CHAPTER TWO

POSITION CONTROL SYSTEM

Servomechanism
It is the feedback unit used in a control system. In this system, the control variable is a mechanical
signal such as position, velocity or acceleration. Here, the output signal is directly fed to the
comparator as the feedback signal, b(t) of the closed-loop control system. This type of system is
used where both the command and output signals are mechanical in nature. A position control
system as shown in Fig.1.3 is a simple example of this type mechanism. The block diagram of the
servomechanism of an automatic steering system is shown in Fig.1.4.

Figure 3.1: Schematic diagram of a servomechanism

Figure 3.2: Block diagram of a servomechanism

1
Regulators
It is also a feedback unit used in a control system like servomechanism. But the output is kept constant at
its desired value. The schematic diagram of a regulating 11 system is shown in Fig.1.5. Its corresponding
simplified block diagram model is shown in Fig.1.6

Figure: Schematic diagram of a regulating system

Examples:
• Temperature regulator
• Speed governor
• Frequency regulators, etc.

This is an automatic device used to correct the performance of a mechanism by means of error-
sensing feedback. The term servomechanism properly applies only to systems in which the
feedback and error-correction signals control mechanical position or one of its derivatives such as
velocity or acceleration. Servomechanisms were first used in gun laying (aiming) and in fire-
control and marine-navigation equipment. Today, applications of servomechanisms include their
use in automatic machine tools, satellite-tracking antennas, celestial-tracking systems on
telescopes, automatic navigation systems, and antiaircraft-gun control systems.

In many applications, servomechanisms allow high-powered devices to be controlled by signals

from devices of much lower power. The operation of the high-powered device results from a signal
(called the error, or difference, signal) generated from a comparison of the desired position of the

2
high-powered device with its actual position. The ratio between the power of the control signal
and that of the device controlled can be on the order of billions to one.

All servomechanisms have at least these basic components: a controlled device, a command
device, an error detector, an error-signal amplifier, and a device to perform any necessary error
corrections (the servomotor). In the controlled device, that which is being regulated is usually
position. This device must, therefore, have some means of generating a signal (such as a voltage),
called the feedback signal, that represents its current position. This signal is sent to an error-
detecting device. The command device receives information, usually from outside the system, that
represents the desired position of the controlled device. This information is converted to a form
usable by the system (such as a voltage) and is fed to the same error detector as is the signal from
the controlled device. The error detector compares the feedback signal (representing actual
position) with the command signal (representing desired position). Any discrepancy results in an
error signal that represents the correction necessary to bring the controlled device to its desired
position. The error-correction signal is sent to an amplifier, and the amplified voltage is used to
drive the servomotor, which repositions the controlled device.

A typical system using a servomechanism is the communications-satellite–tracking antenna of a

satellite Earth station. The objective is to keep the antenna aimed directly at the communications
satellite in order to receive and transmit the strongest possible signal. One method used to
accomplish this is to compare the signals from the satellite as received by two or more closely
positioned receiving elements on the antenna. Any difference in the strengths of the signals
received by these elements results in a correction signal being sent to the antenna servomotor. This
continuous feedback method allows a terrestrial antenna to be aimed at a satellite 37,007 km
(23,000 miles) above the Earth to an accuracy measured in hundredths of a centimeter.

Position Control System

A position control system converts a position input command to a position output response.
Position control systems find widespread applications in antennas, robot arms, and computer disk
drives. The radio telescope antenna in Figure 2.1 is one example of a system that uses position
control systems.

3
 Figure 2.1: Radio Telescope Antenna

This section, looks in detail at an antenna azimuth position control system that could be used to
position a radio telescope antenna. It will also look at how the system works and how to effect
changes in its performance. The discussion here will be on a qualitative level, with the objective
of getting an intuitive feeling for the systems with which we will be dealing. An antenna azimuth
position control system is shown in Figure 2.2(a).

Figure 2.2(a): An Antenna Azimuth Position Control System

With a more detailed layout and schematic in Figures 2.2(b) and 2.2(c), respectively.

4
 Figures 2.2(b): An Antenna Azimuth Position Control System Layout

Figures 2.2(c): An Antenna Azimuth Position Control System Schematic

Figure 2.2(d) shows a functional block diagram of the system. The required hardware is indicated
inside the blocks. The purpose of this system is to have the azimuth angle output of the antenna,
θ0 (𝑡), follow the input angle of the potentiometer, θ𝑖 (𝑡). Let us look at Figure 2.2(d) and describe
how this system works. The input command is an angular displacement. The potentiometer
converts the angular displacement into a voltage. Similarly, the output angular displacement is
converted to a voltage by the potentiometer in the feedback path. The signal and power amplifiers
boost the difference between the input and output voltages. This amplified actuating signal drives
the plant. The system normally operates to drive the error to zero. When the input and output
match, the error will be zero, and the motor will not turn. Thus, the motor is driven only when the

5
output and the input do not match. The greater the difference between the input and the output, the
larger the motor input voltage, and the faster the motor will turn.

Figures 2.2(d): An Antenna Azimuth Position Control functional block diagram of the system.

Figures 3: An Antenna Azimuth Position Circuit Diagram

Figures 4: An Antenna Azimuth Position Block Diagram

6
 Application of Position Control System

❖ Communication
• Radar Position
• Satellite Tracking

❖ Energy
• Solar cells position control (Sun-seeking systems)
• Wind Turbine position control

❖ Defense
• Anti-aircraft guns
• Anti-missiles

❖ Medicine
• Laser Surgery
• Surgical Robot

❖ Industry
• Position control of robotic arm in assembling application

STATE SPACE MODEL

In control engineering, a state-space representation is a mathematical model of a physical system as

a set of input, output and state variables related by first-order differential equations. "State space"

refers to the space whose axes are the state variables. The knowledge of state space method can be

used in evaluating, modeling and obtaining related possible solution especially using the following

methods:

❖ Case Study: Antenna Positioner System

❖ The State Vector Differential Equation

❖ Block Diagrams in State Space

❖ State-Space Models and LTF

❖ Controllability Test

7
 ❖ Observability Test

❖ Stabilisability Test

The state of the system can be represented as a vector within that space.

The most general state-space representation of a linear system with inputs, outputs and state variables

is written in the following form:

𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑢(𝑡)

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐷𝑢(𝑡)

Where by:
𝑥(𝑡) is state vector, A is state or system matrix D is feed forward matrix
𝑦(𝑡) is output vector B is input matrix
𝑢(𝑡) is input vector C is output matrix

Why State Space?

❖ The state space approach is a generalized time-domain method for modelling, analyzing
and designing a wide range of control systems.
❖ The approach is advantageous for:
Multiple Input, Multiple Output (MIMO) systems, or multivariable systems
Non-linear and time-variant systems
Alternative controller design approaches
Preserves information about the internal behavior of systems.

8
The Concept of State

The state of a dynamic system is a set of independent quantities, the specification of which (in the
absence of excitation) completely determines the future evolution of the system.

The set of variables (the state variables) which at some initial time 𝑡0 , together with the input

variables completely determine the dynamic behavior of the system for time t ≥ 𝑡0 .

The state variables are the smallest number of states that are required to describe the dynamic
nature of the system, and it is not a necessary constraint that they are measurable.

Case Study: Antenna Positioner System

Figure 5: A General Servo System

9
 Figure 6: The Antenna Positioner System

The open-loop transfer function is:

𝑌(𝑠) 1 1 5 5
= × × =
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 𝑠 + 1 (𝑠 + 5) 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 5)

5
𝑠 3 + 6𝑠 2 + 5𝑠

The open loop characteristic equation is:

𝑠 3 + 6𝑠 2 + 5𝑠 = 0

The open loop poles are the roots of the characteristic equation:

𝑠 = 0, 𝑠 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 = −5

Antenna Positioner System

State-space Model (Using the states indicated in the following Figure :)

Consider the following steps:

(1) write down, for each block, the equation arising from (output = contents x input) using only

the X(s) and U(s) quantities;

(2) take inverse Laplace transforms, with zero initial conditions, to convert from X(s) to x(t) and

from sX(s) to dx(t)/dt;

10
(3) combine into the state-space form.

(4) write down Y from the diagram in terms of the X and U quantities and rearrange into the form
.

The result is
𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑢(𝑡)

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐷𝑢(𝑡)

ẋ 1 (t) 0 1 0 x1 (t) 0
[ẋ 2 (t)] = [0 −1 1 ] [x2 (t)] + [0] u(t)
ẋ 3 (t) 0 0 −5 x3 (t) 5

0 1 0 0
𝐴 = [0 −1 1 ] , 𝑏 = [0] , 𝑐 = [1 0 0], 𝑑 = 0
0 0 −5 5
State-Space Models and LTF

The eigenvalues of the A matrix = the poles of the corresponding transfer function model.

•Therefore, they give exactly the same information about the stability and dynamics of the
system.

•Recall the poles of the antenna positioner system are s = 0, s = -1 and s = -5.

•The eigenvalues of the A matrix are found as the solutions of the characteristic equation of the
state-space model:

|(λ𝐼 − 𝐴)| = 0

λ 0 0 0 1 0 λ −1 0
|[0 λ 0] − [ 0 −1 1 ]| = [0 λ + 1 −1 ] = 0
0 0 λ 0 0 −5 0 0 λ+5

Expanding the determinant by column 1:

 ( + 1) (  + 5) = 0, so the eigenvalues of A are  = 0, -1 and –5. They are the same as the
poles of the system in the LTF model.
If any eigenvalue has a positive real part, then the system will be unstable.

11
Exercise

1) A control system is represented by the block diagram of the figure below:

• Use the state variables shown in the figure, plus one other (x3, which is the derivative of
x2) to obtain a state-space model of the system.
• Determine the poles of this plant and the eigenvalues of the matrix A of the state-space
model.
• Hence, comment on the stability of the system.

2) A system is described by the following state model, use the information to draw the block
diagram that will correctly represent the control system.

Controllability Test
A mathematical definition: A system is said to be completely state controllable if it is possible
to cause the state vector to move from any initial value, to any other value, in a finite time. A
pragmatic view: A system is said to be completely state controllable if it is possible to move all
of its open-loop poles, by state variable feedback, to any arbitrary closed-loop locations. (Except
that complex conjugate pairs of poles must be moved as conjugate pairs).

12
Controllability Test Procedure:

For continuous-time systems using their state-space models:

𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑢(𝑡)

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐷𝑢(𝑡)

It has been proven that the condition for complete state controllability is that the matrix
[𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝑛−1 𝐵]is of full rank n (i.e. of rank equal to the number of rows in A and B). The
matrix[𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝑛−1 𝐵]iscommonly called the controllability matrix.
Example:
Find the controllability of the system described by the state equation below:

𝑥̇ 5 5 𝑥1 5
⌈ 1⌉ = ⌈ ⌉ ⌈𝑥 ⌉ + ⌈ ⌉ 𝑢
𝑥2̇ 0 −5 2 0
𝑛=2
𝑄𝐶 = ⌈𝐵 𝐴𝐵 . . . 𝐴𝑛−1 𝐵⌉

𝑄𝐶 = ⌈𝐵 𝐴𝐵⌉

5 5 5 25
𝐴𝐵 = ⌈ ⌉⌈ ⌉ = ⌈ ⌉
0 −5 0 0

5 25
𝑄𝐶 = ⌈𝐵 𝐴𝐵⌉ = ⌈ ⌉
0 0

|𝑄𝐶 | = (0 − 0) = 0
The system is not controllable.

13
Observability Test
A system is completely observable if it is possible to reconstruct the state-vector completely from
measurements made at the system’s output. It can be proved that the condition for complete state
observability is that the matrix [𝐶 𝑇 |𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 | … (𝐶 𝑇 )𝑛−1 ] or the matrix

is of full rank n (i.e. the rank is equal to the number of columns in C). The matrix
[𝐶 𝑇 |𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 | … (𝐶 𝑇 )𝑛−1 ] is commonly called the observability matrix.

Example:

Find the observability of the system described by the following equation:

𝑥̇ 0 1 𝑥1 𝑢
⌈ 1⌉ = ⌈ ⌉ ⌈𝑥 ⌉ + ⌈ ⌉ 𝑢
𝑥2̇ −2 −3 2 1
𝑛=2
𝑥1
𝑦 = ⌈1 − 1⌉ ⌈𝑥 ⌉
2

𝑄𝑜 = ⌈𝐶 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 (𝐴𝑇 )2 𝐶 𝑇 . . . (𝐴𝑇 )𝑛−1 𝐶 𝑇 ⌉

𝑄𝑜 = ⌈𝐶 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 ⌉

1 0 −2
𝐶 𝑇 = ⌈ ⌉ , 𝐴𝑇 = ⌈ ⌉
1 1 −3
0 −2 1 −2
𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 = ⌈ ⌉⌈ ⌉ = ⌈ ⌉
1 −3 1 −2
1 −2
𝑄𝑜 = ⌈𝐶 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 ⌉ = ⌈ ⌉
1 −2

14
 |𝑄𝑜 | = −2 − (−2) = 0

The system is not observable.

Exercise

Verify the observability of a control system which is represented by the following state space
model:

−2 −2 𝑥1 1
𝑥̇ = ⌈ ⌉ ⌈𝑥 ⌉ + ⌈ ⌉ ⌈𝑢⌉
1 0 2 1
𝑥1
𝑦 = ⌈1 1⌉ ⌈𝑥 ⌉
2

Example 1

Consider the system given by

𝑥̇ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥

0 1 0
𝐴=[ ] 𝐵=[ ] 𝐶 = [2 0 ]
−2 −3 1

Design a full-order state observer, assume that desired eigenvalues of the observer matrix are
𝜇1 = 𝜇2 = −10.

Solution

i) Determine the system’s observability first

𝑐 2 0
The observability matrix 𝑄′ = [ ]=[ ]
𝑐𝐴 0 2

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 2, so that the system is completely state observable and full-order observer can be
designed.

𝑘𝑒1
ii) Defining the desired observer gain matrix Ke, as 𝑘𝑒 = [ ]
𝑘𝑒2

And equating |𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 + 𝑘𝑒 𝑐| with the desired characteristic equation, we obtain

|𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 + 𝑘𝑒 𝑐| = (𝑠 − 𝜇1 )(𝑠 − 𝜇2 )

15
 𝑠 0 0 1 𝑘
𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆. = |𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 + 𝑘𝑒 𝑐| = |[ ]−[ ] + [ 𝑒1 ] [2 0]|
0 𝑠 −2 −3 𝑘𝑒2

𝑠 + 2𝑘𝑒1 −1
= |[ ]|
2𝑘𝑒2 + 2 𝑠 + 3

= 𝑠 2 + (3 + 2𝑘𝑒1 )𝑠 + 6𝑘𝑒1 + 2𝑘𝑒2 + 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (𝑖)

𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 = (𝑠 − 𝜇1 )(𝑠 − 𝜇2 ) = (𝑠 + 10)(𝑠 + 10) = 𝑠 2 + 20𝑠 + 100. . . . . . . . . . . . . (𝑖𝑖)

𝐵𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑖𝑖)

(3 + 2𝑘𝑒1 ) = 20

6𝑘𝑒1 + 2𝑘𝑒2 + 2 = 100

𝑘𝑒1 8.5
From which we obtain 𝑘𝑒 = [ ]=[ ]
𝑘𝑒2 2.1
Example 2
Consider the system given by
𝑥̇ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥
0 0 −2
𝐴 = [1 0 9 ] 𝐶 = [0 0 1]
0 1 0
Design a full-order state observer, assume that desired eigenvalues of the observer matrix are
𝜇1 = 3, 𝜇2 = 4, 𝜇2 = 5.

16
Exercise 1

Develop a state space model for the following mechanical system

c
k

m y

P(t)
17
)