PHY-2203 (Astronomy and Cosmology)

Chapter- 1 (Introduction)

by

Dr. Mithun Kumar Das

Associate Professor

Department of Physics
Comilla University, Cumilla.

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 Introduction
Astronomy and Cosmology: A Universe of Wonder

Astronomy and cosmology are two closely related fields that explore the vast
expanse of the universe. While they both explore into celestial bodies and
phenomena, they have distinct focuses.

Astronomy: The study of celestial objects and phenomena

Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial objects and phenomena. It involves
observing, interpreting, and understanding the universe beyond Earth.
Astronomers study a wide range of objects, including:

Stars: Massive, luminous balls of gas that generate energy through nuclear
fusion.
Planets: Celestial bodies that orbit stars, such as Earth, Mars, and Jupiter.
Moons: Natural satellites that orbit planets.
Comets: Icy bodies that orbit the Sun and develop long tails as they approach it.
Asteroids: Rocky objects that orbit the Sun, often found in the asteroid belt
between Mars and Jupiter.
Nebulae: Clouds of gas and dust in space, where stars are born.
Galaxies: Massive collections of stars, gas, and dust held together by gravity.
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Cosmology: The Study of the Universe as a Whole

Cosmology is a branch of astronomy that focuses on the origin, evolution, and

ultimate fate of the universe. Cosmologists study the universe on the largest
scale, from the Big Bang to the cosmic microwave background radiation.

Some key topics in cosmology include:

The Big Bang: The theory that the universe began as a hot, dense state and has
been expanding ever since.
Dark Matter and Dark Energy: Mysterious substances that make up most of the
universe but are invisible to telescopes.
The Formation of Galaxies and Stars: How galaxies and stars formed and
evolved over billions of years.
The Fate of the Universe: Will the universe continue to expand forever, or will it
finally collapse?

In essence, while astronomy focuses on the individual components of the

universe, cosmology takes a broader view, seeking to understand the universe
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as a whole.
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What is meant by celestial objects?
A natural object which is located outside of the Earth's atmosphere, such as the
moon, the sun, planet, or star.
Galaxy:
A galaxy is a huge collection of gas, dust, and billions of stars and their solar
systems. A galaxy is held together by gravity. Our galaxy, the Milky Way (The
Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our solar system, and it's named for its appearance in the

night sky), also has a supermassive black hole.

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Interstellar medium:
The interstellar medium (ISM) is the matter and radiation that exists between stars in a
galaxy:

Composition: The ISM is made up of gas, dust, and cosmic rays. It's mostly gas, with
about 99% of the medium made up of gas and 1% made up of dust and ice particles.

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Cosmic ray:
Cosmic rays or astroparticles are high-energy particles or clusters of
particles that move through space at nearly the speed of light. They
originate from the Sun, from outside of the solar system in our own galaxy,
and from distant galaxies.

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Cosmic dust:
Cosmic dust, also known as space dust, extraterrestrial dust, or star
dust, is made up of tiny particles of matter that float in space. These
particles can range in size from a few molecules to grains that are 0.1
millimeters in size.
Cosmic dust is created in stars and then blown off into space through a
slow wind or a massive star explosion. It can form in many different
cosmic environments, including: The surroundings of supermassive
black holes, cold regions, and the space between stars.

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Nebula:
A nebula is a giant cloud of dust and gas that exists between stars in space.
Nebulae are part of the interstellar medium, which is the low-density gas and
dust that exists between stars. The material in the interstellar medium is so spread
out that it can have a density as low as 0.1 atoms per cubic centimeter. Nebulae
are made up of dust and ionized, neutral, or molecular hydrogen, and other gases.
Nebulae can be huge, spanning multiple light years. Nebulae can be formed from
the remnants of dying stars, such as supernova explosions (A supernova is a powerful
and luminous explosion of a star), or they can be regions where new stars are forming.
The Sun and planets formed from a nebula called the solar nebula about 4.6
billion years ago.

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Comet:
A comet is a small, icy body in our solar system that orbits the sun and releases
gases and dust when it gets close to the sun. A comet is a celestial object
consisting of a nucleus of ice and dust and, when near the sun, a ‘tail’ of gas and
dust particles pointing away from the sun.

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Asteroid:
An asteroid is a minor planet-an object that is neither a true planet nor a comet-
that orbits within the inner Solar System. They are rocky, metallic or icy bodies
with no atmosphere.

Meteoroid:
A meteoroid is a small, rocky or metallic space object that orbits the sun.
Meteoroids are much smaller than asteroids, ranging in size from dust grains to
objects up to a meter wide. Objects smaller than meteoroids are called
micrometeoroids or space dust.

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Difference between asteroid and meteoroid?

Asteroids (larger than 1 meter in diameter) are smaller than a planet, but they are
larger than the meteoroids (2 millimeters to 1 meter in size). A meteor is a small
piece of an asteroid burns up upon entering Earth's atmosphere, creating a band
of light in the sky.

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Supernova:
A supernova is a violent explosion that happens when a star is dying. It can occur
when a massive star reaches the end of its life, or when a white dwarf triggers
runaway nuclear fusion. A supernova can be brighter than an entire galaxy at its
peak. It can be seen from billions of light-years away, and some supernovas in the
past have been visible during the day (their predictable brightness changes over
time). Supernovas create and spread new elements, which are the building blocks
for future stars and planets.

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Quasars:
A quasar is a rare and extremely luminous galactic core powered by a supermassive
black hole. A massive and extremely remote celestial object, emitting exceptionally large
amounts of energy, and typically having a starlike image in a telescope. Quasars are a
type of active galactic nucleus (AGN), which is a galaxy with a very bright core. They are
the most luminous and powerful type of AGN. A quasar's core is a supermassive black
hole that consumes gas and dust, which creates a spinning disk around it. The black
hole's magnetic field traps particles from the disk and expels them along its poles,
creating jets of energy that appear as radio waves and X-rays..

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Pulsar:
A pulsar is a highly magnetized, rotating neutron star that emits a beam of
electromagnetic radiation. This radiation can be observed only when the beam of
emission is pointing towards Earth, much like a lighthouse.

Pulsars are formed when a massive star runs out of fuel and collapses in on itself.
The core of the star is crushed into a dense ball of neutrons, creating a neutron star.
The neutron star's strong magnetic field acts like a giant dynamo (device that
generates electrical current using electromagnetic induction), generating powerful
electric fields that accelerate charged particles to nearly the speed of light. These
particles emit electromagnetic radiation, including radio waves, X-rays, and gamma
rays, as they spiral around the magnetic field lines.

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 Introduction
Astronomy:
Astronomy is the study of everything in the universe beyond Earth's
atmosphere. That includes objects we can see with our naked eyes, like the Sun,
the Moon, the planets, and the stars. It also includes objects we can only see
with telescopes or other instruments, like faraway galaxies and tiny particles.
Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It
uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and
evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, galaxies,
meteoroid, asteroid, and comets. Relevant phenomena include supernova
explosions, gamma ray bursts, quasars, pulsars, and cosmic microwave
background radiation. More generally, astronomy studies everything that
originates beyond Earth's atmosphere. 15
 Introduction

Professional astronomy is split into observational and theoretical branches.

Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of

astronomical objects. This data is then analyzed using basic principles of physics.

Theoretical astronomy is oriented toward the development of computer or

analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. These two

fields complement each other. Theoretical astronomy seeks to explain

observational results and observations are used to confirm theoretical results.

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Use of terms "astronomy" and "astrophysics"
"Astronomy" and "astrophysics" are synonyms. Based on strict dictionary

definitions, "astronomy" refers to "the study of objects and matter outside the

Earth's atmosphere and of their physical and chemical properties," while

"astrophysics" refers to the branch of astronomy dealing with "the behavior,

physical properties, and dynamic processes of celestial objects and phenomena".

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Observational astronomy

The main source of information about celestial bodies and other objects is

visible light, or more generally electromagnetic radiation. Observational

astronomy may be categorized according to the corresponding region of the

electromagnetic spectrum on which the observations are made. Some parts of

the spectrum can be observed from the Earth's surface, while other parts are

only observable from either high altitudes or outside the Earth's atmosphere.

Specific information on these subfields is given below:

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Radio astronomy:

Radio astronomy uses radiation with wavelengths greater than approximately one

millimeter, outside the visible range. Radio astronomy is different from most

other forms of observational astronomy in that the observed radio waves can be

treated as waves rather than as discrete photons. Hence, it is relatively easier to

measure both the amplitude and phase of radio waves, whereas this is not as

easily done at shorter wavelengths.

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 Introduction

Although some radio waves are emitted directly by astronomical objects, a

product of thermal emission, most of the radio emission that is observed is the
result of synchrotron radiation, which is produced when electrons orbit magnetic
fields. Additionally, a number of spectral lines produced by interstellar gas are
observable at radio wavelengths. A wide variety of other objects are observable at
radio wavelengths, including supernovae, interstellar gas, pulsars, and active
galactic nuclei. 20
 Introduction
Infrared astronomy:
Infrared astronomy is founded on the detection and analysis of infrared radiation,
wavelengths longer than red light and outside the range of our vision. The
infrared spectrum is useful for studying objects that are too cold to radiate visible
light, such as planets, nebulae whose light is blocked by dust. The longer
wavelengths of infrared can penetrate clouds of dust that block visible light,
allowing the observation of young stars embedded in molecular clouds and the
cores of galaxies.

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Optical astronomy:
Historically, optical astronomy, also called visible light astronomy, is the oldest
form of astronomy. Images of observations were originally drawn by hand. In the
late 19th century and most of the 20th century, images were made using
photographic equipment. Modern images are made using digital detectors,
particularly using charge-coupled devices (CCDs) and recorded on modern
medium. Although visible light itself extends from approximately 4000 Å to 7000
Å (400 nm to 700 nm), that same equipment can be used to observe some near-
ultraviolet and near-infrared radiation.

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Ultraviolet astronomy:
Ultraviolet astronomy employs ultraviolet wavelengths between approximately
100 and 3200 Å (10 to 320 nm). Light at those wavelengths is absorbed by the
Earth's atmosphere, requiring observations at these wavelengths to be performed
from the upper atmosphere or from space. Ultraviolet astronomy is best suited to
the study of thermal radiation and spectral emission lines from hot blue stars that
are very bright in this wave band. This includes the blue stars in other galaxies,
which have been the targets of several ultraviolet surveys. Other objects
commonly observed in ultraviolet light include planetary nebulae, supernova, and
active galactic nuclei. However, as ultraviolet light is easily absorbed by
interstellar dust, an adjustment of ultraviolet measurements is necessary.
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X-ray astronomy:
X-ray astronomy uses X-ray wavelengths. Typically, X-ray radiation is produced
by synchrotron emission (the result of electrons orbiting magnetic field lines),
thermal emission from thin gases above 107 (10 million) kelvins, and thermal
emission from thick gases above 107 Kelvin. Since X-rays are absorbed by the
Earth's atmosphere, all X-ray observations must be performed from high-altitude
balloons, rockets, or X-ray astronomy satellites. Notable X-ray sources include
pulsars, supernova remnants, elliptical galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and active
galactic nuclei.

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 Introduction
Gamma-ray astronomy:
Gamma ray astronomy observes astronomical objects at the shortest wavelengths
of the electromagnetic spectrum. Gamma rays may be observed directly by
satellites such as the Compton gamma ray observatory or by specialized
telescopes called atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes. The Cherenkov telescopes
do not detect the gamma rays directly but instead detect the flashes of visible
light produced when gamma rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere. Most
gamma-ray emitting sources are actually gamma-ray bursts, objects which only
produce gamma radiation for a few milliseconds to thousands of seconds before
fading away. Only 10% of gamma-ray sources are non-transient sources. These
steady gamma-ray emitters include pulsars, neutron stars, and black hole
candidates such as active galactic nuclei.
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 Introduction
Theoretical astronomy:
Theoretical astronomers use several tools including analytical models (a
mathematical representation of a system that uses equations to describe the
relationships between parameters and their values) and computational numerical
simulations (a computer-based research method that uses mathematical models to
simulate or assume or produce something that is not real but has the appearance
or feeling of being real); each has its particular advantages. Analytical models of a
process are better for giving broader insight into the heart of what is going on.
Numerical models help us see things we couldn't see before.

Theoretical astronomers analyze, model, and guess about systems and how they
work and evolve. They use data collected by observational astronomers to
connect the pieces together and make predictions about phenomena that haven't
been observed yet.
Some topics of theoretical astronomy include: numerical simulations of the
formation of structure, galaxy formation, black holes, neutron stars, and particle
acceleration.
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Phenomena modeled by theoretical astronomers include:

 Stellar dynamics and evolution

 Galaxy formation
 Large-scale distribution of matter in the universe
 The origin of cosmic rays

Modern theoretical astronomy reflects dramatic advances in observation since

the 1990s, including studies of the cosmic microwave background, distant
supernovae and galaxy redshifts, which have led to the development of a
standard model of cosmology. This model requires the universe to contain
large amounts of dark matter and dark energy whose nature is currently not
well understood, but the model gives detailed predictions that are in excellent
agreement with many different observations.
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 Introduction
Modern astronomy:
Modern astronomy is a vast and exciting field that includes the study of
celestial objects and phenomena beyond Earth. It builds upon centuries of
observation and theoretical understanding, utilizing cutting-edge
technology to explore the universe's mysteries.
Key areas of modern astronomy:

Observational astronomy:
Ground-based Telescopes: These use a variety of
techniques, including optical, infrared, radio, and X-ray,
to capture light from celestial objects.

Space-based telescopes: These operate above earth's

atmosphere, providing clearer views and access to
Fig. James Webb Space
wavelengths that are blocked by the atmosphere. Telescope
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Cosmology:
Cosmology is the scientific study of the universe as a whole. It investigates
fundamental questions about the universe's origin, evolution, structure, and ultimate
fate.
Key areas of survey include:
The Big Bang: The fundamental theory describing the universe's expansion from a hot,
dense state.
Cosmic microwave background (CMB): Radiation left over from the early universe,
providing crucial evidence for the Big Bang.
Dark matter and dark energy: Mysterious substances that make up most of the universe
but are not directly observable.
Cosmology relies on a combination of theoretical models, observations of astronomical
objects, and physical laws to piece together our understanding of the universe.
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Why laws of physics are not applicable in cosmology?

The laws of physics, as we understand them, are not directly applicable in

cosmology because of several factors:

Extreme conditions: The early universe, particularly during the Big Bang, involved
incredibly high temperatures and densities. These conditions are far beyond what
we can replicate in laboratories, making it difficult to test and verify our physical
theories in such extreme environments.

Quantum gravity: At the smallest scales, gravity is described by Einstein's theory

of General Relativity, while the other fundamental forces are governed by
quantum mechanics. However, these two theories are incompatible (opposite),
and a unified theory of quantum gravity is still elusive. Without such a theory, we
cannot fully understand the behavior of the universe at its very beginning. 30
 Introduction
Limited observational data: Our observations of the universe are limited by
the speed of light and the finite age of the universe. We cannot directly
observe the earliest moments of the Big Bang, and our understanding is
based on theoretical models and indirect evidence.
Dark matter and dark energy: A significant portion of the universe is
composed of dark matter and dark energy, whose nature and properties are
still largely unknown. These components play a crucial role in the evolution
of the universe, but their influence on the applicability of physical laws is not
fully understood.
Despite these challenges, cosmologists use known physical laws and
theories as a starting point to develop models of the universe. These models
are then tested against observational data, and discrepancies between
theory and observation can lead to new insights and discoveries. 31
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What is the astronomical coordinate system?
Astronomical (or celestial) coordinate systems are organized arrangements for
specifying positions of satellites, planets, stars, galaxies, and other celestial
objects relative to physical reference points available to a situated observer.

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What are the different types of astronomical coordinate systems?
There are four basic systems of astronomical coordinates: the horizontal
coordinate system, the equatorial coordinate system, the celestial or ecliptic
coordinate system, and the galactic coordinate system.
Astronomical coordinate systems are used to pinpoint the positions of celestial objects in
the sky. Here are some of the most common types:

Horizontal Coordinate System:

Center point: Observer's location on Earth
Fundamental plane: Horizon
Coordinates: Altitude (height above the horizon) and Azimuth (direction along the
horizon).
This system is useful for finding objects in the
sky at a specific time and location, but the
coordinates change as the Earth rotates.

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Equatorial Coordinate System:

Center point: Center of the Earth

Fundamental plane: Celestial equator (projection of Earth's equator onto the celestial
sphere)

Coordinates: Declination (angular distance north or south of the celestial equator) and
Right ascension (angular distance east along the celestial equator)

This system is independent of the observer's

location and time, making it useful for
cataloging and tracking celestial objects over
long periods.

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Ecliptic Coordinate System:

Center point: Center of the Sun

Fundamental plane: Ecliptic (plane of

Earth's orbit around the Sun)

Coordinates: Ecliptic latitude (angular

distance north or south of the ecliptic)
and Ecliptic longitude (angular distance
east along the ecliptic)
This system is particularly useful for
studying objects within the solar system,
as their orbits lie close to the ecliptic
plane.

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Galactic Coordinate System:
Center point: Center of the Milky Way
galaxy.
Fundamental plane: Galactic plane
(plane of our galaxy's disk).
Coordinates: Galactic latitude (angular
distance north or south of the galactic
plane) and Galactic longitude (angular
distance east along the galactic plane).
This system is used to study the large-
scale structure of our galaxy and
beyond.
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Unit of distance in astronomy:
Astronomers use many of the same units of measurement as other scientists. They
often use meters for length, kilograms for mass, and seconds for time. However,
the distances and sizes in the universe can be so big, that astronomers have
invented more units to describe distance.
1. Astronomical Units:
Distances in the solar system are often measured in astronomical units
(abbreviated AU). An astronomical unit is the average distance between the Earth
and the Sun:
1 AU = 1.496 x 108 km = 93 million miles

Jupiter is about 5.2 AU from the Sun and Pluto is about 39.5 AU from the Sun.
The distance from the Sun to the center of the Milky Way is approximately 1.7 x
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109 AU.
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2. Light-Years:
To measure the distances between stars, astronomers often use light-years
(abbreviated ly). A light-year is the distance that light travels in a vacuum in one
year:
1 ly = 9.5 x 1012 km = 63,240 AU
Proxima Centauri is the nearest star to Earth (other than the Sun) and is 4.2 light-
years away. This means light from Proxima Centauri takes 4.2 years to travel to
Earth.

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3. Parsecs:
A parsec is a unit of measurement used to express the distance to astronomical
objects outside of our solar system. It's equal to about 3.26 light-years, or 30.9
trillion kilometers. A parsec is the distance at which one astronomical unit
subtends an angle of one arcsecond (A unit of angular measurement that is 1/3600
of a degree.). It's also the distance at which the radius of Earth's orbit subtends an
angle of one second of arc (curve).

1 pc = 3.09 x 1013 km = 3.26 ly

1 arc second = 3.09 x 1013 km

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 Contents of the universe:
According to current scientific understanding, the universe is primarily composed of three main
components: normal matter (also called visible matter), dark matter, and dark energy; with the vast
majority of the universe's content being made up of dark energy (around 68%), followed by dark
matter (around 27%), and only a small percentage being normal matter (around 5%).

 Normal Matter:
This includes all the visible matter we can observe, like stars,
planets, galaxies, and even ourselves, which is primarily made
up of atoms consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

 Dark Matter:
A mysterious substance that cannot be directly observed but is
believed to exist due to its gravitational effects on visible matter.
It is thought to be a major component of the universe, holding
galaxies together.

 Dark Energy:
An even more mysterious force that is causing the expansion of
the universe to accelerate. Scientists currently have very little
understanding of its nature.
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 Thank you
for your kind attention

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