The C programming language is a general-purpose, high-level

language that was originally developed by Dennis M. Ritchie to

develop the UNIX operating system at Bell Labs. C was originally

first implemented on the DEC PDP-11 computer in 1972.

In 1978, Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie produced the first

publicly available description of C, now known as the K&R

standard.

The UNIX operating system, the C compiler, and essentially all

UNIX applications programs have been written in C. The C has

now become a widely used professional language for various

reasons.

Easy to learn

Structured language

It produces efficient programs.

It can handle low-level activities.

It can be compiled on a variety of computer platforms.

C Environment Setup
This section describes how to set up your system environment

before you start doing your

programming using C language.

Before you start doing programming using C programming

language, you need the following

two softwares available on your computer, (a) Text Editor and

(b) The C Compiler.

Text Editor

This will be used to type your program. Examples of few editors

include Windows Notepad,

OS Edit command, Brief, Epsilon, EMACS, and vim or vi. Name

and version of text editor can vary on different operating

systems. For example, Notepad will be used on Windows, and

vim or vi can be used on windows as well as Linux or

UNIX.

The files you create with your editor are called source files and

contain program source

code. The source files for C programs are typically named with

the extension “.c”.

Before starting your programming, make sure you have one

text editor in place and you

have enough experience to write a computer program, save it

in a file, compile it and finally

Execute it.

The C Compiler

The source code written in source file is the human readable

source for your program. It

needs to be "compiled", to turn into machine language so that

your CPU can actually

execute the program as per instructions given.

This C programming language compiler will be used to compile

your source code into final

executable program. I assume you have basic knowledge

about a programming language

compiler.

Most frequently used and free available compiler is GNU C/C++

compiler,

otherwise you can have compilers either from HP or Solaris if

you have respective Operating Systems.

Following section guides you on how to install GNU C/C++

compiler on various OS. I'm

mentioning C/C++ together because GNU gcc compiler works

for both C and C++

programming languages.

Why to use C?
C was initially used for system development work, in particular

the programs that make up the operating system. C was

adopted as a system development language because it

produces code that runs nearly as fast as code written in

assembly language. Some examples of the use of C might be:

Semicolons ;
In C program, the semicolon is a statement terminator. That is,

each individual statement must be ended with a semicolon. It

indicates the end of one logical entity.

Identifiers
A C identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, or

any other user-defined item. An identifier starts with a letter A to

Z or a to z or an underscore _ followed by zero or more letters,

underscores, and digits (0 to 9).

C does not allow punctuation characters such as @, $, and %

within identifiers. C is a case sensitive programming language.

Thus, Manpower and manpower are two different identifiers in

C. Here are some examples of acceptable identifiers:

C Data Types
In the C programming language, data types refer to an extensive

system used for declaring variables or functions of different

types. The type of a variable determines how much space it

occupies in storage and how the bit pattern stored is interpreted.

The types in C can be classified as follows:

Basic Types: They are arithmetic types and consists of the two

types: (a) integer types and (b) floating-point types.

IntegerTypes

Char 1 byte -128 to 127 or 0 to255

unsigned char 1 byte 0 to255

signedchar 1 byte -128 to 127

Int 2 or 4bytes -32,768 to 32,767 or

-2,147,483,648 to
2,147,483,647
unsigned int 2 or 4bytes 0 to65,535 or 0 to
4,294,967,295

Short 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767

unsigned short 2 bytes 0 to65,535

Long 4 bytes -2,147,483,648 to

2,147,483,647

unsigned long 4 bytes 0 to4,294,967,295

Floating-PointTypes:-

float 4 byte 1.2E-38 to 6 decimal places

3.4E+38

double 8 byte 2.3E-308 to 15 decimal places

1.7E+308

long double 10 byte 3.4E-4932 to 19 decimal places

1.1E+4932

C Variables:-

A variable is nothing but a name given to a storage area that our

programs can manipulate. Each variable in C has a specific type,

which determines the size and layout of the variable's memory;

the range of values that can be stored within that memory; and

the set of operations that can be applied to the variable.

The name of a variable can be composed of letters, digits, and

the underscore character. It must begin with either a letter or an

underscore. Upper and lowercase letters are distinct because C

is case-sensitive. Based on the basic types explained in

previous chapter, there will be the following basic variable types:

Char Typicallya single octet(one byte). This

is an integer type.

Int The mostnatural size of integer for the

machine.
Float A single-precision floating pointvalue.

Double A double-precision floating point

value.

Void Represents the absence of type.

Variable Definition in C:

A variable definition means to tell the compiler where and how

much to create the storage for the variable. A variable definition

specifies a data type and contains a list of one or more variables

of that type as follows:

int i, j, k;

char c, ch;

float f, salary;

double d;

Escapesequence Meaning
\\ \ character
\' ' character
\" "character
\? ? character
\a Alertor bell
\b Backspace

\f Form feed
\n Newline
\r Carriage return
\t Horizontal tab
\v Vertical tab
\ooo Octalnumber of one to three digits

C Operators:-

An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform

specific mathematical or logical manipulations. C language is

rich in built-in operators and provides the following types of

operators:

Arithmetic Operators
 Relational Operators

Logical Operators

Arithmetic Operators:-

Operator Description Example

+ Adds two operands A + B willgive 30

- Subtracts second A - B will give -10

operandfrom the
first
* Multiplies both A * B will give 200
operands
/ Divides numerator B / Awill give 2
byde-numerator
% Modulus Operator B % A will give 0
and remainder of
after an integer
division
++ Increments A++ will give 11
operator increases
integer value byone
-- Decrements A-- willgive 9
operator decreases
integer value byone

Relational Operators:-

== Checks if the values (A== B) is not true.

of two operands are
equal or not, if yes
then condition
becomes true.
!= Checks if the values (A!= B)is true.
of two operands are
 equal or not, if
values are notequal
then condition
becomes true.
> Checks if the value (A> B) is not true.
of leftoperand is
greater than the
value of right
operand,if yes then
condition becomes
true.
< Checks if the value (A< B) is true.
of leftoperand is
less than the value
of rightoperand, if
yes then condition
becomes true.
>= Checks if the value (A>= B) is not true.
of leftoperand is
greater than or
equal tothe value of
right operand, if yes
then condition
becomes true.
<= Checks if the value (A<= B) is true.
of leftoperand is
less than or equal to
the value of right
operand,if yes then
condition becomes
true.

Logical Operators:-
Operator Description Example
&& CalledLogical AND (A&& B)is false.
operator. If both the
operands are
non-zero, then
condition becomes
true.
|| CalledLogical OR (A|| B)is true.
Operator. If any of the
two operands is
non-zero, then
condition becomes
true.
! CalledLogical NOT !(A && B) is true.
Operator. Use to
reverses the logical
state of its operand. If a
condition is true, then
Logical NOT operator
will make false.

Input & Output

When we are saying Input that means to feed some data into

program. This can

be given in the form of file or from command line. C

programming language provides a set

of built-in functions to read given input and feed it to the

program as per requirement.

When we are saying Output that means to display some data

on screen, printer or in any

file. C programming language provides a set of built-in

functions to output the data on the

computer screen as well as you can save that data in text or

binary files.

The Standard Files

C programming language treats all the devices as files. So

devices such as the display are

addressed in the same way as files and following three file are

automatically opened when

a program executes to provide access to the keyboard and

screen.

Decision Making in C

Decision making structures require that the programmer

specify one or more

conditions to be evaluated or tested by the program, along with

a statement or statements

to be executed if the condition is determined to be true, and

optionally, other statements to

be executed if the condition is determined to be false.

Following is the general form of a typical decision making

structure found in most of the

programming languages:
C programming language assumes any non-zero and non-null

values as true, and if it is

either zero or null, then it is assumed as false value. C

programming language provides

following types of decision making statements.

if statement
An if statement consists of a boolean expression followed by

one or more statements.

Syntax .The syntax of an if statement in C programming

language is:

if(boolean_expression)

/* statement(s) will execute if the boolean expression is true

*/

If the boolean expression evaluates to true, then the block of

code inside the if

statement will be executed. If boolean expression evaluates to

false, then the first set of

code after the end of the if statement (after the closing curly
brace) will be executed.

C programming language assumes any non-zero and non-null

values as true and if it is

either zero or null then it is assumed as false value.

switch statement :-
A switch statement allows a variable to be tested for equality

against a list of values. Each

value is called a case, and the variable being switched on is

checked for each switch case.

Syntax

The syntax for a switch statement in C programming language

is as follows:

switch(expression){
 case constant-expression :

statement(s);

break; /* optional */

case constant-expression :

statement(s);

break; /* optional */

/* you can have any number of case statements */

default : /* Optional */

statement(s);

You can have any number of case statements within a switch.

Each case is followed by

the value to be compared to and a colon.

The constant-expression for a case must be the same data

type as the variable in the

switch, and it must be a constant or a literal.

When the variable being switched on is equal to a case, the

statements following that

case will execute until a break statement is reached.

When a break statement is reached, the switch terminates, and

the flow of control jumps

to the next line following the switch statement.

Not every case needs to contain a break. If no break appears,

the flow of control will fall

through to subsequent cases until a break is reached.

A switch statement can have an optional default case, which

must appear at the end of

the switch. The default case can be used for performing a task

when none of the cases

is true. No break is needed in the default case.

while loop in C
A while loop statement in C programming language repeatedly

executes a target

statement as long as a given condition is true.

Syntax

The syntax of a while loop in C programming language is:

while(condition)

statement(s);

}
Here, statement(s) may be a single statement or a block of

statements.

The condition may be any expression, and true is any nonzero

value. The loop iterates

while the condition is true.

When the condition becomes false, program control passes to

the line immediately

following the loop.

Flow Diagram

For Loop in C
A for loop is a repetition control structure that allows you to

efficiently write a loop that

needs to execute a specific number of times.

Syntax
The syntax of a for loop in C programming language is:

for ( init; condition; increment )

Here is the flow of control in a for loop:

1.

The init step is executed first, and only once. This step allows

you to declare and

initialize any loop control variables. You are not required to put a

statement here, as long

as a semicolon appears.

2.

Next, the condition is evaluated. If it is true, the body of the

loop is executed. If it is

false, the body of the loop does not execute and flow of

control jumps to the next

statement just after the for loop.

3.

After the body of the for loop executes, the flow of control

jumps back up to

the increment statement. This statement allows you to

update any loop control

variables. This statement can be left blank, as long as a

semicolon appears after the

condition.

4.

The condition is now evaluated again. If it is true, the loop

executes and the process

repeats itself (body of loop, then increment step, and then

again condition). After the

condition becomes false, the for loop terminates.

Flow Diagram
do...while loop in C
Unlike for and while loops, which test the loop condition at the

top of the loop,

the do...while loop in C programming language checks its

condition at the bottom of the

loop.

A do...while loop is similar to a while loop, except that a

do...while loop is guaranteed to

execute at least one time.

Syntax

The syntax of a do...while loop in C programming language is:

do

statement(s);

}while( condition );

Notice that the conditional expression appears at the end of the

loop, so the statement(s)

in the loop execute once before the condition is tested.

C programming language allows to use one loop inside another

loop. Following section

shows few examples to illustrate the concept.

Syntax

The syntax for a nested for loop statement in C is as follows:

for ( init; condition; increment )

for ( init; condition; increment )

statement(s);

}
 statement(s);

The syntax for a nested while loop statement in C programming

language is as follows:

while(condition)

while(condition)

statement(s);

statement(s);

The syntax for a nested do...while loop statement in C

programming language is as

follows:

do

statement(s);

do

statement(s);

}while( condition );
 }while( condition );

break statement in C
The break statement in C programming language has the

following two usages:

1.

When the break statement is encountered inside a loop, the

loop is immediately

terminated and program control resumes at the next

statement following the loop.

2.

It can be used to terminate a case in the switch statement

(covered in the next chapter).

If you are using nested loops (i.e., one loop inside another

loop), the break statement

will stop the execution of the innermost loop and start executing

the next line of code after

the block.

Syntax

The syntax for a break statement in C is as follows:

break;
The Infinite Loop :-
A loop becomes infinite loop if a condition never becomes false.

The for loop is

traditionally used for this purpose. Since none of the three

expressions that form the for

loop are required, you can make an endless loop by leaving the

conditional expression

empty.
C Structures
C arrays allow you to define type of variables that can hold

several data items of the same

kind but structure is another user defined data type available in

C programming, which

allows you to combine data items of different kinds.

Structures are used to represent a record, suppose you want to

keep track of your books in

a library. You might want to track the following attributes about

each book:

Title

Author

Subject
 Book ID

Defining a Structure

To define a structure, you must use the struct statement. The

struct statement defines a

new data type, with more than one member for your program.

The format of the struct

statement is this:

struct [structure tag]

member definition;

member definition;

...

member definition;

} [one or more structure variables];

The structure tag is optional and each member definition is a

normal variable definition,

such as int i; or float f; or any other valid variable definition. At

the end of the structure's

definition, before the final semicolon, you can specify one or

more structure variables but it

is optional. Here is the way you would declare the Book

structure:
struct Books

Accessing Structure Members

To access any member of a structure, we use the member

access operator (.). The member access operator is coded as a

period between the structure variable name and the structure

member that we wish to access. You would use struct keyword

to define variables of structure type. Following is the example to

explain usage of structure:

PracticalProgram

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

clrscr();

printf("my name is kailash punjabi.\n");

printf("i reside at:\t109 prem bhuvan,");

printf("\n\t\tbazar road,");
 printf("\n\t\tbandra(w),");

printf("\n\t\tmumbai 400050");

getch();

Explanation :-

#include<stdio.h> This is header file standard inputout

#include<conio.h> This is alsoheader file Console Input Output

Void main() Main program where u have to write code

Printf Itwill show outputon turbo C

Getch() itwill holdthe output.

Clrscr(); itwill clear the screen

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

void main()

//DeclaringAndIntitalizing Variables
char xyz= 'A';

int inum= 21;

float fnum=87.65;

clrscr();

//Displayingthe values with Conversion AndEscape Characters

printf("\n\n");

printf("Char is \t= %c\n",xyz);

printf("Intis \t= %d\n",inum);

printf("Float is \t= %f \n",fnum);

getch();

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

#include<string.h>

void main()

//DeclaringVariables
int rollno;

float height;

char name;

//Use of printf() and scanf()function

clrscr();

printf("\nEnter Your name ");

scanf("%s",&name);

printf("\nEnter the roll no: ");

scanf("%d",&rollno);

printf("\nEnter the height: ");

scanf("%f",&height);

//Displayingthe values entered

printf("\nyour name is:%s",name);

printf("\nRoll no is:%d",rollno);

printf("\nHeightis:%f\n",height);

getch();

}
#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

void main()

//Declaration and Intialization of the variable

int a,b,c,d;

int sum,multi,div,remainder, minus, increase,decrease;

c=25;

d=12;

printf("\nEnter FirstNumber: ");

scanf("%d",&a);

printf("\nEnter Second Number ");

scanf("%d",&b);

// Use of Arithmatic operators

sum = a+b;//Addition

minus = a-b;//Subtraction

multi = a*b;//Multiplication

div= b/a;//Division

remainder = a%b;//Modular Division

increase = ++c;
decrease = --d;

//Displayingthe results

clrscr();

printf ("Sum is %d\n",sum);

printf ("Minus of twonumber is %d\n",minus);

printf ("multiplication of two num is %d\n",multi);

printf ("Division of two number is %d\n",div);

printf ("Remainder is %d\n",remainder);

printf ("After Increasing the values is %d\n",increase);

printf ("After Decreasingthe values is %d\n",decrease);

getch();

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

void main()

//Declaringvariables

clrscr();
 int a;

char b;

float pi;

// Displayingthe size occupied by each data type

printf("Size of Character variable is %d\n", sizeof(char));

printf("Size of Integer variable is %d\n",sizeof(a));

printf("Size of Floatvariable is %d\n", sizeof(float));

getch();

#include<conio.h>

# include <stdio.h>

void main()

int a,b,c;

printf("\n enter the firstnumber:");

scanf("%d", &a);

printf("\n enter the secondnumber:");

scanf("%d “,&b);
 // Displayingthe numbers before interchanging

printf("\n\n printingthe numbers before interchanging");

printf("\n the first number is:%d",a);

printf("\n the second number is:%d",b);

//Interchanging the numbers

c=a;

a=b;

b=c;

// Displayingthe numbers after interchanging

printf("\n\n printingthe numbers after interchanging");

printf("\n the first number now is:%d",a);

printf("\n the second number now is:%d",b);

getch();

#include<conio.h>

#include <stdio.h>

void main()
{

float basic,da,hra,salary;

char d[15];

clrscr();

printf("\nEnter Your Name : ");

scanf("%s",&d);

printf("\n enter the basicsalary:");

scanf("%f",&basic);

// Calculate the da,hra and salary

da=basic*40/100;

hra=basic*25/100;

salary=basic+da+hra;

//Displayingthe details

printf("\nyour name is: %c ",d);

printf("\n\n salary details :");

printf("\n Basicsalary is: %f",basic);

printf("\n Dearness Allowance is: %f",da);

printf("\n House RentAllowance is: %f",hra);

printf("\n\n Totalsalary earned %f\n",salary);

if(salary>=80000)

printf("\nYou are ceo ");

}

else if(salary>=50000)

printf("\nYou are purchase manager");

else if(salary>=25000)

printf("\nyou are sales manager");

else

printf("\nyou are clerk");

getch();

}
#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

void main()

int num1,num2,sum;

printf("enter two numbers:");

scanf("%d %d", &num1,&num2);

sum= num1+num2;

if(sum>100)

printf("\n the sum of two numbers is greater than 100\n");

else

printf("\n the sum of two numbers is smaller than 100\n");

getch();

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>
void main()

int age;

char name;

clrscr();

printf("\n enter your name:");

scanf("%s", &name);

printf("\n enter your age:");

scanf("%d", &age);

if (age>=19)

printf("\n you are eligiable for voting\n");

else

printf("\n you are noteligible for voting\n");

getch();

}
#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

void main()

int num1,num2,num3;

clrscr();

printf("\n enter 3 numbers:");

scanf("%d %d %d",&num1,&num2,&num3);

if((num1>num2) && (num1>num3))

printf("\n the largestof three numbers is %d\n",num1);

if((num2>num1) && (num2>num3))

printf("\n the largestof three numbers is %d\n",num2);

if((num3>num1) && (num3>num2))

printf("\n the largestof three numbers is %d\n",num3);

getch();

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>

void main()

char abc;

printf("\nEnter a character in lower case: ");

scanf("%c", &abc);

if(abc=='a' || abc=='A')

printf("\nThe character inputis a vowel a\n");

else if (abc=='e')

printf("\nThe character inputis a vowel e\n");

else if (abc=='i')

printf("\nThe character inputis a vowel i\n");

else if (abc=='o')

printf("\nThe character inputis a vowel o\n");

else if (abc=='u')

printf("\nThe character inputis a vowel u\n");

else

printf("\nThe character inputis nota vowel\n");

getch();

}
#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

//Declaration and Intialization of the variable

int a;

printf("\nEnter Number with in one to seven: ");

scanf("%d",&a);

printf ("you have entered number is %d\n",a);

switch(a)

case 1 : printf("you have selectedmonday");

break;

case 2 : printf("you have selected tuesday");

break;

case 3 : printf("you have selected wednesday");

break;

case 4 : printf("you have selectedthursday");

break;

case 5 : printf("you have selected friday");

break;

case 6 : printf("you have selected saturday");

break;

case 7 : printf("you have selected sunday");

break;

default: printf("wrongchoice");

getch();

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

//Declaration and Intialization of the variable

int a,b,choice,add,sub,div,mul;

clrscr();

printf("\nEnter 1 stNumber: ");

scanf("%d",&a);
printf("\nEnter 2ndNumber");

scanf("%d",&b);

printf("\nPress 1 for addition\nPress 2 for substraction \nPress 3 for Division

\nPress 4for multiplication");

scanf("%d",&choice);

add=a+b;

sub=a-b;

div=a/b;

mul=a*b;

switch(choice)

case 1 : printf("addition of twonum is %d",add);

break;

case 2 : printf("substraction of two num is %d",sub);

break;

case 3 : printf("division of two num is %d",div);

break;

case 4 : printf("multiplication of twonum is %d",mul);

break;

default: printf("wrongchoice");

}
getch();

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

void main()

int num1=1,num2=5, count=1;

int product;

while (count<=5)

product= num1*num2;

printf("Product=%d\n", product);

count= count+1;

num1 = num1+1;

getch();

}
#include<conio.h>

#include<stdio.h>

void main()

int x=1,n,r;

clrscr();

printf("enter any number ");

scanf("%d",&n);

while(x<=10)

r=n*x;

printf("\n%d*",n);

printf("%d=",x);

printf("%d ",r);

x++;

getch();

}
#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

void main()

int i=1, j;

while(i <=10)

j=1;

while (j <= i)

printf("*");

j++;

printf("\n");

i++;

getch();

}
#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

void main()

int number;

int sum=0;

printf("\nEnter the number:");

scanf("%d", &number);

if (number>0)

while(number>0)

sum = sum+number;

number = number-1;

printf(“\nnumber value is: %d”,number);

printf(“\nsum is : %d”,sum);

printf("\nThe sum %d\n", sum);

}
 else

printf("\n%d is not valid.", number);

getch();

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

void main ()

inta = 10;

do

printf("value of a: %d\n", a);

a = a + 1;

}while( a < 20 );

getch();
}

#include<conio.h>

#include<stdio.h>

void main()

int a,b,c;

clrscr();

printf("enter table number : \n");

scanf("%d",&b);

for(a=1;a<=10;a++)

c=a*b;

printf("%d*",b);

printf("%d=",a);

printf("%d\n",c);

getch();

}
#include<conio.h>

#include<stdio.h>

void main()

int a,b;

for(a=1;a<=10;a++)

for(b=1;b<=a;b++)

printf("*",b);

printf("\n");

getch();

}
#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

int i,j,k,a,b,c;

for(i=1;i<=8;i++)

for(j=8;j>=i;j--)

printf("");

for(k=1;k<=i;k++)

printf("*");

printf("\n");

getch();

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

void main()

int a,b,c,x,y,z;

printf("Enter a number..\n");

scanf("%d",&x);

for(a=1;a<=x;a++)

for(y=1;y<=a;y++)

printf("");

for(z=1;z<=a;z++)

printf("* ");

printf("\n");

getch();

}
#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

int x[3];

x[0]=10;

x[1]=20;

x[2]=30;

printf("%d",x[0]);

printf("%d",x[1]);

printf("%d",x[2]);

getch();

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

void main()

int x[2][3];

//firstrow of array

x[0][0]=10;

x[0][1]=20;

x[0][2]=30;

clrscr();

printf("%d",x[0][0]);

printf("%d",x[0][1]);

printf("%d",x[0][2]);

//secon rowof array

x[1][0]=40;

x[1][1]=50;

x[1][2]=60;

printf("\n%d",x[1][0]);

printf("%d",x[1][1]);

printf("%d",x[1][2]);

getch();

}
#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

int main()

char a[100], b[100];

printf("Enter the firststring\n");

gets(a);

printf("Enter the secondstring\n");

gets(b);

if (strcmp(a,b) == 0)

printf("Entered strings are equal.\n");

Else

printf("Entered strings are not equal.\n");

}

getch();

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

void main()

char a[20],b[20];

clrscr();

printf("ENTER 1st THE STRING");

scanf("%s",a);

printf("ENTER 2ndTHESTRING");

scanf("%s",b);

strcat(a,b);

printf("concatenation of stringis %s",a);

getch();

}
#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

void main()

char a[20],b[20];

int len;

clrscr();

printf("ENTER 1st THE STRING");

scanf("%s",a);

len =strlen(a);

strcpy(b,a);

printf("copystringis %s",b);

printf("lenth of stringis %d",len);

getch();

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>

void main()

char a[20];

clrscr();

printf("ENTER 1st THE STRING");

scanf("%s",a);

strrev(a);

printf("reverse stringis %s",a);

getch();

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

int a=10;

int *p; /*pointer variable*/

p=&a; /*assign memory address of variable */

printf(“address of a =%u”,p);
printf(“value of a =%d”,*p);

getch();

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

int x,*p1,**p2;

x=5;

p1=&x;

p2=&p1;

printf(“x=%d”,x);

printf(“address of x =%u”,&x);

printf(“address of p1=%u”,p1);

printf(“address of p2=%u”,p2);

getch();

}
#include<conio.h>

#include<stdio.h>

// function prototype, alsocalled function declaration

float square ( floatx );

// main function, program starts from here

int main()

float m, n ;

clrscr();

printf ( "\nEnter some number for finding square \n");

scanf ("%f", &m );

// function call

n = square ( m ) ;

printf ( "\nSquare of the given number %f is %f",m,n );

getch();

float square ( floatx ) // function definition

{
 float p;

p= x * x ;

return ( p );

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

structBooks

char title[50];

char author[50];

char subject[100];

int book_id;

};

int main()

{
structBooks Book1; /* Declare Book1 of type Book */

structBooks Book2; /* Declare Book2 of type Book */

clrscr();

/* book 1specification */

strcpy(Book1.title, "C Programming");

strcpy(Book1.author, "Nuha Ali");

strcpy(Book1.subject, "C Programming Tutorial");

Book1.book_id = 6495407;

/* book 2 specification */

strcpy(Book2.title,"Telecom Billing");

strcpy(Book2.author, "Zara Ali");

strcpy(Book2.subject, "Telecom BillingTutorial");

Book2.book_id= 6495700;

/* printBook1 info */

printf( "Book 1 title : %s",Book1.title);

printf( "\nBook 1 author :%s", Book1.author);

printf( "\nBook 1 subject: %s", Book1.subject);

printf( "\nBook 1 book_id: %d", Book1.book_id);

/* printBook2 info */
 printf( "\nBook 2 title : %s", Book2.title);

printf( "\nBook 2 author : %s", Book2.author);

printf( "\nBook 2 subject :%s",Book2.subject);

printf( "\nBook 2 book_id : %d", Book2.book_id);

getch();

QuestionAndAnswerForinterviewPurpose

What is the difference between declaration and definition of

a variable/function

Ans: Declaration of a variable/function simply declares that the

variable/function exists somewhere in the program but the

memory is not allocated for them. But the declaration of a

variable/function serves an important role. And that is the type

of the variable/function. Therefore, when a variable is declared,

the program knows the data type of that variable. In case of

function declaration, the program knows what are the

arguments to that functions, their data types, the order of

arguments and the return type of the function. So that’s all

about declaration. Coming to the definition, when we define a

variable/function, apart from the role of declaration, it also

allocates memory for that variable/function. Therefore, we can

think of definition as a super set of declaration. (or declaration

as a subset of definition). From this explanation, it should be

obvious that a variable/function can be declared any number of

times but it can be defined only once. (Remember the basic

principle that you can’t have two locations of the same

variable/function).

When should we use pointers in a C program?

1. To get address of a variable

2. Pointers allow different

functions to share and modify their local variables.

3. so that complete copy of the

structure can be avoided.

4. like linked lists and

binary trees.

What is NULL pointer?

Ans: NULL is used to indicate that the pointer doesn’t point to

a valid location. Ideally, we should initialize pointers as NULL if

we don’t know their value at the time of declaration. Also, we

should make a pointer NULL when memory pointed by it is

deallocated in the middle of a program.

What are static functions? What is their use?

Ans:In C, functions are global by default. The “static” keyword

before a function name makes it static. Unlike global functions

in C, access to static functions is restricted to the file where they

are declared. Therefore, when we want to restrict access to

functions, we make them static. Another reason for making

functions static can be reuse of the same function name in other

files. See this for examples and more details.

What are main characteristics of C language?

C is a procedural language. The main features of C language

include low-level access to memory, simple set of keywords,

and clean style. These features make it suitable for system

programming like operating system or compiler development.

Some coders debug their programs by placing comment

symbols on some codes instead of deleting it. How does this

aid in debugging?
Placing comment symbols /* */ around a code, also referred to

as “commenting out”, is a way of isolating some codes that

you think maybe causing errors in the program, without deleting

the code. The idea is that if the code is in fact correct, you

simply remove the comment symbols and continue on. It also

saves you time and effort on having to retype the codes if you

have deleted it in the first place.

What is variable initialization and why is it important?

This refers to the process wherein a variable is assigned an

initial value before it is used in the program. Without initialization,

a variable would have an unknown value, which can lead to

unpredictable outputs when used in computations or other

operations.

In C programming, how do you insert quote characters (‘

and “) into the output screen?

This is a common problem for beginners because quotes are

normally part of a printf statement. To insert the quote character

as part of the output, use the format specifiers \’ (for single

quote), and \” (for double quote).

What is the use of a ‘ \0′ character?

It is referred to as a terminating null character, and is used

primarily to show the end of a string value.

What is the difference between the = symbol and == symbol?

The = symbol is often used in mathematical operations. It is

used to assign a value to a given variable. On the other hand,

the == symbol, also known as “equal to” or “equivalent to”,

is a relational operator that is used to COMPARE two values.

What is the modulus operator?

The modulus operator outputs the remainder of a division. It

makes use of the percentage (%) symbol. For example: 10 % 3

= 1, meaning when you divide 10 by 3, the remainder is 1.

What is a nested loop?

A nested loop is a loop that runs within another loop. Put it in

another sense, you have an inner loop that is inside an outer

loop. In this scenario, the inner loop is performed a number of

times as specified by the outer loop. For each turn on the outer
loop, the inner loop is first performed.

Which of the following operators is incorrect and why? ( >=,

<=, <>, ==)

<> is incorrect. While this operator is correctly interpreted as

“not equal to” in writing conditional statements, it is not the

proper operator to be used in C programming. Instead, the

operator != must be used to indicate “not equal to” condition.

How do you declare a variable that will hold string values?

The char keyword can only hold 1 character value at a time. By

creating an array of characters, you can store string values in it.

Example: “char MyName[50]; ” declares a string variable

named MyName that can hold a maximum of 50 characters.

Can the curly brackets { } be used to enclose a single line of

code?

While curly brackets are mainly used to group several lines of

codes, it will still work without error if you used it for a single line.

Some programmers prefer this method as a way of organizing

codes to make it look clearer, especially in conditional

statements.
What are header files and what are its uses in C

programming?

Header files are also known as library files. They contain two

essential things: the definitions and prototypes of functions

being used in a program. Simply put, commands that you use in

C programming are actually functions that are defined from

within each header files. Each header file contains a set of

functions. For example: stdio.h is a header file that contains

definition and prototypes of commands like printf and scanf.

What is syntax error?

Syntax errors are associated with mistakes in the use of a

programming language. It maybe a command that was

misspelled or a command that must was entered in lowercase

mode but was instead entered with an upper case character. A

misplaced symbol, or lack of symbol, somewhere within a line

of code can also lead to syntax error.

What are variables and it what way is it different from

constants?

Variables and constants may at first look similar in a sense that

both are identifiers made up of one character or more

characters (letters, numbers and a few allowable symbols). Both

will also hold a particular value. Values held by a variable can be

altered throughout the program, and can be used in most

operations and computations. Constants are given values at one

time only, placed at the beginning of a program. This value is not

altered in the program. For example, you can assigned a

constant named PI and give it a value 3.1415 . You can then

use it as PI in the program, instead of having to write 3.1415

each time you need it.

How do you access the values within an array?

Arrays contain a number of elements, depending on the size

you gave it during variable declaration. Each element is

assigned a number from 0 to number of elements-1. To assign

or retrieve the value of a particular element, refer to the element

number. For example: if you have a declaration that says

“intscores[5];”, then you have 5 accessible elements, namely:

scores[0], scores[1], scores[2], scores[3] and scores[4].

Can I use “int” data type to store the value 32768? Why?

No. “int” data type is capable of storing values from -32768 to

32767. To store 32768, you can use “long int” instead. You

can also use “unsigned int”, assuming you don’t intend to

store negative values.

Can two or more operators such as \n and \t be combined in

a single line of program code?

Yes, it’s perfectly valid to combine operators, especially if the

need arises. For example: you can have a code like ” printf

(“Hello\n\n\’World\'”) ” to output the text “Hello” on the

first line and “World” enclosed in single quotes to appear on

the next two lines.

Why is it that not all header files are declared in every C

program?

The choice of declaring a header file at the top of each C

program would depend on what commands/functions you will

be using in that program. Since each header file contains

different function definitions and prototype, you would be using

only those header files that would contain the functions you will

need. Declaring all header files in every program would only

increase the overall file size and load of the program, and is not

considered a good programming style.

When is the “void” keyword used in a function?

When declaring functions, you will decide whether that function

would be returning a value or not. If that function will not return a

value, such as when the purpose of a function is to display

some outputs on the screen, then “void” is to be placed at the

leftmost part of the function header. When a return value is

expected after the function execution, the data type of the

return value is placed instead of “void”.

What is the advantage of an array over individual variables?

When storing multiple related data, it is a good idea to use

arrays. This is because arrays are named using only 1 word

followed by an element number. For example: to store the 10

test results of 1 student, one can use 10 different variable names

(grade1, grade2, grade3… grade10). With arrays, only 1 name is

used, the rest are accessible through the index name (grade[0],

grade[1], grade[2]… grade[9]).

What are comments and how do you insert it in a C program?

Comments are a great way to put some remarks or description

in a program. It can serves as a reminder on what the program

is all about, or a description on why a certain code or function

was placed there in the first place. Comments begin with /* and

ended by */ characters. Comments can be a single line, or can

even span several lines. It can be placed anywhere in the

program.

What is debugging?

Debugging is the process of identifying errors within a program.

During program compilation, errors that are found will stop the

program from executing completely. At this state, the

programmer would look into the possible portions where the

error occurred. Debugging ensures the removal of errors, and

plays an important role in ensuring that the expected program

output is met.

What does the && operator do in a program code?

The && is also referred to as AND operator. When using this

operator, all conditions specified must be TRUE before the next

action can be performed. If you have 10 conditions and all but 1

fails to evaluate as TRUE, the entire condition statement is

already evaluated as FALSE.

What are logical errors and how does it differ from syntax

errors?

Program that contains logical errors tend to pass the

compilation process, but the resulting output may not be the

expected one. This happens when a wrong formula was

inserted into the code, or a wrong sequence of commands was

performed. Syntax errors, on the other hand, deal with incorrect

commands that are misspelled or not recognized by the

compiler.

What is || operator and how does it function in a program?

The || is also known as the OR operator in C programming.

When using || to evaluate logical conditions, any condition that

evaluates to TRUE will render the entire condition statement as

TRUE.

What are preprocessor directives?

Preprocessor directives are placed at the beginning of every C

program. This is where library files are specified, which would

depend on what functions are to be used in the program.

Another use of preprocessor directives is the declaration of

constants.Preprocessor directives begin with the # symbol.

How do you determine the length of a string value that was

stored in a variable?

To get the length of a string value, use the function strlen(). For

example, if you have a variable named FullName, you can get

the length of the stored string value by using this statement: I =

strlen(FullName); the variable I will now have the character

length of the string value.

Why is C language being considered a middle level language?

This is because C language is rich in features that make it

behave like a high level language while at the same time can

interact with hardware using low level methods. The use of a

well structured approach to programming, coupled with English-

like words used in functions, makes it act as a high level

language. On the other hand, C can directly access memory

structures similar to assembly language routines.

What are the different file extensions involved when

programming in C?

Source codes in C are saved with .C file extension. Header files

or library files have the .H file extension. Every time a program

source code is successfully compiled, it creates an .OBJ object

file, and an executable .EXE file.

What is the difference between the expression “++a” and

“a++”?

In the first expression, the increment would happen first on

variable a, and the resulting value will be the one to be used.

This is also known as a prefix increment. In the second

expression, the current value of variable a would the one to be

used in an operation, before the value of a itself is incremented.

This is also known as postfix increment.

In C language, the variables NAME, name, and Name are all

the same. TRUE or FALSE?

FALSE. C language is a case sensitive language. Therefore,

NAME, name and Name are three uniquely different variables.

What is an endless loop?

An endless loop can mean two things. One is that it was

designed to loop continuously until the condition within the loop

is met, after which a break function would cause the program to

step out of the loop. Another idea of an endless loop is when an

incorrect loop condition was written, causing the loop to run

erroneously forever. Endless loops are oftentimes referred to as

infinite loops.

What is a program flowchart and how does it help in writing a

program?

A flowchart provides a visual representation of the step by step

procedure towards solving a given problem. Flowcharts are

made of symbols, with each symbol in the form of different

shapes. Each shape may represent a particular entity within the

entire program structure, such as a process, a condition, or

even an input/output phase.

What is a newline escape sequence?

A newline escape sequence is represented by the \n character.

This is used to insert a new line when displaying data in the

output screen. More spaces can be added by inserting more \n

characters. For example, \n\n would insert two spaces. A

newline escape sequence can be placed before the actual

output expression or after.

What are run-time errors?

These are errors that occur while the program is being executed.

One common instance wherein run-time errors can happen is

when you are trying to divide a number by zero. When run-time

errors occur, program execution will pause, showing which

program line caused the error.

What are control structures?

Control structures take charge at which instructions are to be

performed in a program. This means that program flow may not

necessarily move from one statement to the next one, but rather

some alternative portions may need to be pass into or bypassed

from, depending on the outcome of the conditional statements.

When is a “switch” statement preferable over an “if”

statement?

The switch statement is best used when dealing with selections

based on a single variable or expression. However, switch

statements can only evaluate integer and character data types.

What are structure types in C?

Structure types are primarily used to store records. A record is

made up of related fields. This makes it easier to organize a

group of related data.

is it possible to create your own header files?

Yes, it is possible to create a customized header file. Just

include in it the function prototypes that you want to use in your

program, and use the #include directive followed by the name

of your header file.

What are the different data types in C?

The basic data types are int, char, and float. Int is used to

declare variables that will be storing integer values. Float is used

to store real numbers. Char can store individual character values.

In a switch statement, what will happen if a break statement

is omitted?

If a break statement was not placed at the end of a particular

case portion? It will move on to the next case portion, possibly

causing incorrect output.

What are pointers?

Pointers point to specific areas in the memory. Pointers contain

the address of a variable, which in turn may contain a value or

even an address to another memory.

What is the use of a semicolon (;) at the end of every

program statement?

It has to do with the parsing process and compilation of the

code. A semicolon acts as a delimiter, so that the compiler

knows where each statement ends, and can proceed to divide

the statement into smaller elements for syntax checking.

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