2.

1 LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS

Page 1 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

2.1 LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS

2.1.1 An Introduction to Limits

2.1.2 Finding a Limit

2.1.3 The Squeeze Theorem.

2.1.4 One-sided limit

Page 2 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Introduction to Calculus

What Is Calculus?
Calculus is the mathematics of change-velocities and accelerations. Calculus is also
the mathematics of tangent lines, slopes, areas, volumes, arc lengths, centroids,
curvatures, and a variety of other concepts that have enabled scientists, engineers,
and economists to model real-life situations.

Although precalculus mathematics deals with velocities, accelerations, tangent lines,

slopes, and so on, there is a fundamental difference between precalculus
mathematics and calculus. Precalculus mathematics is more static, whereas
calculus is more dynamic. Here are some examples.

• An object traveling at a constant velocity can be analyzed with precalculus

mathematics. To analyze the velocity of an accelerating object, you need
calculus.
• The slope of a line can be analyzed with precalculus mathematics. To analyze
the slope of a curve, you need calculus.
• A tangent line to a circle can be analyzed with precalculus mathematics. To
analyze a tangent line to a general graph, you need calculus.
• The area of a rectangle can be analyzed with precalculus mathematics. To
analyze the area under a general curve, you need calculus.
Each of these situations involves the same general strategy-the reformulation of
precalculus mathematics through the use of a limit process. So, one way to answer
the question "What is calculus?" is to say that calculus is a "limit machine" that
involves three stages.
The first stage is precalculus mathematics, such as finding the slope of a line or
the area of a rectangle. The second stage is the limit process, and the third stage
is a new calculus formulation, such as a derivative or an integral.

Page 3 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 ‫حساب التفاضل والتكامل هو ر ياضيات التغير في السرعات والتسارع‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫حساب التفاضل والتكامل هو أيضا ر ياضيات خطوط المماس‪, ،‬والميل ‪ ،‬والمساحات ‪ ،‬والأحجام ‪ ،‬وطول القوس ‪ ،‬والنقطة‬ ‫•‬
‫المركز ية ‪ ،‬والانحناءات ‪ ،‬ومجموعة متنوعة من المفاهيم الأخرى التي مكنت العلماء والمهندسين والاقتصاديين من نمذجة مواقف‬
‫الحياة الواقعية ‪.‬‬
‫على الرغم من أن ر ياضيات ما قبل التفاضل والتكامل (‪ )Precalculus‬تتعامل مع السرعات والتسارع وخطوط المماس والميل‬ ‫•‬
‫وما إلى ذلك‪ ،‬إلا أن هناك فرقا جوهر يا بين ر ياضيات ما قبل حساب التفاضل والتكامل وحساب التفاضل والتكامل‪.‬‬
‫ر ياضيات ما قبل التفاضل والتكامل تتعامل مع الحالات الأكثر سكونا‪ ،‬في حين أن حساب التفاضل والتكامل أكثر ديناميكية‬
‫(حركة)‪.‬‬
‫❖ وهنا بعض الأمثلة‪:‬‬
‫✓ يمكن تحليل الجسم الذي يتحرك بسرعة ثابتة باستخدام ر ياضيات ما قبل التفاضل والتكامل‪ .‬لتحليل سرعة جسم متسارع‪،‬‬
‫تحتاج إلى حساب التفاضل والتكامل‪.‬‬
‫✓ يمكن تحليل ميل الخط باستخدام ر ياضيات ما قبل التفاضل والتكامل‪.‬‬
‫✓ لتحليل منحنى‪ ،‬تحتاج حساب التفاضل والتكامل ‪.‬‬
‫✓ يمكن تحليل خط المماس إلى دائرة باستخدام ر ياضيات ما قبل التفاضل والتكامل‪.‬‬
‫✓ لتحليل خط التماس إلى رسم بياني عام‪ ،‬تحتاج إلى حساب التفاضل والتكامل ‪.‬‬
‫✓ يمكن تحليل مساحة المستطيل باستخدام ر ياضيات ما قبل حساب التفاضل والتكامل‪.‬‬
‫✓ لتحليل المنطقة تحت منحنى عام‪ ،‬تحتاج إلى حساب التفاضل والتكامل ‪.‬‬
‫كل من هذه الحالات تنطوي على نفس الاستراتيجية العامة ‪ -‬إعادة صياغة الر ياضيات قبل حساب التفاضل والتكامل من‬ ‫•‬
‫خلال استخدام مفهوم النهاية‪.‬‬
‫إذن‪ ،‬إحدى طرق الإجابة عن السؤال «ما هو حساب التفاضل والتكامل؟» هي القول إن حساب التفاضل والتكامل «آلة‬ ‫•‬
‫النهاية» تتضمن ثلاث مراحل وهي‪:‬‬
‫•‬
‫المرحلة الأولى هي ر ياضيات ما قبل حساب التفاضل والتكامل‪ ،‬مثل إ يجاد ميل خط أو مساحة مستطيل‪.‬‬
‫المرحلة الثانية هي مفهوم النهاية‪.‬‬
‫المرحلة الثالثة هي صياغة حساب التفاضل والتكامل الجديدة‪ ،‬مثل المشتقة أو التكامل‪.‬‬

‫‪Page 4 of 34‬‬ ‫‪Math 105‬‬ ‫‪Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi‬‬

2.1.5 An Introduction to Limits
Suppose you are asked to sketch the graph of the function 𝑓 given by

𝑥3 − 1
𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ≠ 1.
𝑥−1

• For all values other than 𝑥 = 1, you can use standard curve-sketching
techniques.
• However, at 𝑥 = 1, it is not clear what to expect.
• To get an idea of the behavior of the graph of 𝑓 near 𝑥 = 1, you can
use two sets of 𝑥-values - one set that approaches 1 from the left
and one that approaches 1 from the right, as shown in the table.

• The graph of 𝑓 is a parabola that has a gap at the point (1,3), as

shown in the left Figure.
• Even though 𝑓(1) is not defined, you can move arbitrarily close to 1,
and as a result 𝑓(𝑥) moves arbitrarily close to 3.
• Using limit notation, you can write

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3. "This is read as " the limit of " 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 1 is 3. "
𝑥→1

Page 5 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

When we move 𝑥 toward 𝑐 from either sides (Left or right) the values of
𝑓(𝑥) approach 𝐿.

Page 6 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

2.1.6 Finding a Limit
2.1.6.1 Estimating a Limit Numerically
See the prevous example.

Check Point 1

The discussion above gives an example of how you can estimate a limit
numerically by constructing a table and graphically by drawing a graph.
Estimate the following limit numerically by completing the table.
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2
lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

Then use a graphing utility to estimate the limit graphically.

Solution

Page 7 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

2.1.6.2 Estimating a limit graphically

Example 1

(i) Use the graph of the function 𝑓 shown in the Figure below to find the
given limit, if it exists.
(a) lim 𝑓(𝑥) (b) lim 𝑓(𝑥) (c) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→1 𝑥→3 𝑥→5
(d) lim 𝑓(𝑥) (e) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→7 𝑥→10

(ii) Find
(a) 𝑓(1) (b) 𝑓(3) (c) 𝑓(5)
(d) 𝑓(7) (e) 𝑓(10)

Important
➢ In the first Example, the function is undefined at 𝑥 = 0 and yet 𝑓(𝑥)
appears to be approaching a limit as 𝑥 approaches 0.

➢ This often happens, and it is important to realize that the existence

or nonexistence of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑎 has no bearing on the existence
of the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎.

Page 8 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 2

Find the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 2 , where 𝑓 is defined as

1, 𝑥 ≠ 2
𝑓(𝑥) = { .
0, 𝑥 = 2

Solution

Because 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 for all 𝑥 other than 𝑥 = 2, you can conclude that the
limit is 1 , as shown in the Figure below. So, you can write

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1.
𝑥→2

The fact that 𝑓(2) = 0 has no bearing on the existence or value of the
limit as 𝑥 approaches 2 . For instance, if the function were defined as

1, 𝑥≠2
𝑓(𝑥) = {
2, 𝑥=2

the limit would be the same.

Page 9 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Check Point 2

Discuss the existence of the limit lim 𝑔(𝑥) where

𝑥→2
𝑥 if 𝑥 ≠ 2
𝑔(𝑥) = { .
1 if 𝑥 = 2
Graph 𝑔(𝑥).

Solution

An informal definition of Limits of a function:

• So far in this section, you have been estimating limits numerically

and graphically.
• Each of these approaches produces an estimate of the limit. In the
next Section, you will study analytic techniques for evaluating
limits.
• Throughout the course, try to develop a habit of using this three-
pronged approach to problem solving.

Numerical approach Construct a table of values.

Graphical approach Draw a graph by hand or using technology.

Analytic approach Use algebra or calculus.

Page 10 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Definition 1:

The previous discussion leads to an informal description of a limit.

If 𝑓(𝑥) becomes arbitrarily close to a single number 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎
from either side, the limit of 𝑓(𝑥), as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎, is 𝐿. This limit is
written as

lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐿 (∗)

𝑥→𝑎

which is read "the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 is 𝐿" or "𝑓(𝑥)

approaches 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎." The expression in (∗) can also be
written as

𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿 as 𝑥 → 𝑎.

Page 11 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

2.1.6.3 Evaluating Limits Analytically
▪ Evaluate a limit using properties of limits.
▪ Develop and use a strategy for finding limits.
▪ Evaluate a limit using dividing out and rationalizing techniques.
▪ Evaluate a limit using the Squeeze Theorem.
SOME BASIC LIMITS
Theorem 1:

Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be real numbers and let 𝑛 be a positive integer.

1. lim 𝑏 = 𝑏
𝑥→𝑎

2. lim 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

3. lim 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛
𝑥→𝑎

Example 3

Evaluate
(a) lim 3 (b) lim 𝑥 (c) lim 𝑥 2
𝑥→2 𝑥→−4 𝑥→5

Solution

(a) lim 3 = 3
𝑥→2

(b) lim 𝑥 = −4
𝑥→−4

(c) lim 𝑥 2 = 52 = 25
𝑥→5

Page 12 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

LIMITS RULES
Theorem 2:

Let 𝑎 and 𝑘 be real numbers, let 𝑛 be a positive integer, and let 𝑓 and 𝑔
be functions with the following limits.

lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐿 and lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑀.

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

1. Scalar multiple: lim [𝑘𝑓(𝑥 )] = 𝑘 lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑘𝐿

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Example: lim (5𝑥 ) = 5lim (𝑥 ) = 5 × 3 = 15.

𝑥→3 𝑥→3

2. Sum or difference: lim [𝑓(𝑥 ) ± 𝑔(𝑥 )] = lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝐿 ±

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Example: lim (3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 9)

𝑥→−2

= 3 lim (𝑥 2 ) + 5 lim (𝑥 ) + lim (−9)

𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2

= 3(−2)2 + 5(−2) − 9 = 12 − 10 − 9 = −7

3. Product: lim [𝑓(𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 )] = [lim 𝑓(𝑥 )] [lim 𝑔(𝑥 )] = 𝐿𝑀

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Example: lim [20𝑥 ⋅ (𝑥 + 5)] = [20lim (𝑥 )] ⋅ [lim (𝑥 ) + lim (5)]

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

= (20 ⋅ 2) ⋅ (2 + 5)
= 40 ⋅ 7 = 280

𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐿

4. Quotient: lim = 𝑥→𝑎
= , provided 𝑀 ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
𝑀

(𝑥 2 −1) lim (𝑥 2 )−lim (1) 16−1 15

Example: lim = 𝑥→4 𝑥→4
= =
𝑥→4 2𝑥 2lim 𝑥 2∙4 8
𝑥→4

Page 13 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 5. Power:
(i) lim [𝑓(𝑥 )]𝑛 = [lim 𝑓(𝑥 )] 𝑛 = 𝐿𝑛
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Example:
2
lim (3𝑥 − 5 )2 = [3lim (𝑥 ) − lim (5 )] = [3 × 4 − 5]2 = 72 = 49
𝑥→4 𝑥→4 𝑥→4
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
(ii) lim [𝑓(𝑥 )] 𝑛 = [lim 𝑓(𝑥 )] 𝑛 =𝐿 , 𝑛
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

provided 𝐿 > 0 if 𝑛 is even, and 𝐿 ≠ 0 if 𝑚 < 0.

Example:
3
3 3 3 3
2
lim (5𝑥 − 6 ) = [5lim (𝑥 ) − lim (6 )] = [5 ∙ 2 − 6]2 = (4)2 = (22 )2 = 23
2
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

=8

6. If 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥) on an interval containing 𝑎 in its interior, then

Lim𝑓(𝑥 ) ≤ lim 𝑔(𝑥 )

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Example:
It is clear that 𝑥 2 < 𝑥 2 + 1 on ℝ.

Therefore,
lim 𝑥 2 < lim (𝑥 2 + 1)
𝑥→3 𝑥→3

32 < 32 + 1
9 < 10

Page 14 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 (i) Evaluating Limits using Direct substitution

Properties of Limits:
• At the beginning of this Section, you learned that the limit of 𝑓(𝑥)
as 𝑥 approaches 𝑐 does not depend on the value of 𝑓 at 𝑥 = 𝑐.
• It may happen, however, that the limit is precisely 𝑓(𝑐). In such
cases, the limit can be evaluated by direct substitution. That is,

• Such well-behaved functions are continuous at 𝑐. You will examine

this concept more closely in the next Section.
(1) Limits of Polynomial and Rational Functions

Polynomial functions and rational functions are two of the three

basic types of algebraic functions.

The following theorem deals with the limit of Polynomial functions

and rational functions.

Theorem 3:

If 𝑝 is a polynomial function and 𝑎 is a real number, then

lim 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑝(𝑎).

𝑥→𝑎

𝑝(𝑥)
If 𝑟 is a rational function given by 𝑟(𝑥) = and 𝑎 is a real number such
𝑞(𝑥)

that 𝑞(𝑎) ≠ 0, then

𝑝(𝑎)
lim 𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑟(𝑎) =
𝑥→𝑎 𝑞(𝑎)

Page 15 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

This direct substitution property is valid for all polynomial and rational
functions with nonzero denominators.

Example 4

Lim (4𝑥 2 + 3) = lim 4𝑥 2 + lim 3

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
= 4 (lim 𝑥 ) + lim 3 = 4(22 ) + 3 = 19
2
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

In this Example, note that the limit (as 𝑥 → 2 ) of the polynomial function
𝑝(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 + 3 is simply the value of 𝑝 at 𝑥 = 2.

Example 5

𝑥 2 +𝑥+2
Find the limit: lim .
𝑥→1 𝑥+1

Solution

Because the denominator is not 0 when 𝑥 = 1, you can apply the

𝑥 2 +𝑥+2 12 +1+2 4
previous Theorem to obtain: lim = = = 2.
𝑥→1 𝑥+1 1+1 2

(2) The limit of a function involving a radical

The following theorem deals with the limit of the third type of algebraic function-one
that involves a radical.

Theorem 4:

Let 𝑛 and 𝑚 be a positive integer. The following limit is valid for all 𝑎 if 𝑛 is
odd and is valid for 𝑎 > 0 if 𝑛 is even.
𝑛 𝑛
(i) lim √𝑥 = √𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

𝑛 𝑛
𝑚 𝑛
𝑚 𝑚
(ii) lim ( √𝑥 )𝑚 = (lim √𝑥 ) = ( √𝑎)𝑚 or lim 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎 𝑛
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Page 16 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 6

Find the limits:

4 3
(a) lim √𝑥. (b) lim √𝑥. (c) lim √𝑥
𝑥→3 𝑥→16 𝑥→−8

Solution

4 4
(a) lim √𝑥 = √3 (b) lim √𝑥 = √16 = 2.
𝑥→3 𝑥→16
3 3
(c) lim √𝑥 = √−8 = −2
𝑥→−8

Note that: the limits of many algebraic functions can be evaluated by

direct substitution.

Example 7

√𝑥+1
Find the limits: lim .
𝑥→3 𝑥−1

√𝑥+1
(a) lim .
𝑥→3 𝑥−1

Here, we can use the direct substitution to find the limits.

√𝑥 + 1 √3 + 1 √4 2
lim = = = =1
𝑥→3 𝑥 − 1 3−1 2 2

Check Point 3

2
4 𝑥 3 +3√𝑥
Find the limits: (a) lim √𝑥 + 12. (b) lim 16
𝑥→4 𝑥→8 4−( )
𝑥

Solution

Page 17 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 (ii) Evaluating Limits using Dividing Out and Rationalizing Technique

• Two techniques for finding limits analytically are shown in the next
Examples.
• The dividing out technique involves dividing out common factors,
• and the rationalizing technique involves rationalizing the numerator of
a fractional expression.

A Strategy for Finding Limits

We have studied several types of functions whose limits can be

evaluated by direct substitution.

This knowledge, together with the following theorem, can be used

to develop a strategy for finding limits.

Theorem 5:

Functions that agree at all but one point:

Let 𝑎 be a real number and let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) for all 𝑥 ≠ 𝑎 in an open interval
containing 𝑎. If the limit of 𝑔(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 exists, then the limit of
𝑓(𝑥) also exists and

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑔(𝑥).

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

(a) Dividing Out Technique (Cancelling Common Factor)

Example 8

𝑥 3 −1
Find the limit: lim .
𝑥→1 𝑥−1

Solution

Page 18 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 𝑥 3 −1
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = . By factoring and dividing out like factors, you can rewrite
𝑥−1

𝑓 as

So, for all 𝑥-values other than 𝑥 = 1, the functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 agree, as
shown in the Figure below. Because lim 𝑔(𝑥) exists, you can apply the
𝑥→1

previous Theorem to conclude that 𝑓 and 𝑔 have the same limit at 𝑥 = 1.

Page 19 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Check Point 4

Find the limit:

𝑥 2 −9 𝑥 2 +𝑥 𝑥 2 −2𝑥−8
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim
𝑥→3 𝑥−3 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→−2 𝑥+2

Solution

• In the previous Example, direct substitution produced the

0
meaningless fractional form .
0

0
• An expression such as is called an indeterminate form because
0

you cannot (from the form alone) determine the limit.

• When you try to evaluate a limit and encounter this form, remember
that you must rewrite the fraction so that the new denominator does
not have 0 as its limit.

• One way to do this is to divide out like factors, as shown in the

previous Example.

• A second way is to rationalize the numerator, as shown in the

next Example.

Page 20 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

(b) Rationalizing Technique

Rationalizing the Numerator or the Denominator

Example 9

√𝑥+1−1
Find the limit: lim .
𝑥→0 𝑥

Solution

0
By direct substitution, you obtain the indeterminate form .
0

In this case, you can rewrite the fraction by rationalizing the numerator.

Page 21 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Now, we can evaluate the limit as shown.

1
A table or a graph can reinforce your conclusion that the limit is .
2

(See the Figure below.)

Page 22 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Check Point 5

Find the limit by Rationalizing the Numerator or the Denominator:

√𝑥−2 𝑥
(a) lim (b) lim .
𝑥→4 𝑥 2 −16 𝑥→0 √𝑥+1−1

Solution

Page 23 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 Remember That:

• 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏)
2 2
• 𝑎 − 𝑏 = (√𝑎) − (√𝑏) = (√𝑎 − √𝑏)(√𝑎 + √𝑏)

• 𝑎3 ± 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 ± 𝑏)[𝑎2 ∓ 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ]

• Examples:
(1) 𝑥 2 − 7 = (𝑥 − √7)(𝑥 + √7)
(2) 𝑥 2 − 16 = (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 4) = (√𝑥 − 2)(√𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 4)
(3) 𝑥 3 + 27 = (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 9)
(4) 𝑥 3 − 27 = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 9)

SUMMARY FOR FINDING LIMITS

(1) Learn to recognize which limits can be evaluated by direct

substitution.

(2) If the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 cannot be evaluated by direct

substitution,
try to find a function 𝑔 that agrees with 𝑓 for all 𝑥 other than 𝑥 = 𝑎.
[Choose 𝑔 such that the limit of 𝑔(𝑥) can be evaluated by direct
substitution.] and use Dividing Out and Rationalizing
Techniques

Then Apply the previous Theorem to conclude analytically that

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑎).

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

(3) Use a graph or table to reinforce your conclusion.

Page 24 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

2.1.7 The Squeeze (Sandwich) Theorem
The next theorem concerns the limit of a function that is squeezed
between two other functions, each of which has the same limit at a given
𝑥-value, as shown in the Figure below.

Theorem 6:

If 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in an open interval containing 𝑎, except

possibly at 𝑎 itself, and if

lim ℎ(𝑥) = 𝐿 = lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

then lim 𝑔(𝑥) exists and is equal to 𝐿.

𝑥→𝑎

Example 10

Given that 3 − 𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑢(𝑥) ≤ 3 + 𝑥 2 for all 𝑥 ≠ 0, find lim 𝑢(𝑥)

𝑥→0

Solution

Since lim (3 − 𝑥 2 ) = 3, lim (3 + 𝑥 2 ) = 3, then lim 𝑢(𝑥 ) = 3

𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Page 25 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Check Point 6

(𝑥+1)2 3𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1
(a) Prove that ≤ for all 𝑥.
𝑥 4 +1 𝑥 4 +1
(𝑥+1)2 𝑢(𝑥) 2
3𝑥 +2𝑥+1
(b) If ≤ ≤ for all 𝑥, find lim 𝑢(𝑥)
𝑥 4 +1 𝑥 2 +1 𝑥 4 +1 𝑥→0

Solution

Page 26 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 2.1.8 One-Sided Limits
In this section we extend the limit concept to one-sided limits, which are
limits as 𝑥 approaches the number 𝑐 from the left-hand side (where
𝑥 < 𝑐 ) or the right-hand side (𝑥 > 𝑐) only.

Approaching a Limit from One Side

• To have a limit 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑐, a function 𝑓 must be defined on both

sides of 𝑐 and its values 𝑓(𝑥) must approach 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑐 from
either side.

• That is, 𝑓 must be defined in some open interval about 𝑐, but not
necessarily at 𝑐. Because of this, ordinary limits are called two-sided.

Definition 2:

The limit from the right means that 𝑥 approaches 𝑐 from values greater
than 𝑐 [see the Figure below]. This limit is denoted as

Page 27 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Similarly, the limit from the left means that 𝑥 approaches 𝑐 from values
less than 𝑐 [see the Figure below]. This limit is denoted as

Definition 3:

Let 𝑓 be a function and let 𝑐 and 𝐿 be real numbers.

lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐿 ⇔ lim− 𝑓(𝑥 ) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿.

𝑥→c 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

Page 28 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Limits That Fail to Exist

In the next three examples you will examine some limits that fail to exist.

Behavior That Differs from the Right and from the Left:

Example 11

The graph of a function 𝑔 is shown in the Figure below. Use it to state the
values (if they exist) of the following:

(a) lim−𝑔(𝑥) (b) lim+ 𝑔(𝑥) (c) lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
(d) lim−𝑔(𝑥) (e) lim+𝑔(𝑥) (f) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→5 𝑥→5 𝑥→5

Solution

From the graph we see that the values of 𝑔(𝑥) approach 3 as 𝑥 approaches
2 from the left, but they approach 1 as 𝑥 approaches 2 from the right.

Therefore
(a) lim−𝑔(𝑥 ) = 3 and (b) lim+𝑔(𝑥 ) = 1
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

Page 29 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

(c) Since the left and right limits are different, we conclude that lim 𝑔(𝑥 )
𝑥→2

does not exist.

The graph also shows that

(d) lim−𝑔(𝑥 ) = 2 and (e) lim+𝑔(𝑥 ) = 2
𝑥→5 𝑥→5

(f) This time the left and right limits are the same and so, we have

lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 2
𝑥→5

Despite this fact, notice that 𝑔(5) ≠ 2.

Example 12

|𝑥|
Show that the limit 𝑓(𝑥) = lim does not exist.
𝑥→0 𝑥

Solution

Consider the graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥). From the Figure below and the
definition of absolute value

𝑥, if 𝑥 ≥ 0
|𝑥| = { Definition of absolute value
−𝑥, if 𝑥 < 0

you can see that

|𝑥| 1, if 𝑥 > 0
𝑓(𝑥 ) = ={
𝑥 −1, if 𝑥 < 0
lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = −1
𝑥→0−

and
lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 1
𝑥→0+

Since lim−𝑓(𝑥 ) ≠ lim+𝑓(𝑥 ) , then

𝑥→0 𝑥→0

lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) does not exist.

𝑥→0

Page 30 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 • This means that no matter how close 𝑥 gets to 0 , there will be both
positive and negative 𝑥-values that yield 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 or 𝑓(𝑥) = −1.

|𝑥|
• Because approaches a different number from the right side of 0
𝑥
|𝑥|
than it approaches from the left side, the limit lim does not exist.
𝑥→0 𝑥

Page 31 of 34 Math 105 Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 Calculus 1 (Math 105)

2.2 Limits at Infinity and

Infinite Limits

Page 1 of 18 Math 105(Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

2.2 Limits at Infinity and Infinite Limits:

2.2.1 Limits at infinity

2.2.1.1 Limits at infinity
2.2.1.1 Infinite Limits at Infinity
2.2.1.1 Limits of Polynomials as 𝒙 → ±∞
2.2.1.1 Limits at infinity for Rational Functions (𝒙 → ±∞)
2.2.1.1 Limits involving Radicals

2.2.1 Infinite Limits (Vertical Asymptote).

Page 2 of 18 Math 105(Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

2.2.1 Limits at infinity
• If the values of a variable 𝑥 increase without bound, then we write
𝑥 → +∞, and if the values of 𝑥 decrease without bound, then we
write 𝑥 → −∞.
• The behavior of a function 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 increases without bound or
decreases without bound is sometimes called the end behavior
of the function. For example,
1 1
lim = 0. and lim = 0.
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥

are illustrated numerically (Table) and geometrically in the Figure

below.

Notice that in the Figure above, the graph appears to approach the
horizontal line 𝑦 = 0, as 𝑥 → ∞ and as 𝑥 → −∞.
In this case, we call 𝑦 = 0 a horizontal asymptote.

Page 3 of 18 Math 105(Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Limits at infinity (an informal view)

Definition 1:

If the values of 𝑓(𝑥) eventually get as close as we like to a number 𝐿 as 𝑥

increases without bound, then we write
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 or 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿 as 𝑥 → +∞
𝑥→+∞

Similarly, if the values of 𝑓(𝑥) eventually get as close as we like to a

number 𝐿 as 𝑥 decreases without bound, then we write
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 or 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿 as 𝑥 → −∞
𝑥→−∞
If either limit holds, we call the line 𝑦 = 𝐿 a horizontal asymptote for the
graph of 𝑓 .

Example 1

Consider the function:

2𝑥 2
𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 +1
Find lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑓(𝑥). Find any horizontal asymptotes.
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→−∞

Solution

Using the table for some values

Page 4 of 18 Math 105(Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

We can see from the table and the graph that

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2

𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→−∞

Thus, the line 𝑦 = 2 is a horizontal asymptote.

LIMIT LAWS FOR LIMITS AT INFINITY

It can be shown that the limit laws in section 7.1 carry over without
change to limits at +∞ and −∞. For example:
𝑛
𝑛
lim (𝑓(𝑥)) = ( lim 𝑓(𝑥 )) , 𝑛 is a positive integer,
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞

lim 𝑘𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑘 lim 𝑓(𝑥 ), 𝑘 is constant.

𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞

Page 5 of 18 Math 105(Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 Limits at infinity for Rational Functions (𝑥 → ±∞)

Theorem 1:

If 𝑛 is a positive rational number and 𝑐 is any nonzero real number, then

𝑐 𝑐
lim = 0 and lim = 0,
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 𝑛

provided 𝑥 𝑛 is always defined.

Example 2

1 1 1
lim = 0, lim = 0, lim = 0, …
𝑥→±∞ 𝑥 𝑥→±∞ 𝑥 2 𝑥→±∞ 𝑥 3

Technique for determining the end behavior of a rational

function

• One technique for determining the end behavior of a rational function

is to divide each term in the numerator and denominator by the
highest power of 𝑥 that occurs in the denominator,

• after which the limiting behavior can be determined using results

we have already established.

Here are some examples.

Example 3

4𝑥2 −𝑥 𝑥 3+1
Find (a) lim . (b) lim
𝑥→−∞ 2𝑥3 −5 𝑥→±∞ 𝑥 2+1

Solution

Page 6 of 18 Math 105(Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 4𝑥 2 −𝑥
(a) lim
𝑥→−∞ 2𝑥 3−5

𝑥 3 +1
(b) lim
𝑥→±∞ 𝑥 2 +1

Firstly,
3
𝑥 1 1
𝑥3 + 1 2 + 2 𝑥+ 2 ∞
lim 2 = lim 𝑥 2 𝑥 = lim 𝑥 = =∞
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 + 1 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 1 𝑥→+∞ 1 1
2 + 2 1 + 2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 3 +1
Therefore, the limit lim does not exist and equals to ∞.
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 +1
𝑥3 1 1
𝑥 3 +1 2 + 2 𝑥+ 2 −∞
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
Similarly, lim = lim 𝑥2
= lim 1 = = −∞
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 2 +1 𝑥→−∞ + 2
1 𝑥→−∞ 1+ 2 1
𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑥

𝑥 3+1
Therefore, the limit lim does not exist and equals to −∞.
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 2+1

Page 7 of 18 Math 105(Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

2.2.1 Infinite Limits at Infinity
Limits at infinity, like limits at a real number 𝑎, can fail to exist for various
reasons. One such possibility is that the values of 𝑓(𝑥) increase or
decrease without bound as 𝑥 → +∞ or as 𝑥 → −∞. We will use the
following notation to describe this situation.

Definition 2:

If a function 𝑓(𝑥) has an infinite limit as 𝑥 → +∞ or as 𝑥 → −∞, it means

the function grows without bound (positively or negatively) as the variable,
𝑥 gets larger and larger.
For example:
If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞, then the function grows larger and larger as 𝑥
𝑥→+∞
increases.

If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞, then the function grows larger and larger as 𝑥

𝑥→−∞
decreases.

If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞, then the function decreases without bound as 𝑥

𝑥→+∞
increases.
If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞, then the function decreases without bound as 𝑥
𝑥→−∞
decreases.

• Recall that the symbol ∞, called infinity, does not represent a real
number.

• We cannot use ∞ in arithmetic in the usual way, but we can use the
phrase "approaches ∞ " to mean "becomes arbitrarily large positive"
and the phrase "approaches −∞ " to mean "becomes arbitrarily large
negative."

Page 8 of 18 Math 105(Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 • So, we use ∞ to describe the behavior of a function when the values in
its domain or range outgrow all finite bounds.

• Note that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞ means the limit does not exist.
𝑥→+∞

Limits of 𝑥 𝑛 as 𝑥 → ±∞
The Figure below illustrates the end behavior of the polynomials
𝑥 𝑛 for 𝑛 = 1,2,3, and 4 .
These are special cases of the following general results:

Theorem 2:

lim 𝑥 𝑛 = +∞, 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …

𝑥→+∞

−∞, 𝑛 = 1,3,5, …
lim 𝑥 𝑛 = {
𝑥→−∞ +∞, 𝑛 = 2,4,6, …

Multiplying 𝑥 𝑛 by a positive real number does not affect limits above but
multiplying by a negative real number reverses the sign.

Page 9 of 18 Math 105(Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 4

lim 2𝑥 5 = +∞, lim 2𝑥 5 = −∞, lim − 7𝑥 6 = −∞, lim − 7𝑥 6 = −∞

𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→−∞

Limits of Polynomials as 𝑥 → ±∞

There is a useful principle about polynomials which, expressed informally,

states:

The end behavior of a polynomial matches the end behavior of its

highest degree term.

More precisely, if 𝑐𝑛 ≠ 0, then

lim (𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ) = lim 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝑛

𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞
lim (𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑥𝑛) = lim 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞

Example 5

lim (7𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 9) = lim 7𝑥 5 = ∞

𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞

lim (−4𝑥 8 + 17𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 + 1) = lim − 4𝑥 8 = −∞

𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞
lim (7𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 9) = lim 7𝑥 5 = −∞
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞

lim (−4𝑥 8 + 17𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 + 1) = lim − 4𝑥 8 = −∞

𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞

Note that we can write

7𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 9
lim (7𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 9) = lim 𝑥5 ( )
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥5
4 2 9
= lim (𝑥 5 ) lim (7 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 ) = ∞(7 − 0 + 0 + 0) = ∞
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞

Page 10 of 18 Math 105(Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 A quick method for finding limits of rational functions as 𝑥 → ∞
or 𝑥 → −∞

The end behavior of a rational function matches the end behavior of the
quotient of the highest degree term in the numerator divided by the
highest degree term in the denominator.

Example 6

Example 7

1+𝑥 3 +2𝑥 2
If 𝑓(𝑥) = . Find lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑓(𝑥).
−𝑥 2 +1 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→−∞

Solution

1+𝑥 3+2𝑥2 𝑥3
lim = lim = lim (−𝑥) = −∞.
𝑥→+∞ −𝑥 2 +1 𝑥→+∞ −𝑥 2 𝑥→+∞
1+𝑥 3+2𝑥 2 𝑥3
lim = lim −𝑥 2 = lim (−𝑥) = ∞.
𝑥→−∞ −𝑥 2 +1 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞

Page 11 of 18 Math 105(Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Check Point 1

Find
4𝑥 2−𝑥 5𝑥 5−2𝑥 2+1 2𝑥 2−𝑥+3
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim
𝑥→−∞ 2𝑥 3 −5 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥−2𝑥 3 𝑥→±∞ 3𝑥 2 +5

2.2.1Infinite Limits:
3
Let 𝑓 be the function given by . From the Figure below and the table,
𝑥−2

you can see that 𝑓(𝑥) decreases without bound as 𝑥 approaches 2 from
the left, and 𝑓(𝑥) increases without bound as 𝑥 approaches 2 from the
right. This behavior is denoted as

Page 12 of 18 Math 105(Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES

Definition 3:

A function whose values grow arbitrary large as 𝑥 approaches 𝑐 can be

said to have an infinite limit.
lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = +∞ (or − ∞).
𝑥→𝑐

Definition 4:

The line 𝑥 = 𝑐 is called a vertical asymptote of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) if at

least one of the following statements is true:
(*) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ±∞ or
𝑥→𝑐

(*) lim− 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ±∞ or

𝑥→𝑐

(*) lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ±∞.

𝑥→𝑐

Example 8

Determine all vertical asymptotes of the graph of the function

1
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥+1

1
When 𝑥 = −1, the denominator of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = (𝑥+1) is 0 and the numerator is

not 0 .
1 1
∵ lim − 𝑥+1 = −∞ and lim + 𝑥+1 = +∞.
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1

∴ 𝑥 = −1 is a vertical asymptote.
Moreover,
1
lim =0
𝑥→±∞ 𝑥 + 1

⇒ 𝑦 = 0 (𝑥-axis) is a horizontal asymptote.

Page 13 of 18 Math 105(Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Check Point 2

Describe the behavior of each function near 𝑥 = 0

1 1 𝑥 2 +1
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥. (c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −1

Solution

Check Point 3

Find each limit, if it exists.

1 1 1
(a) lim− (𝑥−4)3. (b) lim+ (𝑥−4)3 (c) lim (𝑥−4)3
𝑥→4 𝑥→4 𝑥→4

Answer:
1
(a) lim− (𝑥−4)3 = −∞
𝑥→4
1
(b) lim+ (𝑥−4)3 = ∞
𝑥→4
1
(c) lim (𝑥−4)3 does not exist.
𝑥→4
The line 𝑥 = 4 is a vertical asymptote.

Solution

Page 14 of 18 Math 105(Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 Limits involving Radicals

Example 9

Evaluate
𝑥 𝑥
(a) lim (b) lim
𝑥→+∞ √𝑥 2+1 𝑥→−∞ √𝑥 2 +1

Solution

(a)
𝑥
lim =
𝑥→+∞ √𝑥 2 +1
𝑥
= lim
𝑥→+∞ 1
√𝑥 2 (1 + )
𝑥2
𝑥
= lim
𝑥→+∞ 1
√𝑥 2 √1 +
𝑥2
𝑥
= lim , √𝑥 2 = 𝑥, beccause 𝑥 > 0
𝑥→+∞ 1
𝑥 √1 +
𝑥2
1
= lim
𝑥→+∞ 1
√1 +
𝑥2
Now,
1 1
lim = =1
𝑥→+∞ 1 √1 + 0
√1 +
𝑥2
𝑥
(b) lim (Exercise )
𝑥→−∞ √𝑥 2 +1

Page 15 of 18 Math 105(Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Check Point 4

Find
√𝑥 2 +2 √𝑥 2 +2 √𝑥
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim
𝑥→+∞ 3𝑥−6 𝑥→−∞ 3𝑥−6 𝑥→±∞ 𝑥 2 +2𝑥

Solution

Page 16 of 18 Math 105(Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 10

Find lim (√𝑥 2 + 1 − 𝑥).

𝑥→+∞

Solution

Graph of the function √𝑥 2 + 1 − 𝑥, is shown in the Figure below. From

the graph we might conjecture that the requested limit is 0 , To confirm
this, we treat the function as a fraction with a denominator of 1 and
rationalize the numerator.
√𝑥 2 + 1 − 𝑥 √𝑥 2 + 1 + 𝑥
lim (√𝑥 2 + 1 − 𝑥) = lim ( )( )
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞ 1 2
√𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥
2
(√𝑥 2 + 1) − 𝑥 2
= lim
𝑥→+∞ √𝑥 2 + 1 + 𝑥
𝑥2 + 1 − 𝑥2
= lim
𝑥→+∞ √𝑥 2 +1+𝑥
1
= lim
𝑥→+∞ √𝑥 2 +1+𝑥
1
= lim
𝑥→+∞ 1
√𝑥 2 (1 + )+𝑥
𝑥2
1
= lim , √𝑥 2 = 𝑥 for 𝑥 > 0
𝑥→+∞ 1
𝑥 √1 + +𝑥
𝑥2
1
𝑥 0
= lim = =0
𝑥→+∞ 1 √ 1 + 0 + 1
√1 + 2 + 1
𝑥

Page 17 of 18 Math 105(Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Check Point 5

Find
(a) lim (√𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 𝑥) (b) lim (√𝑥 6 + 5 − 𝑥 3 ) (c) lim (√𝑥 6 + 5𝑥 3 − 𝑥 3 )
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→−∞

Solution

A Rational Function with Common Factors

Page 18 of 18 Math 105(Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 Calculus 1 (Math 105)

2.3 Continuity

Page 1 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

2.3 Continuity

2.3.1 Continuity at a Point and on Open Interval

2.3.1 Right and left continuity and Continuity on Closd Interval

2.3.2 Continuous Extension and Removable Discontinuities

Page 2 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 2.3.3 Continuity at a Point and on an Open Interval
• In mathematics, the term continuous has much the same meaning as it has in
everyday usage.
• To say that a function 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑐 means that there is no
interruption in the graph of 𝑓 at 𝑐.
• That is, its graph is unbroken at 𝑐 and there are no holes, jumps, or gaps.
• The Figure below identifies three values of 𝑥 at which the graph of 𝑓 is not
continuous.
• At all other points in the interval (𝑎, 𝑏), the graph of 𝑓 is uninterrupted and
continuous.

In the Figure above, it appears that continuity at 𝑥 = 𝑐 can be destroyed

by any one of the following conditions.

• The function is not defined at 𝑥 = 𝑐.

• The limit of 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist at 𝑥 = 𝑐.

• The limit of 𝑓(𝑥) exists at 𝑥 = 𝑐, but it is not equal to 𝑓(𝑐).

If none of the above three conditions is true, the function 𝑓 is called

continuous at 𝑐, as indicated in the following important definition.

Page 3 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Definition 1:

Continuity at a Point:
Assume that 𝑓(𝑥) is defined on an open interval containing 𝑥 = 𝑐. Then 𝑓
is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑐 if
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐)
𝑥→𝑐

If the limit does not exist, or if it exists but is not equal to 𝑓(𝑐), we say
that 𝑓 is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 𝑐.

Continuity on an Open Interval:

A function is continuous on an open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) if it is continuous at each
point in the interval.

A function that is continuous on the entire real line (−∞, ∞) is everywhere

continuous.

Example 1

Show that the following functions are continuous:

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 (𝑘 any constant)
(b) 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 (𝑛 a whole number)

Solution

(a) We have
lim𝑥→𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) = lim𝑥→𝑐 𝑘 = 𝑘,
and 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑘.
The limit exists and is equal to the function value for all 𝑐, so 𝑓(𝑥) is
continuous (Figure 3).
(b) lim𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥) = lim𝑥→𝑐 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑐 𝑛 for all 𝑐.

Page 4 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Also 𝑔(𝑐) = 𝑐 𝑛 , so again, the limit exists and is equal to the function
value. Therefore, 𝑔(𝑥) is continuous. (Figure 4 illustrates the case 𝑛 = 1 ).

2.3.4 Right and left continuity and Continuity on a Closd Interval

Theorem 1:

Right and left continuity

We say that 𝑓 is right continuous at 𝑐 if lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐).
𝑥→𝑐

We say that 𝑓 is left continuous at 𝑐 if lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐).

𝑥→𝑐

Continuity on a Closd Interval:

A function 𝑓 is continuous on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] if it is continuous on
(𝑎, 𝑏) and, in addition,

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) and lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑏).

𝑥→𝑎+ 𝑥→𝑏

Page 5 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Theorem 2:

Function 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑐 if and only if it is both right and left

continuous at 𝑐.

Example 2

Discuss the continuity of 𝑓(𝑥) = √1 − 𝑥 2 .

Solution

The domain of 𝑓 is the closed interval [−1,1].

At all points 𝑐 ∈ (−1,1),

lim √1 − 𝑥 2 = √1 − 𝑐 2 = 𝑓(c)
𝑥→𝑐

Moreover, because

lim + √1 − 𝑥 2 = 0 = 𝑓(−1) Continuous from the right

𝑥→−1

and

lim √1 − 𝑥 2 = 0 = 𝑓(1) Continuous from the left

𝑥→1−

you can conclude that 𝑓 is continuous on the closed interval [−1,1], as

shown in the Figure below.

Page 6 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Check Point 1

Discuss the continuity of 𝑓(𝑥) = √9 − 𝑥 2 .

Solution

There Are Lots of Continuous Functions

The following functions are continuous wherever they are defined:

(a) all polynomials;
(b) all rational functions;
𝑛
(c) all rational powers 𝑥 𝑚/𝑛 = √𝑥 𝑚 ;
(d) the sin, cos, tan, sec, csc and cot functions.

(e) the absolute value function |𝑥|.

Example 3

Show that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 is a continuous function.

Solution

The Domain is [0, ∞).The function is continuous at the left endpoint 0

because it is right continuous there.

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ √𝑥 = 0 = 𝑓(0).

𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0

Also, 𝑓 is continuous at every number 𝑐 > 0 since:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim √𝑥 = √𝑐 = 𝑓(𝑐), 𝑐 > 0.

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

Page 7 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Theorem 3:

If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are continuous at 𝑐, then

(i) 𝑓 ± 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑐;
(iv) 𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑐;
(v) 𝑓/𝑔 is continuous at 𝑐 provided 𝑔(𝑐) ≠ 0.

Example 4

Discuss the continuity of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 .

Solution

By the Theorem above, it follows that 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is continuous at every point in

ℝ because the functions 𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 are continuous at every real
number and the sum of continuous functions is continuous.

Theorem 4:

Suppose that lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 and 𝑓 is continuous at 𝐿. Then,

𝑥→c

lim 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓 (lim 𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝐿).

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

In particular, if 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑐 (so 𝐿 = 𝑔(𝑐) ), then the composition

𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑐 :
lim 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 )) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑐)) = 𝑓(𝐿).
𝑥→𝑐

Example 5

1
If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 + 4. Find lim 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 )).
𝑥 𝑥→1

Solution

Page 8 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

∵ lim𝑔(𝑥 ) = lim (𝑥 2 + 4) = 12 + 4 = 5
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

and because 𝑓 is continuous at 5, therefore,

1
lim 𝑓 (𝑔(𝑥 )) = 𝑓 (lim 𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(5) = .
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 5

Note that
1
𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 )) = 𝑓(𝑥 2 + 4) =
𝑥2 + 4
and we can use the direct substitution to find the limit above,
1 1
lim 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 )) = lim = .
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥 2 +4 5

Page 9 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

2.3.5 Continuous Extension and Removable Discontinuities
• Consider an open interval 𝐼 that contains a real number 𝑐.
• If a function 𝑓 is defined on 𝐼 (except possibly at 𝑐 ), and 𝑓 is not
continuous at 𝑐, then 𝑓 is said to have a discontinuity at 𝑐.
• Discontinuities fall into two categories: removable and
nonremovable.
• A discontinuity at 𝑐 is called removable if 𝑓 can be made
continuous by appropriately defining (or redefining) 𝑓(𝑐).

For instance, the functions shown in Figure (a) and (c) have removable
discontinuities at 𝑐, and the function shown in Figure (b) has a
nonremovable discontinuity at 𝑐.

Continuous Extension
If 𝑓(𝑐) is not defined, but lim𝑥→𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 exists, we can define a new function
𝐹(𝑥) by

𝑓(𝑥), if 𝑥 is in the domain of 𝑓

𝐹(𝑥) = {
𝐿 if 𝑥 = 𝑐.
𝐹(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑐. It is called the continuous extension of 𝑓(𝑥) to
𝑥 = 𝑐. For rational functions 𝑓(𝑥), continuous extensions are usually found
by cancelling common factors.

Page 10 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 6

𝑥 2 −1
Show that 𝑓(𝑥) = has a continuous extension to 𝑥 = 1 and find that
𝑥−1
extension.

Solution

1−1 0
Although 𝑓(1) = = is not defined, if 𝑥 ≠ 1 we have
1−1 0

𝑥 2 − 1 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)
𝑓(𝑥) = = =𝑥+1
𝑥−1 𝑥−1
The function

𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1

is equal to 𝑓(𝑥) for 𝑥 ≠ 1 but it is also continuous at 𝑥 = 1, having there

the value 2.
The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) is shown in the figure below.
The continuous extension of 𝑓(𝑥) to 𝑥 = 1 is 𝐹(𝑥). It has the same graph
as except with no hole at (1,2).

Page 11 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Check Point 2

𝑥 2 −𝑥
Show that 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 has a continuous extension to x = 1 and find that
𝑥 −1
extension.

Solution

Page 12 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

2.3.6 Intermediate value theorem
Theorem 5:

If 𝑓 is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑘 is any number

between 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏), then there is at least one number 𝑐 in [𝑎, 𝑏] such
that

𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑘.

NOTE The Intermediate Value Theorem tells you that at least one 𝑐 exists,
but it does not give a method for finding 𝑐. Such theorems are called existence
theorems.

COROLLARY:
If 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏) have opposite signs, then there is a number 𝑐 (zero or
root) in [𝑎, 𝑏] such that
𝑓(𝑐) = 0.

Page 13 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 7

Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that the polynomial function
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 1 has a zero in the interval [0,1].

Solution

Note that 𝑓 is continuous on the closed interval [0,1]. Because

𝑓(0) = 03 + 2(0) − 1 = −1 and 𝑓(1) = 13 + 2(1) − 1 = 2

it follows that 𝑓(0) < 0 and 𝑓(1) > 0.

We can therefore apply the Intermediate Value Theorem to conclude that
there must be some 𝑐 in [0,1] such that
𝑓(𝑐) = 0 (𝑓 has a zero in the closed interval [0,1].)
as shown in the Figure below.

Page 14 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

COROLLARY:
If a function 𝑓 is continuous and has no zeroes on an interval, 𝐼, then
either 𝑓(𝑥) > 0 or and 𝑓(𝑥) < 0 for every 𝑥 in 𝐼.

Page 15 of 17 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi