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Atomic_Structure_Notes

Chapter 2 discusses the discovery of cathode rays and the determination of the electron's charge-to-mass ratio by J.J. Thomson, leading to the identification of electrons as fundamental particles. It covers key concepts such as Bohr's atomic model, quantum numbers, and principles like Pauli's exclusion and Hund's rule, as well as the dual nature of matter and the limitations of Rutherford's model. The chapter concludes with Schrödinger's wave equation, emphasizing the quantum mechanical model of the atom where electrons exist in probability clouds.

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5 views4 pages

Atomic_Structure_Notes

Chapter 2 discusses the discovery of cathode rays and the determination of the electron's charge-to-mass ratio by J.J. Thomson, leading to the identification of electrons as fundamental particles. It covers key concepts such as Bohr's atomic model, quantum numbers, and principles like Pauli's exclusion and Hund's rule, as well as the dual nature of matter and the limitations of Rutherford's model. The chapter concludes with Schrödinger's wave equation, emphasizing the quantum mechanical model of the atom where electrons exist in probability clouds.

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Atomic Structure - Chapter 2 (Detailed Notes)

Discovery of Cathode Rays and Determination of e/m Ratio


Cathode rays are streams of electrons observed in vacuum tubes. Their discovery was pivotal in
understanding atomic structure.

In 1897, J.J. Thomson conducted experiments using a cathode ray tube and discovered cathode
rays. By applying electric and magnetic fields, he determined the charge-to-mass ratio (e/m) of the
electron:

e/m = 1.76 × 10^8 C/g

This led to the identification of electrons as negatively charged fundamental particles.

Characteristics of Cathode Rays


1. Travel in straight lines.
2. Cast sharp shadows.
3. Negatively charged (deflected towards the positive plate).
4. Possess mechanical motion (can move a pinwheel).
5. Cause fluorescence in certain materials.
6. Are universal in nature.

Calculation of Distance Between Nucleus and Electron (5th Orbit)


The radius r_n of the nth orbit in hydrogen is given by:

r_n = n^2 × 0.529 Å

For n = 5:
r_5 = 5^2 × 0.529 = 13.225 Å

Thus, the electron in the 5th orbit is 13.225 Å away from the nucleus.

Wave Number of Spectral Line for Electron Transition


The wave number is given by Rydberg?s formula:

? = R_H (1/n1² - 1/n2²)


For transition from n=5 to n=2:
? = 1.097 × 10^7 (1/4 - 1/25) m?¹

By solving, we get the wave number of the emitted spectral line.

Bohr?s Atomic Model


Niels Bohr proposed that:
1. Electrons revolve in fixed orbits.
2. Energy is quantized in discrete levels.
3. Electrons emit/absorb energy during transitions.
4. Angular momentum is quantized: mvr = n(h/2?).

Derivation of Bohr?s Radius


By equating centripetal force with electrostatic force:

mv²/r = k(e²/r²)

And using quantization condition:


r_n = n²h² / (4?²mke²)

For hydrogen?s first orbit:


r_1 = 0.529 Å.

Heisenberg?s Uncertainty Principle


It states that the exact position and momentum of a particle cannot be simultaneously determined
with precision:

?x × ?p ? h / 4?

This principle highlights the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics.

Quantum Numbers and Their Significance


1. Principal (n) ? Defines energy level.
2. Azimuthal (l) ? Defines sublevel shape.
3. Magnetic (m) ? Defines orbital orientation.
4. Spin (s) ? Defines electron spin direction.

Pauli?s Exclusion Principle


No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers. This explains why
each orbital holds only two electrons with opposite spins.

Hund?s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity


Electrons occupy degenerate orbitals singly first, before pairing. This minimizes electron repulsion
and stabilizes atoms.

Aufbau Principle
Electrons fill orbitals in order of increasing energy. The filling order follows:
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s?

Shapes of Orbitals (s, p, d, f)


1. s-Orbital: Spherical.
2. p-Orbital: Dumbbell-shaped.
3. d-Orbital: Complex shapes.
4. f-Orbital: Even more complex.

Electronic Configuration of Elements


It represents the arrangement of electrons in orbitals:
Example:
Oxygen (8): 1s² 2s² 2p?

Photoelectric Effect and Planck?s Equation


Light ejects electrons from metal surfaces if energy is sufficient:
E = h? (Einstein?s photoelectric equation).

Dual Nature of Matter (de Broglie Equation)


de Broglie proposed:
? = h / mv

This means particles like electrons also exhibit wave-like behavior.

Emission and Absorption Spectra


Emission: Light emitted by excited atoms.
Absorption: Certain wavelengths absorbed by atoms.

Rutherford?s Atomic Model and Its Limitations


Proposed nuclear model but failed to explain:
1. Electron stability.
2. Atomic spectra patterns.

Schrödinger?s Wave Equation


Used to describe electron wave behavior:
H? = E?

? gives probability distributions of electrons in orbitals.

Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom


Modern model based on probability clouds where electrons exist in orbitals, not fixed paths.

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