Lecture 2:

Modelling Systems
Today’s Lecture
System modelling – determining differential equation
Using the Laplace operator
Determining the transfer function
Standard forms
System Modelling
Determine differential equation that represents the
system
Mechanical or Electrical
Standard equations of both
Analogies
Mechanical Systems
Force (F) – displacement (x) relationships
Spring coefficient – k
𝐹𝑠 = 𝑘𝑥
Damper coefficient – c
𝑑𝑥
𝐹𝐷 = 𝑐 𝑥 = 𝑐
𝑑𝑡
Mass (inertia) NSL 𝑚𝑎
𝑑2 𝑥
𝐹𝐼 = 𝑚𝑥 = 𝑚 2
𝑑𝑡
Mechanical Example
Mass/spring/damper system
Relate F and x
𝑑2 𝑥
Inertia: 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑥 = 𝑚 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
Damping: 𝐹 = 𝑐𝑥 = 𝑐
𝑑𝑡
Spring: 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥

𝑑2 𝑥
𝐹 = 𝑚 2 = 𝐹 − 𝐹𝐷 − 𝐹𝑠
𝑑𝑡
Electronic Systems
Voltage (v) – Charge (Q) – Current (i) relationship
Capacitor
𝑄 1
𝑣𝐶 = = 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶 𝐶
Resister
𝑑𝑄
𝑣𝑅 = 𝑅 = 𝑖𝑅
𝑑𝑡
Inductor
𝑑2 𝑄 𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿 2 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Electronic Example
LCR Circuit
 Relate Vs and i

𝑑𝑖 1
𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿 𝑣𝐶 = 𝑖𝑑𝑡 𝑣𝑅 = 𝑖𝑅
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑣𝑠 = 𝑣𝐶 + 𝑣𝐿 + 𝑣𝑅

1 𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝑠 = 𝑖𝑑𝑡 + 𝐿 + 𝑖𝑅
𝐶 𝑑𝑡
s-domain
Differential equations can be awkward to deal with
Using Laplace operator, ‘s’, can help in manipulation –
using Laplace transforms LDE are converted to simple
algebraic equations
Transient and Steady state components of the solution can
be obtained
Laplace Transforms
Definition of Laplace Transform of a function f(t):
∞

𝐿𝑓 𝑡 =𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑓 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
Complex variable, ‘s’, is Laplace operator
More details in your Maths notes
Laplace Transforms
Derivatives Multiplication by ‘s’ in the Laplace
domain corresponds to differentiation in
𝑑𝑥 𝑡 the time domain
𝐿 = 𝑠𝑋 𝑠
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑡 2 𝑑
𝐿 =𝑠 𝑋 𝑠 Replace occurrence of with ‘s’
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑑3 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑛 𝑥 𝑡
𝐿 = 𝑠3𝑋 𝑠 𝐿 = 𝑠𝑛𝑋 𝑠
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 𝑛
Laplace Transforms
Integrals
Integral in the time domain is converted to division in the
‘s’ domain. ∞ 0+
𝐹 𝑠 1
𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = + 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑠 𝑠
0 0−

Second term almost always zero, hence: ∞

𝐹 𝑠
𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑠
0
Mechanical Example
Mass/spring/damper system

When initial conditions are zero

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑡
𝑚 2
+𝑐 + 𝑘𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑚𝑠 2 𝑋 𝑠 + 𝑐𝑠𝑋 𝑠 + 𝑘𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠 𝑥 0 =𝑥 0 =𝑥 0 =0
Electronic Example
LCR Circuit
𝑑𝑖 1
𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑑𝑡 𝑣𝑅 = 𝑖𝑅
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝐶

1 𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑖𝑑𝑡 + 𝐿 + 𝑖𝑅
𝐶 𝑑𝑡
1
𝑉𝑠 𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑠 + 𝐿𝑠𝐼 𝑠 + 𝑅𝐼 𝑠
𝐶𝑠
Transfer Function
Represent the input-output relationship for a component
Expressed in term of ‘s’
R(s) C(s)
G(s) Note: C(s)=G(s)R(s)

Transfer Function:
output 𝐶 𝑠
= =𝐺 𝑠
input 𝑅 𝑠
Transfer Function
Single order 𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑠 = 𝐴𝑠𝐻 𝑠 + 𝑘𝐻 𝑠
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑠 = 𝐴𝑠 + 𝑘 𝐻 𝑠
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑠
= 𝐴𝑠 + 𝑘
𝐻 𝑠
𝐻 𝑠 1
=
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑠 𝐴𝑠 + 𝑘
𝐻 𝑠 1 1
𝑑ℎ 𝑡 =
𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑡 =𝐴 + 𝑘ℎ 𝑡 𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑠 𝑘1+𝐴𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑘
Transfer Function
Mass/spring/damper system
𝑚𝑠 2 𝑋 𝑠 + 𝑐𝑠𝑋 𝑠 + 𝑘𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠
𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑐𝑠 + 𝑘 𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠
𝑋 𝑠 1
=
𝐹 𝑠 𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑐𝑠 + 𝑘
𝑋 𝑠 1
= 𝑐 𝑚 2
𝐹 𝑠 𝑘 1+ 𝑠+ 𝑠
𝑘 𝑘
Transfer Function
LCR Circuit
1 𝐶𝑠
𝑉 𝑠 = 𝐿𝑠𝐼 𝑠 + 𝑅𝐼 𝑠 + 𝐼 𝑠 Multiply by
𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑠
1
𝑉 𝑠 = 𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑠
𝐶𝑠 𝐼 𝑠 1 𝐶𝑠
𝑉 𝑠 1 = ×
𝑉 𝑠 1 𝐶𝑠
= 𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅 + 𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅 +
𝐼 𝑠 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑠
𝐼 𝑠 1 𝐼 𝑠 𝐶𝑠
= =
𝑉 𝑠 1 𝑉 𝑠 1 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2
𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅 +
𝐶𝑠
Standard Forms
First order e.g. Tank:

Gain
𝐻 𝑠 1 1
=
𝐶 𝑠 1 𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑠 𝑘1+𝐴𝑠
=𝛾 𝑘
𝑅 𝑠 1 + 𝜏𝑠
1
Gain =
𝑘
Time 𝐴
constant Time constant =
𝑘
Standard Forms
Second order

𝐶 𝑠 1
=𝛾
𝑅 𝑠 2𝜁 𝑠2
1+ 𝑠+ 2
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

𝜔𝑛 – undamped natural frequency [rad/s]

𝜁 – damping ratio
𝛾 – gain
Standard Forms
Second order
e.g. Mass/Spring/Damper 𝑘
𝜔𝑛 =
𝑚
𝑋 𝑠 1 1 𝑐 𝑘
=
𝐹 𝑠 𝑘 1 + 𝑐 𝑠 + 𝑚 𝑠2 𝜁=
2𝑘 𝑚
𝑘 𝑘
1
𝛾=
𝑘
Conclusion
Standard equations for Mechanical and Electrical systems
– these will be supplied
Use the Laplace operator, ‘s’, to simplify dealing with LDEs
Transfer functions represent input-output relationship
(output/input)
Standard forms help predict performance