 } ). This language consists of strings
of a's of any length, including the empty string. A regular grammar can be defined
as follows:
o ( S \rightarrow aS | \epsilon ) This grammar generates strings like "", "a", "aa",
"aaa", etc.
Conclusion
The Chomsky Hierarchy provides a framework for understanding the relationships
between di erent classes of languages and the computational models that recognize
them. Each level of the hierarchy has its own characteristics, and as you move from
Type 3 to Type 0, the languages become more complex and the grammars more
powerful. This hierarchy is fundamental in the fields of formal language theory,
automata theory, and computational linguistics.
Q.4.Explain
1) Recursively Enumerable Language
2) Greibach Normal Form

1) Recursively Enumerable Language

Definition: A recursively enumerable language (REL) is a type of formal language that
can be recognized by a Turing machine. This means that there exists a Turing machine
that will accept any string in the language and either reject or run indefinitely on strings
not in the language. In other words, a recursively enumerable language is one for which
there is an algorithm that can enumerate all valid strings in the language.
Characteristics:
 Acceptance: If a string belongs to a recursively enumerable language, the Turing
machine will eventually halt and accept it. If the string does not belong to the
language, the Turing machine may either reject it or run forever.
 Non-Closure: Recursively enumerable languages are not closed under
complementation. This means that if a language is recursively enumerable, its
complement may not be recursively enumerable.
 Examples:
o The set of all valid programs that halt on a given input is recursively
enumerable. This is related to the Halting Problem, which states that there
is no general algorithm to determine whether a given program halts.
o The language of all strings that can be generated by a context-free grammar
is recursively enumerable.
Formal Definition: A language ( L ) is recursively enumerable if there exists a Turing
machine ( M ) such that:
 ( M ) accepts ( w ) (halts and outputs "yes") if ( w \in L ).
 ( M ) either rejects ( w ) (halts and outputs "no") or runs forever if ( w \notin L ).
2) Greibach Normal Form
Definition: Greibach Normal Form (GNF) is a specific type of normal form for context-
free grammars (CFGs). A context-free grammar is said to be in Greibach Normal Form if
all of its production rules are of the form: [ A \rightarrow a\alpha ] where:
 ( A ) is a non-terminal.
 ( a ) is a terminal symbol.
  ( \alpha ) is a (possibly empty) string of non-terminals.
In other words, each production rule in GNF starts with a terminal symbol followed by
zero or more non-terminal symbols.
Characteristics:
 Elimination of Left Recursion: GNF does not allow left recursion, which can
complicate parsing.
 Unique Representation: GNF provides a unique representation of context-free
languages, making it easier to construct parsers.
 Conversion: Any context-free grammar can be converted into an equivalent
grammar in GNF, although the process may involve intermediate forms like
Chomsky Normal Form (CNF).
Example: Consider the following context-free grammar:
1. ( S \rightarrow aAB )
2. ( A \rightarrow b )
3. ( B \rightarrow c )
This grammar is in Greibach Normal Form because each production rule starts with a
terminal symbol followed by non-terminals (or is a terminal).
Conversion to GNF: To convert a grammar to GNF, you typically follow these steps:
1. Remove left recursion.
2. Eliminate null productions (productions that derive the empty string).
3. Eliminate unit productions (productions of the form ( A \rightarrow B )).
4. Ensure that all productions conform to the GNF format.
Conclusion
Recursively enumerable languages are a broad class of languages recognized by Turing
machines, encompassing many languages that can be generated by various
computational models. Greibach Normal Form is a specific representation of context-
free grammars that facilitates parsing and analysis of context-free languages.
Understanding both concepts is essential in the fields of formal language theory and
automata theory.
Q.5 Explain Turing Machine in details along with halting problem. Also
state its applications.

Turing Machine:
A Turing Machine (TM) is a theoretical model of computation that defines an abstract
machine capable of simulating any algorithm. It was introduced by the mathematician
Alan Turing in 1936 and serves as a fundamental concept in computer science,
particularly in the study of computability and complexity.
A Turing Machine consists of the following components:
1. Tape:
o An infinite tape divided into cells, each capable of holding a single symbol
from a finite alphabet. The tape serves as both input and unbounded
memory for the machine.
2. Head:
o A read/write head that can move left or right along the tape. It reads the
symbol in the current cell and can write a new symbol in that cell.
3. State Register:
o A finite set of states, including a start state and one or more accepting (or
halting) states. The state register keeps track of the current state of the
machine.
4. Transition Function:
o A set of rules that dictate the machine's behavior. The transition function
takes the current state and the symbol under the head as input and
specifies:
 The symbol to write in the current cell.
 The direction to move the head (left or right).
 The next state to transition to.
A Turing Machine can be formally defined as a 7-tuple ( (Q, \Sigma, \Gamma, \delta,
q_0, q_{accept}, q_{reject}) ), where:
 ( Q ): A finite set of states.
 ( \Sigma ): A finite set of input symbols (input alphabet).
 ( \Gamma ): A finite set of tape symbols (including a blank symbol).
  ( \delta ): The transition function ( \delta: Q \times \Gamma \rightarrow Q \times
\Gamma \times {L, R} ).
 ( q_0 ): The initial state (where computation starts).
 ( q_{accept} ): The accepting state (indicating successful completion).
 ( q_{reject} ): The rejecting state (indicating failure).
1. The machine starts in the initial state ( q_0 ) with the input written on the tape.
2. The head reads the symbol in the current cell.
3. Based on the current state and the symbol read, the transition function
determines:
o The symbol to write in the current cell.
o The direction to move the head (left or right).
o The next state to transition to.
4. The process repeats until the machine reaches either the accepting state (
q_{accept} ) or the rejecting state ( q_{reject} ).

Halting Problem
The Halting Problem is a decision problem that asks whether a given Turing machine
will halt (stop running) on a specific input or continue to run indefinitely. Alan Turing
proved that there is no general algorithm that can solve the Halting Problem for all
possible Turing machines and inputs, making it undecidable.
Given a Turing machine ( M ) and an input string ( w ), the Halting Problem can be stated
as follows:
 Determine whether ( M ) halts on input ( w ).
1. Assume a Halting Algorithm Exists: Suppose there exists a Turing machine ( H )
that can decide the Halting Problem. ( H(M, w) ) returns "yes" if ( M ) halts on ( w )
and "no" otherwise.
2. Construct a New Machine: Create a new Turing machine ( D ) that uses ( H ):
o ( D ) takes an input ( x ).
o If ( H(x, x) ) returns "yes" (meaning ( x ) halts on itself), then ( D ) enters an
infinite loop.
o If ( H(x, x) ) returns "no", then ( D ) halts.
 3. Contradiction: Now consider what happens when we run ( D ) on its own
description ( D(D) ):
o If ( D(D) ) halts, then by the definition of ( D ), it must loop forever.
o If ( D(D) ) loops forever, then it must halt according to the definition of ( D ).
This contradiction shows that no such halting algorithm ( H ) can exist, proving that the
Halting Problem is undecidable.
Applications of Turing Machines
Turing Machines have several important applications in computer science and related
fields:
1. Theoretical Foundation of Computation: Turing Machines provide a formal
framework for understanding what it means for a function to be computable and
help establish the limits of what can be computed algorithmically.
2. Complexity Theory: They are used to classify problems based on their
computational complexity, leading to the development of complexity classes
such as P, NP, and PSPACE.
3. Algorithm Design: Turing Machines serve as a model for designing algorithms,
allowing researchers to analyze the e iciency and correctness of algorithms in a
rigorous manner.
4. Programming Language Theory: They help in understanding the capabilities and
limitations of programming languages, influencing the design of compilers and
interpreters.
5. Artificial Intelligence: Turing Machines are foundational in the study of
algorithms that underpin AI, particularly in areas like machine learning and
automated reasoning.
6. Cryptography: Concepts derived from Turing Machines are applied in
cryptographic protocols, particularly in understanding the security of algorithms
against computational attacks.
7. Formal Verification: They are used in the formal verification of software and
hardware systems, ensuring that systems behave as intended under all possible
inputs.
8. Automata Theory: Turing Machines are a central concept in automata theory,
which studies abstract machines and the problems they can solve, leading to
insights in both theoretical and practical applications in computer science.
### Conclusion
Turing Machines are a cornerstone of theoretical computer science, providing a robust
framework for understanding computation, decidability, and complexity. The Halting
Problem exemplifies the limits of algorithmic computation, illustrating that not all
problems can be solved algorithmically. The applications of Turing Machines extend
across various domains, influencing the development of algorithms, programming
languages, and systems in computer science, as well as contributing to advancements
in artificial intelligence and cryptography. Understanding Turing Machines and their
implications is essential for anyone studying the foundations of computation and its
applications.

Q6. Explain Random access Turing Machines and Non deterministic

Turing Machines.
Random Access Turing Machines (RATMs):
Definition: A Random Access Turing Machine (RATM) is a theoretical model of
computation that extends the traditional Turing machine by allowing random access to
its tape. Unlike a standard Turing machine, which can only read and write symbols
sequentially (one cell at a time), a RATM can directly access any cell on the tape in a
single operation.
1. Random Access: The RATM can jump to any position on the tape and read or
write data in constant time. This is akin to how modern computers access
memory.
2. Tape Structure: The tape is still infinite and divided into cells, but the RATM can
access any cell without needing to move the head sequentially.
3. Transition Function: The transition function of a RATM is similar to that of a
standard Turing machine, but it includes the ability to specify arbitrary tape
positions for reading and writing.
4. Computational Power: RATMs are equivalent in computational power to
standard Turing machines in terms of the languages they can recognize. However,
they can be more e icient for certain algorithms due to their ability to access
data randomly.
5. Applications: While RATMs are primarily a theoretical construct, they can be
used to model algorithms that require e icient data access, such as those found
in databases and certain computational problems.
Non-Deterministic Turing Machines (NDTMs):
Definition: A Non-Deterministic Turing Machine (NDTM) is a theoretical model of
computation that extends the concept of a standard Turing machine by allowing
multiple possible transitions for a given state and input symbol. In other words, an
NDTM can "choose" between di erent actions at each step of its computation.
1. Multiple Transitions: For a given state and input symbol, an NDTM can have
several possible next states. This means that the machine can explore multiple
computational paths simultaneously.
2. Acceptance Criteria: An NDTM accepts an input string if there exists at least one
computation path that leads to an accepting state. If any path accepts, the input
is considered accepted.
3. Transition Function: The transition function of an NDTM is defined as ( \delta: Q
\times \Gamma \rightarrow P(Q \times \Gamma \times {L, R}) ), where ( P )
denotes the power set, allowing for multiple possible transitions.
4. Computational Power: NDTMs are equivalent in power to deterministic Turing
machines (DTMs) in terms of the languages they can recognize (both can
recognize the class of recursively enumerable languages). However, NDTMs can
be more e icient in terms of time complexity for certain problems.
5. Applications: NDTMs are primarily used in theoretical computer science to study
complexity classes, particularly in the context of NP (nondeterministic
polynomial time) problems. They are instrumental in understanding problems
that can be verified quickly (in polynomial time) even if they cannot be solved
quickly.

Conclusion
Random Access Turing Machines and Non-Deterministic Turing Machines are both
important theoretical models in the study of computation. RATMs provide a framework
for understanding algorithms that require e icient data access, while NDTMs are
crucial for exploring the complexities of decision problems and the relationships
between di erent complexity classes. Both models contribute to our understanding of
the limits and capabilities of computation.
Q.7 Define Mealy machine and Moore machine .

Mealy Machine
A Mealy Machine is a type of finite state machine (FSM) that produces outputs based
on its current state and the current input. It is named after George H. Mealy, who
introduced this concept in 1955. The key characteristic of a Mealy machine is that the
output can change immediately in response to an input change.
A Mealy machine can be formally defined as a 6-tuple ( (S, S_0, \Sigma, \Lambda,
\delta, \omega) ), where:
1. S: A finite set of states.
2. ( S_0 ): The initial state (where the machine starts).
3. ( \Sigma ): A finite set of input symbols (input alphabet).
4. ( \Lambda ): A finite set of output symbols (output alphabet).
5. ( \delta ): A state transition function ( \delta: S \times \Sigma \rightarrow S ) that
defines the next state based on the current state and input symbol.
6. ( \omega ): An output function ( \omega: S \times \Sigma \rightarrow \Lambda )
that defines the output based on the current state and input symbol.
 Output Generation: The output is generated as soon as the input is received,
which can lead to faster response times.
 State Transitions: The transitions between states depend on both the current
state and the input symbol.
 E iciency: Mealy machines can often require fewer states than equivalent Moore
machines for the same functionality.
Example of a Mealy Machine
Consider a simple Mealy machine that outputs a binary signal based on the input
sequence of bits. The output is '1' if the last two inputs are '01', and '0' otherwise.
 States: ( S = {S_0, S_1, S_2} )
 Input Alphabet: ( \Sigma = {0, 1} )
 Output Alphabet: ( \Lambda = {0, 1} )
 Transition Function:
o ( \delta(S_0, 0) = S_0 )
o ( \delta(S_0, 1) = S_1 )
 o ( \delta(S_1, 0) = S_2 )
o ( \delta(S_1, 1) = S_1 )
o ( \delta(S_2, 0) = S_0 )
o ( \delta(S_2, 1) = S_1 )
 Output Function:
o ( \omega(S_0, 0) = 0 )
o ( \omega(S_0, 1) = 0 )
o ( \omega(S_1, 0) = 0 )
o ( \omega(S_1, 1) = 0 )
o ( \omega(S_2, 0) = 0 )
o ( \omega(S_2, 1) = 1 )
Moore Machine:
A Moore Machine is another type of finite state machine that produces outputs based
solely on its current state. It is named after Edward F. Moore, who introduced this
concept in 1956. The key characteristic of a Moore machine is that the output is
associated with states rather than transitions.
A Moore machine can be formally defined as a 6-tuple ( (S, S_0, \Sigma, \Lambda,
\delta, \omega) ), where:
1. S: A finite set of states.
2. ( S_0 ): The initial state (where the machine starts).
3. ( \Sigma ): A finite set of input symbols (input alphabet).
4. ( \Lambda ): A finite set of output symbols (output alphabet).
5. ( \delta ): A state transition function ( \delta: S \times \Sigma \rightarrow S ) that
defines the next state based on the current state and input symbol.
6. ( \omega ): An output function ( \omega: S \rightarrow \Lambda ) that defines the
output based solely on the current state.
 Output Generation: The output is determined by the current state and does not
change until the state changes, which can lead to more stable outputs.
 State Transitions: The transitions between states depend only on the current
state and the input symbol.
 Simplicity: Moore machines are generally simpler to design and analyze because
the output is directly tied to the state.
Example of a Moore Machine
Consider a simple Moore machine that outputs a binary signal based on the input
sequence of bits. The output is '1' if the last input was '1', and '0' otherwise.
 States: ( S = {S_0, S_1} )
 Input Alphabet: ( \Sigma = {0, 1} )
 Output Alphabet: ( \Lambda = {0, 1} )
 Transition Function:
o ( \delta(S_0, 0) = S_0 )
o ( \delta(S_0, 1) = S_1 )
o ( \delta(S_1, 0) = S_0 )
o ( \delta(S_1, 1) = S_1 )
 Output Function:
o ( \omega(S_0) = 0 )
o ( \omega(S_1) = 1 )
Comparison of Mealy and Moore Machines
Conclusion:
Both Mealy and Moore machines are fundamental concepts in the study of automata
theory and finite state machines. They serve di erent purposes and have distinct
characteristics that make them suitable for various applications in digital logic design
and computational theory. Understanding their di erences is crucial for selecting the
appropriate model for a given problem.
Q8.Explain Chomsky classification of grammars .
The Chomsky Hierarchy is a classification of formal grammars that was introduced by
Noam Chomsky in the 1950s. It categorizes grammars based on their generative power
and the types of languages they can generate. The hierarchy consists of four types of
grammars, each corresponding to a di erent class of languages. Here’s a detailed
explanation of each type:
1. Type 0: Recursively Enumerable Languages
 Grammar Type: Unrestricted Grammars
 Definition: These grammars have no restrictions on their production rules. They
can generate any language that can be recognized by a Turing machine.
 Production Rules: The rules can be of the form ( \alpha \rightarrow \beta ), where
( \alpha ) can be any string of terminals and non-terminals, and ( \beta ) can also
be any string of terminals and non-terminals.
 Example: The language of all strings over the alphabet {a, b} that encode a Turing
machine's computation.
 Closure Properties: Recursively enumerable languages are closed under union,
concatenation, and Kleene star but not under intersection or complementation.
2. Type 1: Context-Sensitive Languages
 Grammar Type: Context-Sensitive Grammars (CSG)
 Definition: These grammars generate languages that can be recognized by linear-
bounded automata (a restricted form of Turing machines). The production rules
must be context-sensitive, meaning the length of the left-hand side of the
production must be less than or equal to the length of the right-hand side.
 Production Rules: The rules are of the form ( \alpha \rightarrow \beta ), where (
|\alpha| \leq |\beta| ).
 Example: The language ( L = { a^n b^n c^n | n \geq 1 } ), which consists of strings
with equal numbers of a's, b's, and c's.
 Closure Properties: Context-sensitive languages are closed under union,
intersection, and complementation.
3. Type 2: Context-Free Languages
 Grammar Type: Context-Free Grammars (CFG)
 Definition: These grammars generate languages that can be recognized by
pushdown automata. The production rules are context-free, meaning they can be
applied regardless of the surrounding symbols.
  Production Rules: The rules are of the form ( A \rightarrow \alpha ), where ( A ) is
a non-terminal and ( \alpha ) is a string of terminals and/or non-terminals.
 Example: The language ( L = { a^n b^n | n \geq 0 } ), which consists of strings with
equal numbers of a's followed by b's.
 Closure Properties: Context-free languages are closed under union,
concatenation, and Kleene star but not under intersection or complementation.
4. Type 3: Regular Languages
 Grammar Type: Regular Grammars
 Definition: These grammars generate the simplest class of languages, which can
be recognized by finite automata. The production rules are restricted to ensure
that they can be represented by regular expressions.
 Production Rules: The rules can be of the form ( A \rightarrow aB ) or ( A
\rightarrow a ), where ( A ) and ( B ) are non-terminals and ( a ) is a terminal.
 Example: The language ( L = { a^n | n \geq 0 } ), which consists of strings of a's of
any length, including the empty string.
 Closure Properties: Regular languages are closed under union, intersection,
complementation, concatenation, and Kleene star.
Summary of the Chomsky Hierarchy
Conclusion
The Chomsky Hierarchy provides a framework for understanding the relationships
between di erent classes of languages and the grammars that generate them.

Q9.Find a reduced grammar G to the grammar given below

S→ AB|CA
A→ a
B→BC|AB
C→aB|b
Given Grammar:
S → AB | CA
A→a
B → BC | AB
C → aB | b
Step 1: Identify Useless Symbols
A symbol is considered useless if:
1. It does not lead to a terminal string (Non-generating symbols).
2. It is not reachable from the start symbol (Unreachable symbols).
1. Find Generating Symbols
A generating symbol eventually produces a terminal string.

 A→a (Generates a terminal)

 C → aB | b

o b is a terminal
o aB depends on B, so check B.
 B → BC | AB
o BC depends on B and C.
o AB depends on A and B.

o Since B is dependent on itself, it never produces a terminal string .

Thus, B is useless and can be removed.
2. Remove Productions Involving B
After removing B, the updated grammar is:
S → CA
A→a
C→b

Step 2: Final Reduced Grammar

S → CA
A→a
C→b
This is the reduced grammar since:
1. All symbols generate terminal strings.
2. No unreachable or redundant symbols remain.
 Final Answer:
S → CA
A→a
C→b

This is the simplest form of the given grammar.

Q10.Design a TM to find one’s complement of the binary number.

Design a Turing Machine (TM) to Find One’s Complement of a Binary Number
Problem Statement:
A Turing Machine (TM) should take a binary number as input (consisting of 0s and 1s)
and output its one’s complement, where:
 0 is replaced with 1
 1 is replaced with 0
 The machine should halt after processing the entire string.

Components of the Turing Machine

A Turing Machine (TM) is defined as a 7-tuple (Q, Σ, Γ, δ, q₀, B, F) where:
 Q = {q0, q1, q_accept} (Finite set of states)
 Σ = {0,1} (Input alphabet)
 Γ = {0,1,□} (Tape alphabet, including blank symbol ‘□’)
 δ = Transition function (defined below)
 q0 = Initial state
 B (□) = Blank symbol
 F = {q_accept} (Final state)
State Transition Table

Current State Read Symbol Write Symbol Move Next State

q0 0 1 → q0

q0 1 0 → q0

q0 □ (Blank) □ Stay q_accept

Explanation:
1. If the machine reads 0, it replaces it with 1 and moves right.
2. If it reads 1, it replaces it with 0 and moves right.
3. When it reaches a blank (□), it halts.

State Diagram
(q0) --0/1--> (q0) --0/1--> (q0) --□/□--> (q_accept)

Example Execution
Input:
1010□ (Binary number with blank at the end)
Step-by-Step Execution:

Tape Content Head Position Action

1010□ ^ Read 1, Write 0, Move Right

0010□ ^ Read 0, Write 1, Move Right

0110□ ^ Read 1, Write 0, Move Right

0100□ ^ Read 0, Write 1, Move Right

0101□ ^ Read □, Halt

Output:
0101 (One’s complement of 1010)
Conclusion
 The Turing Machine scans the input from left to right, replacing each 0 with 1
and 1 with 0.
 It halts when it reaches a blank (□), leaving the one’s complement on the tape.
 Time complexity: O(n), where n is the length of the binary string.

Final Answer: This Turing Machine successfully computes the one's complement
of a binary number.

Q11.Explain the following 1)Turing Machine with stay-option 2) Multiple

Tapes Turing Machine

1) Turing Machine with Stay-Option

A Turing Machine with a stay-option is an extension of the standard Turing machine
model that allows the read/write head to remain in the same position after reading a
symbol. In a traditional Turing machine, the head can only move left or right after
reading a symbol, but with the stay-option, the head can also choose to stay in place.
The components of a Turing machine with a stay-option are similar to those of a
standard Turing machine, with the addition of the stay option in the transition function:
1. Tape: An infinite tape divided into cells, each capable of holding a single symbol
from a finite alphabet.
2. Head: A read/write head that can move left, right, or stay in the same position.
3. State Register: A finite set of states, including a start state and one or more
accepting states.
4. Transition Function: The transition function now includes the option to stay in
place. It can be defined as: [ \delta: Q \times \Gamma \rightarrow Q \times
\Gamma \times {L, R, S} ] where ( S ) indicates that the head should stay in the
same position.
For example, a transition might look like this:
 If the machine is in state ( q_1 ) and reads a symbol ( a ), it might write ( b ), move
right, and transition to state ( q_2 ), or it might write ( b ), stay in place, and
transition to state ( q_3 ).
The stay-option can simplify certain computations and algorithms, making it easier to
design Turing machines for specific tasks. It can also be useful in theoretical
discussions about the power of computation, as it allows for more flexibility in state
transitions.
2) Multiple Tapes Turing Machine
A Multiple Tapes Turing Machine is an extension of the standard Turing machine that
has more than one tape and corresponding read/write heads. Each tape operates
independently, and the machine can read from and write to multiple tapes
simultaneously.
1. Multiple Tapes: The machine has ( k ) tapes, where ( k ) is a positive integer. Each
tape is infinite and divided into cells, similar to a single-tape Turing machine.
2. Multiple Heads: Each tape has its own read/write head that can move
independently. The heads can move left, right, or stay in place.
3. State Register: A finite set of states, including a start state and one or more
accepting states.
4. Transition Function: The transition function for a multiple tapes Turing machine
is defined as: [ \delta: Q \times \Gamma^k \rightarrow Q \times \Gamma^k
\times {L, R, S}^k ] where ( \Gamma^k ) represents the symbols read from all ( k )
tapes, and ( {L, R, S}^k ) indicates the movement of each head.
For example, a transition might look like this:
 If the machine is in state ( q_1 ) and reads symbols ( (a, b) ) from tape 1 and tape
2, it might write ( (b, a) ) to the tapes, move the first head right and the second
head left, and transition to state ( q_2 ).
Multiple tapes Turing machines are often used in theoretical computer science to
simplify the design of algorithms and to analyze the complexity of problems. They can
simulate a single-tape Turing machine, and it has been shown that any language
recognized by a multiple-tape Turing machine can also be recognized by a single-tape
Turing machine, although the single-tape machine may require more time to do so.
Conclusion
Both Turing machines with a stay-option and multiple tapes Turing machines are
important extensions of the standard Turing machine model. The stay-option provides
additional flexibility in state transitions, while multiple tapes allow for more complex
computations and can simplify the design of algorithms. These variations contribute to
our understanding of computation and the limits of what can be computed
algorithmically.
Q12.State and explain applications of Regular Expressions.

Regular expressions (regex or regexp) are powerful tools used for pattern matching and
manipulation of strings. They are widely used in various fields of computer science and
software development due to their ability to define search patterns in a concise and
flexible manner. Here are some key applications of regular expressions:
1. Text Search and Manipulation
 Searching: Regular expressions are commonly used in text editors and
programming languages to search for specific patterns within text. For example,
finding all occurrences of email addresses, phone numbers, or specific keywords
in a document.
 Replacing Text: Regex can be used to perform search-and-replace operations.
For instance, replacing all instances of a specific word or pattern with another
word or pattern in a text file.
2. Data Validation
 Input Validation: Regular expressions are often used to validate user input in
forms. For example, checking if an email address is in a valid format, ensuring a
password meets certain criteria (e.g., length, character types), or validating
phone numbers.
 Format Checking: Regex can be used to ensure that strings conform to specific
formats, such as dates (e.g., YYYY-MM-DD), credit card numbers, or social
security numbers.
3. Syntax Highlighting
 Code Editors: Many code editors and integrated development environments
(IDEs) use regular expressions for syntax highlighting. They can identify keywords,
comments, strings, and other language constructs based on defined patterns.
4. Log Analysis
 Parsing Logs: Regular expressions are used to analyze and extract information
from log files. For example, identifying error messages, timestamps, or specific
events in server logs.
 Filtering Logs: Regex can help filter log entries based on specific patterns,
making it easier to identify issues or track specific activities.
5. Web Scraping
  Data Extraction: Regular expressions are often used in web scraping to extract
specific data from HTML or XML documents. For example, extracting product
prices, titles, or descriptions from e-commerce websites.
 URL Matching: Regex can be used to match and extract URLs from text, allowing
for the collection of links or resources from web pages.
6. Natural Language Processing (NLP)
 Tokenization: In NLP, regular expressions can be used to split text into tokens,
such as words or sentences, based on specific delimiters or patterns.
 Named Entity Recognition: Regex can help identify and extract named entities
(e.g., names of people, organizations, locations) from unstructured text.
7. Compilers and Interpreters
 Lexical Analysis: Regular expressions are used in the lexical analysis phase of
compilers to define the tokens of a programming language. They help identify
keywords, operators, identifiers, and literals in source code.
8. Network Security
 Intrusion Detection: Regular expressions can be used in intrusion detection
systems to identify patterns of malicious activity in network tra ic or logs.
 Input Filtering: Regex can help filter and sanitize user input to prevent injection
attacks, such as SQL injection or cross-site scripting (XSS).
9. Configuration Management
 Configuration Files: Regular expressions can be used to parse and validate
configuration files, ensuring that settings conform to expected patterns.
Conclusion
Regular expressions are versatile tools that find applications across various domains,
including text processing, data validation, web development, and security. Their ability
to define complex search patterns in a concise manner makes them invaluable for
developers and data analysts alike. Understanding and e ectively using regular
expressions can significantly enhance productivity and e iciency in many programming
and data manipulation tasks.
Q13.Write a regular expression over alphabet ∑ = {0, 1} for following . (i)
begins with 1, ends with 1 (ii) ends with 00 (iii) contains at least three
consecutive 1s
Regular Expressions over Alphabet Σ = {0,1}:
A regular expression (RegEx) defines a pattern for matching strings over a given
alphabet. Below are the required RegEx patterns:

(i) Strings that begin with '1' and end with '1'
Regular Expression:
1[01]*1
Explanation:
 1 → The string must start with 1.
 [01]* → Any combination of 0s and 1s (including empty string).
 1 → The string must end with 1.
Example Accepted Strings:

11, 101, 111, 1001, 1101

Example Rejected Strings:

0, 10, 110, 001

(ii) Strings that end with "00"

Regular Expression:
[01]*00
Explanation:
 [01]* → Any combination of 0s and 1s (including empty string).
 00 → The string must end with 00.
Example Accepted Strings:

00, 100, 1100, 1010100

Example Rejected Strings:

0, 10, 111, 101

(iii) Strings that contain at least three consecutive '1's
Regular Expression:
[01]*111[01]*
Explanation:
 [01]* → Any combination of 0s and 1s before the occurrence of 111.
 111 → Ensures at least three consecutive 1s appear in the string.
 [01]* → Any combination of 0s and 1s after 111.
Example Accepted Strings:

111, 0111, 1110, 011101, 1101110

Example Rejected Strings:

0, 11, 10101, 1001

Final Answer (Summary of Regular Expressions):

1. Begins with 1, ends with 1: 1[01]*1
2. Ends with 00: [01]*00
3. Contains at least three consecutive 1s: [01]*111[01]*

Q14.When does context free grammar is said to be in Chomsky Normal

Form(CNF)? Write steps to convert context free grammar into CNF.

Chomsky Normal Form (CNF) in Context-Free Grammar

Definition of CNF:
A Context-Free Grammar (CFG) is said to be in Chomsky Normal Form (CNF) if all
production rules are of the form:
1. A → BC (where A, B, and C are non-terminals, and B, C are not the start symbol)
2. A → a (where A is a non-terminal, and ‘a’ is a terminal)
3. S → ε (Only allowed if the language includes ε, where S is the start symbol)
Thus, in CNF:
 No rule can have more than two non-terminals on the right-hand side.
 No rule can have a mix of terminals and non-terminals.
 Epsilon (ε) productions are only allowed for the start symbol.

Steps to Convert CFG into CNF

To convert a Context-Free Grammar (CFG) into Chomsky Normal Form (CNF), follow
these steps:
Step 1: Eliminate Null (ε) Productions
 Remove rules of the form A → ε (except for the start symbol if necessary).
 Replace occurrences of A with optional rules where A appears.
Example:
S → AB | ε
A→a
B→b

Remove S → ε and modify rules accordingly.

Step 2: Eliminate Unit Productions (A → B)

 If a rule is of the form A → B (where B is a single non-terminal), replace A with all
productions of B.
Example:
S→A
A→a

Replace S → A with S → a.

Step 3: Eliminate Useless Symbols

 Remove non-reachable and non-generating symbols.

Step 4: Convert Terminals in Mixed Productions

  If a rule has both terminals and non-terminals, replace terminals with new non-
terminals.
Example:
A → aB

Introduce X → a and rewrite as:

A → XB
X→a

Step 5: Convert Productions to Binary Form (A → BC)

 If a production has more than two non-terminals, break it into multiple steps.
Example:
S → ABC

Introduce X → BC, rewrite as:

S → AX
X → BC

Example Conversion to CNF

Given Grammar:
S → AB | A | ε
A → a | BC
B→b
C→c
Step-by-Step Conversion:
1. Remove Null Productions (ε)
2. S → AB | A
3. A → a | BC
4. B → b
5. C → c
6. Remove Unit Productions (A → a)
 7. S → AB | a
8. A → BC
9. B → b
10. C→c
11. Replace Terminals in Mixed Rules (A → BC, B → b, C → c)
12. X1 → a, X2 → b, X3 → c
13. S → AB | X1
14. A → BC
15. B → X2
16. C → X3
17. Ensure Binary Productions (A → BC is already valid)
18. S → AB | X1
19. A → BC
20. B → X2
21. C → X3
22. X1 → a
23. X2 → b
24. X3 → c

Final CNF Grammar:

S → AB | X1
A → BC
B → X2
C → X3
X1 → a
X2 → b
X3 → c
Q15.Write the productions rule of Context free grammar for following
regular expressions. (i) 0* (ii) (a+b)* (iii) (ab)*

Context-Free Grammar (CFG) for Given Regular Expressions

A Context-Free Grammar (CFG) consists of production rules that define how a
language can be generated. Below are the CFGs for the given regular expressions.

(i) Regular Expression: 0*

This represents zero or more occurrences of 0.
CFG Production Rules:
S → 0S | ε
Explanation:
 S → 0S → Generates one or more 0s.
 S → ε → Allows an empty string (since 0* includes ε).

(ii) Regular Expression: (a + b)*

This represents zero or more occurrences of a or b.
CFG Production Rules:
S → aS | bS | ε
Explanation:
 S → aS → Adds a followed by another valid string.
 S → bS → Adds b followed by another valid string.
 S → ε → Allows an empty string.

(iii) Regular Expression: (ab)*

This represents zero or more repetitions of the substring ab.
CFG Production Rules:
S → abS | ε
Explanation:
 S → abS → Generates ab followed by another valid string.
 S → ε → Allows an empty string (since (ab)* includes ε).

Final Answer (All CFGs Together):

(i) 0* → S → 0S | ε
(ii) (a+b)* → S → aS | bS | ε
(iii) (ab)* → S → abS | ε
These CFGs successfully generate the languages defined by the given regular
expressions.

Q16. What are the di erent components of Pushdown Automaton?

Explain with neat diagram.

A Pushdown Automaton (PDA) is a type of automaton that extends the capabilities of

a finite automaton by adding a stack, which provides additional memory. This allows
PDAs to recognize a broader class of languages, specifically context-free languages.
Components of a Pushdown Automaton:
A Pushdown Automaton is formally defined as a 7-tuple ( (Q, \Sigma, \Gamma, \delta,
q_0, Z_0, F) ), where:
1. Q: A finite set of states.
2. Σ (Sigma): A finite set of input symbols (input alphabet).
3. Γ (Gamma): A finite set of stack symbols (stack alphabet).
4. δ (delta): A transition function ( \delta: Q \times \Sigma \times \Gamma
\rightarrow P(Q \times \Gamma^*) ), which defines the state transitions based on
the current state, the current input symbol, and the top symbol of the stack. The
output can be a set of pairs of the next state and the string of stack symbols to
push onto the stack.
5. ( q_0 ): The initial state, where the computation begins ( ( q_0 \in Q ) ).
6. ( Z_0 ): The initial stack symbol, which is pushed onto the stack at the beginning
of the computation.
 7. F: A set of accepting states ( ( F \subseteq Q ) ) that determine whether the input
string is accepted by the automaton.
Diagram of a Pushdown Automaton
Here is a simple diagram representing the components of a Pushdown Automaton:
Explanation of Components
1. States (Q): The PDA can be in one of a finite number of states at any time. The
state determines the current status of the computation.
2. Input Symbols (Σ): The PDA reads input symbols from a finite alphabet. The input
is processed one symbol at a time.
3. Stack Symbols (Γ): The PDA has a stack that can hold symbols from a finite stack
alphabet. The stack allows the PDA to store an unbounded amount of
information, which is crucial for recognizing context-free languages.
4. Transition Function (δ): The transition function defines how the PDA moves from
one state to another based on the current state, the current input symbol, and
the top symbol of the stack. It can also specify how to modify the stack (push or
pop symbols).
5. Initial State (q0): The state where the PDA starts processing the input.
6. Initial Stack Symbol (Z0): The symbol that is initially placed on the stack. It
serves as a marker to indicate the bottom of the stack.
7. Accepting States (F): The set of states that determine whether the input string is
accepted. If the PDA reaches one of these states after processing the input, the
input is accepted.
Working of a Pushdown Automaton
1. The PDA starts in the initial state ( q_0 ) with the initial stack symbol ( Z_0 ) on the
stack.
2. It reads the input string symbol by symbol.
3. Based on the current state, the input symbol, and the top symbol of the stack, the
PDA uses the transition function to determine the next state and how to modify
the stack.
4. The PDA can push symbols onto the stack, pop symbols from the stack, or leave
the stack unchanged.
5. The PDA accepts the input if it reaches an accepting state after processing the
entire input string.
Q17. Explain the following (i)Multihead Turing machine (ii)Universal
Turing machine (iii) Non Deterministic Turing machine

(i) Multihead Turing Machine:

A Multihead Turing Machine is an extension of the standard Turing machine that has
multiple read/write heads operating on the same tape. Each head can read and write
symbols independently, and they can move left or right independently as well.
1. Tape: An infinite tape divided into cells, similar to a standard Turing machine.
2. Multiple Heads: The machine has ( k ) heads (where ( k ) is a positive integer),
each capable of reading and writing symbols on the tape.
3. State Register: A finite set of states, including a start state and one or more
accepting states.
4. Transition Function: The transition function is defined as: [ \delta: Q \times
\Gamma^k \rightarrow Q \times \Gamma^k \times {L, R}^k ] where ( \Gamma^k )
represents the symbols read from all ( k ) tapes, and ( {L, R}^k ) indicates the
movement of each head.
 Computational Power: Multihead Turing machines are equivalent in
computational power to standard Turing machines. Any language recognized by a
multihead Turing machine can also be recognized by a standard Turing machine,
although the latter may require more time.
 Parallelism: The multiple heads allow for more complex operations and can
simplify certain algorithms, as they can read multiple parts of the tape
simultaneously.
(ii) Universal Turing Machine:
A Universal Turing Machine (UTM) is a theoretical model of computation that can
simulate any other Turing machine. It is a key concept in computability theory and
serves as a foundation for understanding the limits of computation.
1. Tape: An infinite tape that can hold both the description of the Turing machine to
be simulated and its input.
2. Single Head: A single read/write head that can read and write symbols on the
tape.
3. State Register: A finite set of states, including a start state and one or more
accepting states.
 4. Transition Function: The transition function is designed to interpret the encoded
description of another Turing machine and simulate its behavior.
 Simulation: The UTM takes as input a description of a Turing machine ( M ) and
an input string ( w ) for ( M ). It simulates the computation of ( M ) on ( w ).
 Universality: The existence of a UTM demonstrates that a single machine can
perform any computation that can be described algorithmically, given the
appropriate input and description.
 Foundation of Computer Science: The concept of a UTM is fundamental to the
theory of computation and is closely related to the Church-Turing thesis, which
posits that any e ectively calculable function can be computed by a Turing
machine.
(iii) Non-Deterministic Turing Machine:
A Non-Deterministic Turing Machine (NDTM) is an extension of the standard Turing
machine that allows for multiple possible transitions for a given state and input symbol.
In other words, an NDTM can "choose" between di erent actions at each step of its
computation.
1. Tape: An infinite tape divided into cells, similar to a standard Turing machine.
2. Single Head: A single read/write head that can read and write symbols on the
tape.
3. State Register: A finite set of states, including a start state and one or more
accepting states.
4. Transition Function: The transition function is defined as: [ \delta: Q \times
\Gamma \rightarrow P(Q \times \Gamma \times {L, R}) ] where ( P ) denotes the
power set, allowing for multiple possible transitions.
 Multiple Paths: For a given state and input symbol, an NDTM can have several
possible next states. This means that the machine can explore multiple
computational paths simultaneously.
 Acceptance Criteria: An NDTM accepts an input string if there exists at least one
computation path that leads to an accepting state. If any path accepts, the input
is considered accepted.
 Equivalence to Deterministic Turing Machines: While NDTMs can be more
e icient in terms of time complexity for certain problems, it has been shown that
any language recognized by an NDTM can also be recognized by a deterministic
Turing machine (DTM), although the DTM may require more time.
Q18. What is Church Turing Thesis ? Explain.

Church-Turing Thesis
The Church-Turing Thesis is a fundamental principle in the field of
theoretical computer science and mathematical logic that proposes a
definition of what it means for a function to be computable. It asserts that
any function that can be e ectively computed by an algorithm can also be
computed by a Turing machine. In essence, it establishes a conceptual
equivalence between various models of computation.
The thesis is named after two prominent figures:
1. Alonzo Church: In the 1930s, Church developed lambda calculus, a
formal system for expressing computation based on function
abstraction and application. He demonstrated that certain functions
could be computed using this system.
2. Alan Turing: Independently, Turing introduced the concept of the
Turing machine, a theoretical model that formalizes the notion of
computation. Turing machines can simulate any algorithmic process,
and he proved that certain problems are undecidable using this model.
Both Church and Turing arrived at similar conclusions regarding the limits of
computation, leading to the formulation of the Church-Turing Thesis.
 The Church-Turing Thesis can be informally stated as follows:
"Any function that can be e ectively computed can be computed by a
Turing machine."
 If a function can be computed by any mechanical process or algorithm,
then there exists a Turing machine that can compute that function.
 Conversely, if a function cannot be computed by a Turing machine, it
cannot be computed by any algorithmic means.
1. Limits of Computation: The thesis establishes fundamental limits on
what can be computed. It implies that there are certain problems (e.g.,
the Halting Problem) that are undecidable, meaning no algorithm can
solve them.
 2. Equivalence of Models: The Church-Turing Thesis suggests that
various models of computation (such as lambda calculus, recursive
functions, and Turing machines) are equivalent in terms of their
computational power. If a function is computable in one model, it is
computable in all equivalent models.
3. Foundation for Computer Science: The thesis serves as a foundation
for the study of algorithms, complexity theory, and the development of
programming languages. It underpins the understanding of what it
means for a problem to be solvable by a computer.
4. Philosophical Implications: The Church-Turing Thesis raises
philosophical questions about the nature of computation and the
limits of human and machine intelligence. It suggests that any
computation that can be described algorithmically is fundamentally
the same as any computation that can be performed by a Turing
machine.
While the Church-Turing Thesis is widely accepted, it is important to note
that it is not a formal theorem that can be proven. Instead, it is a hypothesis
based on empirical evidence and the observation of various computational
models. As such, it remains a topic of philosophical discussion and debate,
particularly in the context of quantum computing and other advanced
computational paradigms.
Conclusion:
The Church-Turing Thesis is a cornerstone of theoretical computer science,
providing a framework for understanding the limits of computation and the
equivalence of di erent computational models. It asserts that Turing
machines capture the essence of what it means to compute, establishing a
foundation for the study of algorithms, decidability, and the nature of
computation itself.
Q19. Explain in brief Chomsky hierarchy with suitable examples?

Chomsky Hierarchy
The Chomsky Hierarchy is a classification of formal grammars and languages based on
their generative power. It categorizes grammars into four levels, each with increasing
complexity and expressiveness:
 Type 0: Unrestricted Grammars (Phrases-Structure Grammars)
o Definition: The most general type of grammars, allowing any possible
rewrite rule.
o Examples:
 Any language can be generated by an unrestricted grammar.
 Turing machines can be used to implement unrestricted grammars.
 Type 1: Context-Sensitive Grammars
o Definition: Rewrite rules require the context of the symbol being rewritten
to be present.
o Examples:
 Languages that require specific context for rewriting, like "ab" can
only become "aab" if "ab" appears within a larger string.
 Type 2: Context-Free Grammars
o Definition: Rewrite rules involve only a single nonterminal symbol on the
left-hand side.
o Examples:
 Arithmetic expressions (e.g., (a + b) * c).
 Programming language syntax.
 Type 3: Regular Grammars
o Definition: The simplest type, where rewrite rules involve a nonterminal on
the left and a single terminal or a single terminal followed by a nonterminal
on the right.
o Examples:
 Simple patterns like recognizing sequences of digits or strings with
specific letter combinations.
Relationship between Hierarchy Levels:
 Each level of the hierarchy is a proper subset of the previous level, meaning a
Type 1 grammar can generate all languages of Type 2 and Type 3, and so on.
 Type 0 is the most powerful, but also the most di icult to work with, while Type 3
is the least powerful but easiest to analyze.
Example:
 Context-free grammar:
o Nonterminals: S, A, B
o Terminals: a, b
o Rules:
 S -> aA
 A -> bB
 B -> b
o This grammar generates the language of strings that start with "a" and have
at least two "b"s, like "abb", "abbb", etc.
 Regular grammar:
o Nonterminals: S * Terminals: a, b
o Rules:
 S -> aS | bS | ε
o This grammar generates the language of all strings composed of the letters
"a" and "b", including the empty string.

Q20.Define a PDA & list three important properties of a PDA Machine?

Definition of a PDA (Pushdown Automaton):
A Pushdown Automaton (PDA) is a type of finite state machine that includes an
additional stack as memory. It is used to recognize context-free languages (CFLs) and
is more powerful than a Finite Automaton (FA) because of its ability to handle
recursive structures like nested parentheses and palindromes.
A PDA is formally defined as a 7-tuple (Q, Σ, Γ, δ, q₀, Z₀, F), where:
 Q → Finite set of states
 Σ → Input alphabet
 Γ → Stack alphabet
 δ → Transition function (Q × Σ × Γ → Q × Γ*)
 q₀ → Initial state (q₀ ∈ Q)
 Z₀ → Initial stack symbol (Z₀ ∈ Γ)
 F → Set of accepting (final) states (F ⊆ Q)

Three Important Properties of a PDA Machine:

1. Stack-Based Memory:
o A PDA has an infinite stack that allows it to store an arbitrary amount of
information, unlike finite automata.
o This enables it to process nested structures like balanced parentheses
and palindromes.
2. Non-Determinism:
o PDAs can be deterministic (DPDA) or non-deterministic (NPDA).
o NPDAs are more powerful and can recognize a larger set of context-free
languages (CFLs) compared to DPDAs, which recognize a subset of CFLs.
3. Acceptance Criteria:
o A PDA accepts a language in two ways:
1. Final State Acceptance: The input is accepted if the PDA reaches a
final state.
2. Empty Stack Acceptance: The input is accepted if the PDA empties
its stack after processing the input.
Q21. Explain ‘Halting Problem of turning machine’ with neat diagrams?

Halting Problem of Turing Machine

Introduction:
The Halting Problem is a fundamental problem in the theory of computation that was
introduced by Alan Turing in 1936. It states that there is no general algorithm that
can determine whether a given Turing Machine (TM) will halt on an arbitrary input
or run indefinitely.

Definition:
Given a Turing Machine M and an input w, the halting problem asks whether M will
eventually halt when given w as input.
 If the machine halts, we say M accepts w or M rejects w (depending on the final
state).
 If the machine enters an infinite loop, it never halts.
 The problem is to determine an algorithm H(M, w) that can decide, for every M
and w, whether M halts or runs forever.

Proof (By Contradiction):

1. Suppose such a Halting Algorithm H(M, w) exists that takes a Turing Machine M
and an input w and decides whether M halts on w.
2. Construct a new machine D, which uses H as a subroutine:
o If H(M, w) = halts, then D enters an infinite loop.
o If H(M, w) = does not halt, then D halts immediately.
3. Now, apply D to itself (D(D)):
o If D(D) halts, then by its definition, it should enter an infinite loop
(contradiction!).
o If D(D) does not halt, then by definition, it should halt (contradiction!).
4. This contradiction proves that no such Halting Algorithm H(M, w) can exist,
meaning that the Halting Problem is undecidable.
Diagram Representation:
1. Concept of Halting Problem
+------------+ +------------------+
| Machine M | ---> | Halting Checker H|
+------------+ +------------------+
| |
| Yes (halts) | No (infinite loop)
V V
Halts Runs forever
 If H exists, it should determine whether M halts.
 However, such a function cannot be constructed for all possible inputs and
machines.

2. Proof by Contradiction (Self-referential paradox)

+----------------+
| D(M) using H(M, w) |
+----------------+
|
| If H says "halts" → Run forever
| If H says "loops" → Halt
V
Contradiction!
 Since D(D) leads to a contradiction, H cannot exist.

Conclusion:
The Halting Problem is undecidable, meaning there is no general algorithm that can
determine whether an arbitrary Turing Machine will halt or not. This result has profound
implications in computability theory, proving that some problems are inherently
unsolvable by any computer algorithm.
Q22. What are the elements of Deterministic Finite Automaton? How it is
represented?

A Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA) is a theoretical model of computation used to

represent and recognize regular languages. It consists of a finite number of states and
transitions between those states based on input symbols. Here are the key elements of
a DFA and how it is represented:
Elements of a Deterministic Finite Automaton
1. States (Q):
o A finite set of states that the automaton can be in. One of these states is
designated as the start state, and one or more states may be designated as
accept (or final) states.
2. Input Alphabet (Σ):
o A finite set of symbols (characters) that the automaton can read as input.
This set is often referred to as the alphabet.
3. Transition Function (δ):
o A function that takes a state and an input symbol and returns the next
state. In a DFA, this function is deterministic, meaning that for each state
and input symbol, there is exactly one next state.
[ \delta: Q \times Σ \rightarrow Q ]
4. Start State (q₀):
o The state at which the automaton begins processing input. It is a member
of the set of states ( Q ).
5. Accept States (F):
o A subset of states within ( Q ) that indicates successful acceptance of the
input string. If the automaton ends in one of these states after processing
the input, the input is considered accepted.
Representation of a DFA
A DFA can be represented using a state transition diagram or a transition table.
A state transition diagram visually represents the states and transitions of the DFA. It
consists of:
 Circles representing states.
  Arrows representing transitions between states, labeled with the input symbols
that trigger those transitions.
 A start state indicated by an arrow pointing to it from nowhere.
 Accept states typically represented by double circles.
Example Diagram:

In this example:
 ( q_0 ) is the start state.
 ( q_1 ) is an accept state.
 The transitions are defined as follows:
o From ( q_0 ) to ( q_1 ) on input 'a'.
o From ( q_0 ) to itself on input 'b'.
o From ( q_1 ) to itself on input 'a'.
A transition table provides a tabular representation of the states and transitions. It lists
the current state, input symbol, and the resulting state.
Q23. What are the di erent components of Turing machine?
A Turing machine is a theoretical model of computation that is used to define
algorithms and understand the limits of what can be computed. It consists of several
key components that work together to perform computations. Here are the di erent
components of a Turing machine:
Components of a Turing Machine
1. Tape:
o The tape is an infinite length of cells that serves as the machine's memory.
Each cell can hold a single symbol from a finite alphabet. The tape is
divided into discrete cells, and it can be thought of as a one-dimensional
array that extends infinitely in both directions.
2. Tape Alphabet (Γ):
o The tape alphabet is a finite set of symbols that can be written on the tape.
It includes a special blank symbol (often denoted as 'B' or '⊔') that
represents an empty cell. The tape alphabet must include the input
alphabet (Σ) as a subset.
3. Input Alphabet (Σ):
o The input alphabet is a finite set of symbols that the Turing machine can
read as input. The input is initially written on the tape, starting from the
leftmost cell, and the rest of the tape is filled with blank symbols.
4. Head:
o The head is a read/write device that can move left or right along the tape. It
reads the symbol in the current cell and can write a new symbol in that cell.
The head can also move to adjacent cells based on the transition rules.
5. States (Q):
o The Turing machine has a finite set of states, including a start state and one
or more accept (or halting) states. The current state of the machine
determines how it will process the input and what actions it will take.
6. Transition Function (δ):
o The transition function defines the rules for the Turing machine's operation.
It takes the current state and the symbol currently being read by the head
as input and returns a new state, a symbol to write on the tape, and a
direction to move the head (left or right). The transition function can be
formally defined as: [ \delta: Q \times \Gamma \rightarrow Q \times
 \Gamma \times {L, R} ] where ( L ) indicates a move to the left and ( R )
indicates a move to the right.
7. Start State (q₀):
o The start state is the state in which the Turing machine begins its
computation. It is a member of the set of states ( Q ).
8. Accept and Reject States (F):
o The accept states are a subset of states in which the Turing machine halts
and accepts the input. There may also be reject states, which indicate that
the input is not accepted. The machine halts when it reaches either an
accept or reject state.
Summary
In summary, a Turing machine consists of the following components:
 Tape: Infinite memory divided into cells.
 Tape Alphabet (Γ): Set of symbols that can be written on the tape.
 Input Alphabet (Σ): Set of symbols for the input.
 Head: Reads and writes symbols on the tape and moves left or right.
 States (Q): Finite set of states, including start and accept states.
 Transition Function (δ): Rules for state transitions based on current state and
tape symbol.
 Start State (q₀): The initial state of the machine.
 Accept and Reject States (F): States that determine the acceptance or rejection
of input.
These components work together to allow the Turing machine to perform computations
and solve problems, making it a fundamental concept in theoretical computer science.
Q24. What is halt state of Turing machine?

The halt state of a Turing machine refers to a specific state in which the machine stops
its computation. When a Turing machine enters a halt state, it ceases to process any
further input, and the computation is considered complete. The halt state can be either
an accept state or a reject state, depending on the design of the Turing machine and
the outcome of the computation.
Types of Halt States
1. Accept State:
o An accept state indicates that the Turing machine has successfully
recognized or accepted the input string. When the machine halts in this
state, it signifies that the input belongs to the language that the Turing
machine is designed to recognize.
2. Reject State:
o A reject state indicates that the Turing machine has determined that the
input string is not accepted. When the machine halts in this state, it
signifies that the input does not belong to the language recognized by the
Turing machine.
Importance of Halt States
 Decision Problems: In the context of decision problems, the halt states are
crucial because they provide a clear outcome for the input being processed. The
machine either accepts or rejects the input based on the rules defined in its
transition function.
 Computational Completeness: The concept of halting is fundamental to
understanding the limits of computation. A Turing machine that does not halt for
certain inputs is said to run indefinitely, which is a key aspect of the Halting
Problem—a famous result in computability theory that shows there is no general
algorithm to determine whether a Turing machine will halt for every possible
input.
Example
Consider a simple Turing machine designed to recognize the language of strings
consisting of an even number of 'a's. The machine might have the following states:
 q0: Start state (even number of 'a's seen so far).
 q1: Odd number of 'a's seen.
 q_accept: Accept state (the input has an even number of 'a's).
  q_reject: Reject state (the input has an odd number of 'a's).
The transition function might be defined such that:
 From q0, reading 'a' transitions to q1.
 From q1, reading 'a' transitions back to q0.
 If the end of the input is reached and the machine is in q0, it transitions to
q_accept (halt state).
 If the end of the input is reached and the machine is in q1, it transitions to
q_reject (halt state).
Q24. What is halt state of Turing machine?
Q23. What are the di erent components of Turing machine?
Q22. What are the elements of Deterministic Finite Automaton? How it is represented?
Q21. Explain ‘Halting Problem of turning machine’ with neat diagrams?
Q20.Define a PDA & list three important properties of a PDA Machine?
Q19. Explain in brief Chomsky hierarchy with suitable examples?
Q18. What is Church Turing Thesis ? Explain.
Q17. Explain the following (i)Multihead Turing machine (ii)Universal Turing machine (iii)
Non Deterministic Turing machine
Q16. What are the di erent components of Pushdown Automaton? Explain with neat
diagram.
Q15.Write the productions rule of Context free grammar for following regular
expressions.
(i) 0* (ii) (a+b)* (iii) (ab)*
Q14.When does context free grammar is said to be in Chomsky Normal Form(CNF)?
Write steps to convert context free grammar into CNF.
Q13.Write a regular expression over alphabet ∑ = {0, 1} for following . (i) begins with 1,
ends with 1 (ii) ends with 00 (iii) contains at least three consecutive 1s
Q12.State and explain applications of Regular Expressions.
Q11.Explain the following 1)Turing Machine with stay-option 2) Multiple Tapes Turing
Machine
Q10.Design a TM to find one’s complement of the binary number.
Q9.Find a reduced grammar G to the grammar given below
Q8.Explain Chomsky classification of grammars .
Q.7 Define Mealy machine and Moore machine .
Q6. Explain Random access Turing Machines and Non deterministic Turing Machines.
Q.5 Explain Turing Machine in details along with halting problem. Also state its
applications.
Q.4.Explain
1) Recursively Enumerable Language
2) Greibach Normal Form
Q3.Discuss the Chomsky Hierarchy of languages by taking suitable example of each
classification.
Q2.Explain Pumping Lemma and its applications.
Q.I What is FA(Finite Automaton)? Explain with example. Elaborate on 'Automaton and
complexity'.