(qiancarlo Bernacom

TENSORS
made easy
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
In 2022 with funding from
Kahle/Austin Foundation

https://archive.org/details/tensorsmadeeasyi0000bern
 Giancarlo Bernacchi

made easy
An informal introduction
to Maths of General Relativity

To Sophie, Alexandre and Elena

2017
34 edition: December 2016
© Giancarlo Bernacchi
ISBN 978-1-326-29253-9
All rights reserved

Cover: photo by the author

Printed by www.lulu.com

Giancarlo Bernacchi
Rho (Milano) - Italia
giancarlobernacchi@libero.it

Text edited by means of

Sun Microsystem OpenOffice Writer 3
(except some figures)

Edition August 2015

Revision 2017 (December 2016)
Contents

Introduction
Notations and conventions

Vectors and Covectors

Vectors
Basis-vectors and components
Covectors
Scalar product (heterogeneous)
The Kronecker 6
Metaphors and models
The “T-mosaic” model

Tensors
Outer product between vectors and covectors
Matrix representation of tensors
Sum of tensors and product by a number
Symmetry and skew-symmetry
Representing tensors in T-mosaic
Tensors in T-mosaic model: definitions
Tensor inner product
Outer product in T-mosaic
Contraction
Inner product as outer product + contraction
Multiple connection of tensors
“Scalar product” or “identity” tensor
Inverse tensor
Vector-covector “dual switch” tensor
Vectors / covectors homogeneous scalar product
G applied to basis-vectors
G applied to a tensor
Relations between I, G, 6

Change of basis
Basis change in T-mosaic
Invariance of the null tensor
Invariance of tensor equations

Tensors in manifolds
Coordinate systems
Coordinate lines and surfaces
Coordinate bases
Coordinate bases and non-coordinate bases
Change of the coordinate system
Contravariant and covariant tensors
Affine tensors
Cartesian tensors
Magnitude of vectors
Distance and metric tensor
Euclidean distance
Generalized distances
Tensors and not —
Covariant derivative
The gradient V at work
Gradient of some fundamental tensors
Covariant derivative and index raising / lowering
Christoffel symbols
Covariant derivative and invariance of tensor equations
T-mosaic representation of gradient, divergence
and covariant derivative -

Curved nanifolds
Symptoms of curvature
Derivative of a scalar or vector along a line
T-mosaic representation of derivatives along a line
Parallel transport along a line of a vector
Geodetics
Positive and negative curvature
Flat and curved manifold
Flat local system
Local flatness theorem
Riemann tensor
Symmetries of tensor R
Bianchi identity
Ricci tensor and Ricci scalar
Einstein tensor

Appendix

Problems

Bibliographic references

Index of Problems by Topic

Introduction
Tensor Analysis has a particular, though not exclusive, interest for the theory of
General Relativity, in which curved spaces have a central role; so we cannot restrict
ourselves to Cartesian tensors and to usual 3D space. In fact, all texts of General
Relativity include some treatment of Tensor Analysis at various levels, but often it
reduces to a schematic summary that is almost incomprehensible to the first
approach, or else the topic is distributed along the text to be introduced piecemeal
when needed, inevitably disorganized and fragmented. On the other hand, works
devoted to the tensors at elementary level are virtually missing, neither is worth
embarking on a preliminary study of specialized texts: even if one might overcome
the mathematical difficulties, he would not be on the shortest way leading to
relativity (but perhaps to differential geometry or surroundings). What we ultimately
need is a simple introduction, not too formal — maybe heuristic — suitable to be used
as a first approach to the subject, before dealing with the study of specific texts of
General Relativity. We will cite as references those articles or handouts that we
found closer to this approach and to which we have referred in writing these notes.
Our goal is not to do something better, but more easily affordable; we payed
attention to the fundamentals and tried to make clear the line of reasoning, avoiding,
as it often happens in such circumstances, too many implicit assumptions (which
usually are not so obvious to the first reading).
As a general approach, we fully agree (and we do it with the faith of converts) on the
appropriateness of the “geometric approach” to Tensor Analysis: really, it does not
require more effort, but gives a strength to the concept of tensor that the old
traditional approach “by components”, still adopted by many texts, cannot give.
Addressing the various topics we have adopted a “top-down” strategy. We are
convinced that it is always better, even didactically, address the problems in their
generality (not Cartesian tensors as introduction to general tensors, not flat spaces
before curved ones); to shrink, to go into details, etc. there will always be time, but
it would be better a later time. After all, there is a strategy better than others to open
Chinese boxes: to begin with the larger one. This should somehow contain the
irresistible temptation to unduly transfer in a general context results that apply only
in particular instances.
We also tried to apply a little-known corollary of “Occam's razor”: do not introduce
restrictive assumptions before necessary (that is why, for example, we introduce a
“dual switch” before the metric tensor). The desire not to appear pedestrian is the
factor that increases by an order of magnitude the illegibility of mathematics books:
we felt that it is better to let it go and accept the risk of being judged somewhat dull
by those who presume to know the story in depth.
This book does not claim to originality, but aims to didactics. With an exception: the
model (or metaphor) that represents the tensor as a piece or “tessera” of a mosaic
(we'll call it “T-mosaic”). We are not aware that this metaphor, useful to write
without embarrassment tensor equations and even a bit obvious, has ever been
presented in a text. That might be even surprising. But the magicians never reveal
their tricks, and mathematicians sometimes resemble them. If it will be appreciated,
we will feel honored to have been just us to uncover the trick.
To read these notes should be enough some differential calculus (until partial
derivatives); for what concerns matrices, it suffices to know that they are tables with
rows and columns (and that swapping them you can create a great confusion), or
slightly more. Instead, we will assiduously use the Einstein sum convention for
repeated indexes as a great simplification in writing tensor equations.
As Euclid said to the Pharaoh, there is no royal road to mathematics; this does not
mean that it is always compulsory to follow the most impervious pathway.
The hope of the author of these notes is they could be useful to someone as a
conceptual introduction to the subject.
G.B. September 2010

Preface to the edition 2015

A number of problems is the substantial novelty of this new edition. Being a text
dedicated to use for self-study, it seemed appropriate not only to propose the
problems (with or without suggestions for the resolution) but also discuss and solve
them in details. A choice imposed by the need to avoid interruptions of the text was
then to group them in a second special section - in a sense autonomous. Inserting
references to the problems in the text would have been difficult for the fact that a
single issue usually relates to more arguments; it was decided to list in a separate
index the main topics of each problem, to facilitate the reader the search for a
specific topic.
The problems tend to go through, with completeness and sometimes with some more
depth, the theoretical arguments presented in the first part. Various problems deal
with tensor products, not a very attractive subject, but as basic as the rules of algebra
can be. To curved spaces are dedicated some of the final problems, whose cut we
wanted to make as intuitive as possible.
However, we believe that a first reading of the text one should not worry so much
about solving problems (they may nevertheless be used to seek some clarification or
explanation); only in a subsequent reading it would be important to face them in a
systematic way to achieve that working knowledge without which the theoretical
concepts are precariously “glued”.
This new edition gives the opportunity to introduce variants or additions and to
correct some errors in the previous one.
If understanding means getting familiarity, we hope to have been an aid to achieve
this goal despite the difficulty of the subject.
G.B. May 2015
Notations and conventions
In these notes we'll use the standard notation for components of tensors, namely
upper (apices) and lower (subscript) indexes in Greek letters, for example 7% , as
usual in Relativity. The coordinates will be marked by upper indexes, such as x",
basis-vectors will be represented by @,, basis-covectors by 2.
In a tensor formula such as P,= Bas V® the index o that appears once at left side
member and once at right side member is a “free” index, while B that occurs twice in
the right member only is a “dummy” index.
We will constantly use the Einstein sum convention, whereby a repeated index
means an implicit summation over that index. For example, TO a V® is for
n
Po=S
Teo)ui
t+ )
2,,) =<Purther examples are: AB, =) AB,
a=1

Ay’ Buy = > Ay Be, and AX = Alt 43+... +.”

x=1 v=l

We note that, due to the sum convention, the “chain rule” for partial derivatives can
of Of ox"
be simply written and the sum over p comes automatically.
CX? OR OR
A dummy index, unlike a free index, does not survive the summation and thus it
does not appear in the result. Its name can be freely changed as long as it does not
collide with other homonymous indexes in the same term.
In all equations the dummy indexes must always be balanced up-down and they
cannot occur more than twice in each term. The free indexes appear only once in
each term. In an equation both left and right members must have the same free
indexes.
These conventions make it much easier writing correct relationships.
The little needed of matrix algebra will be said when necessary. We only note that
the multiplication of two matrices requires us to “devise” a dummy index. Thus, for
instance, the product of matrices [A,,] and [B“*] becomes PAS Be (also
for matrices we locate indexes up or down depending on the tensors they represent,
without a particular meaning for the matrix itself).
The mark * will be used indiscriminately for scalar products between vectors and
covectors, both heterogeneous and homogeneous, as well as for inner tensor
products.
Other notations will be explained when introduced: there is some redundancy in
notations and we will use them with easiness according to the convenience. In fact,
we had better getting familiar with all various alternative notations that can be found
in the literature.
The indented paragraphs marked ° are “inserts” in the thread of the speech and they
can, if desired, be skipped at first reading (they are usually justifications or proofs).
“Mnemo” boxes suggest simple rules to remind complex formulas.
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1 Vectors and covectors
1.1 Vectors
A set where we can define operations of addition between any two
elements and multiplication of an element by a number (such that the
result is still an element of the set) is called a vector space and its
elements vectors. *
The usual vectors of physics are oriented quantities that fall under this
definition; we will denote them generically by V .
In particular, we will consider the vector space formed by the set of
vectors defined at a certain point P.

1.2 Basis-vectors and components

The maximum number 7 of vectors independent to one another that
we can put together is the dimension of a vector space. These n
vectors, chosen arbitrarily, form a basis of vectors (it doesn't matter
they are unit or equal length vectors).
We denote the basis-vectors by @,,@),...€, (the generic basis-vector
by & , «=1,2,3,...2 and the basis as a whole by [{@,} ).
Any further vector can be expressed as a linear combination of the 1
basis-vectors. In other words, any vector can be written as an
expansion (or decomposition) on the basis:
VE OVA ey eV el
that, using Einstein's sum convention, we write:

V = é&V" 12
The nm numbers V° (a= 1, 2, ... 2) are the components of the vector
V on the basis we have chosen (v V“ ER).
| This way of representing the vector V is simply its “recipe”:
é),@,,..€, (ie. the @. ) is the list of the ingredients, and
V' V’,..V" (ie. the V% )are the quantities of each one.
The choice of the n basis-vectors is arbitrary. Obviously, the
components V“ of a given vector V change with the chosen basis
(unlike the vector itself!)
* In fact, it must be defined C = aA+bB , where A,B,C are elements of the
same set and a, b numbers €IR. We gloss over other requests more obvious.

7
The expansion eq. 1.1 allows us to represent a vector as an v-tuple:
CPE ese)
provided there is a basis @),2@,,...€, fixed in advance.
comp
As an alternative to eg.1.2 we will also write 7 “> Vv with the
same meaning.
« Let's represent graphically the vector-space of plane vectors (n = 2)
emanating from P , drawing only some vectors among the infinite
ones:

Once selected A=@, . B=€@, as basis-vectors, a third vector C

is no more independent, but it can be expressed as a linear combina-
tion of the first two; in this case:

C = 16422,
The components of C on the established basis are thus (—%, 2).
« We observe that the expansion (or “recipe’”’) of a basis-vector on its
own basis (i.e. the basis made by themselves) cannot be other than:
esa) ee)

oo 10,0. 0se
regardless whether they are unit basis-vector or not and their length.

8
1.3 Covectors
We define covector P (or dual vector or “one-form”) a linear scalar
function of the vector V. In other words: P applied to a vector
results in a number:
P (V)= number ER ins
P can thus be seen as an “operator” that for any vector taken in
input gives a number as output.
By what rule? One of the possible rules has a particular interest
because it establishes a sort of reciprocity or duality between the
vectors VY andcovectors P , and it is what we aim to formalize.
: To begin with, we apply the covector P to a basis-vector (instead
of a generic vector). By definition, let's call the result the o-th
component of P
P(é,) = P, 1.4
We will then say that the n numbers P, (a = 1, 2, ... m) are the
components of the covector P (as well as the V% were the
components of the vector V ).
In operational terms we can state a rule (which will be generalized
later on):

Apply the covector P to the basis-vectors @, to get the

| components of the covector P itself.

Note that this definition of component sets up a precise relationship

between vectors and covectors.
Due to that definition, also a covector can be represented as an n-tuple
(PP, yeore)
3 A é Pilea iS
associated with a basis @',é°,...é” nA of covectors.
Even a covector can then be expressed as an expansion on its own
basis:
Peer, (a = 1, 2, ... n) legs
using the components Py as coefficients of the expansion.
By itself, the choice of the basis of covectors isarbitrary, but at this
point, having already fixed both the covector P and (by means of
eq.1.4) its components, the basis of covectors {é"} follows, so that
the last equation (eg./.5) can be true. In short, once used the vector
basis {@.} to define the components of the covector, the choice of the
covector basis {é"} is forced.
* Before giving a mathematical form to this link between the two
bases, we observe that, by using the definition eq./.4 given above,
the rule according to which P acts on the generic vector V can be
specified: ~ ~

P(V) = P(é,V") = V"P(é,) = VP, 1.6

Applying P to V means multiplying orderly by couples the
‘omponents of both and sum up.

In this way the meaning of P is completely defined.

Also on the set of covectors P it is now possible to define operations
of sum of covectors and multiplication of a covector by a number.
This confers also to the set of covectors the status of a vector space.*
We have thus defined two separate vector spaces, one for the vectors,
the other for the covectors (both related to a point P), equal in
dimension and in dual relationship between each other.
* We can now clarify how the duality relationship between the two
vector spaces links the bases {é,} and {é*|
Provided V = &V*% and P = é"P, we can write:
PV \i= EP Wc, tap yane vem
but, on the other hand, (eq. 1.6):

Py te Pave
Both expansions are identical only if:
Be) eel for B=
é ;
0 otherwise

By defining the Kronecker symbolas: 8° = . ! for B=a tay

_0 otherwise

* From the definition given for P() it follows that: i) the application P is
linear: P(aA+b B)=P,(a4°+bB") =aP,A°+bP, BY =a P(A)+bP(B)
ii) the set of the covectors P is a vector space, too: (aP+hQ)(V’)
=aP(V)+bO(V)=aP,V"°+bO,V" =(aP,+bO,)V" =R,V"= R(V)

10
we can write the duality condition:
e*(é,) = 6° Xx
1.8
A vector space of vectors and a vector space of covectors are dual if
and only if this relation between their bases holds good.
= We observe now that P(V) = V°P, (eq.16) lends itself to an
alternative interpretation.
Because of its symmetry, the product V“P, can be interpreted not
only as P(V) but also as V(P) , interchanging operator and
operand:
V(P) = V°P, = number € R 1.9
In this “reversed” interpretation a vector can be regarded as a linear
scalar function of acovector P. *
As a final step, if we want the duality to be complete, it would be
possible to express the components V° of a vector as the result of the
application of V to the basis-covectors é* (by symmetry with the
definition of component of covector eq. 1.4):
V“=V(6") 1.10
e It's easy to observe that this is the case, because:
y(Py)= V(eP.)=P.V 2")
but since V(P) =P, V* (eq.1.9), equating the right members
the assumption follows.
Eq.1.10 is the dual of eg./.4 and together they express a general rule:
To get the components of a vector or covector apply the vector or
| covector to its dual basis.

1.4 Scalar product (heterogeneous)

The application of a covector to a vector or vice versa (the result does
not change) so far indicated with notations like P(V) or V(P) has
the meaning of a scalar product between the two ones. An alternative
notation makes use of parentheses (...) emphasizing the symmetry
of the two operands.

It's easy to iesthat the application Vis linear: -

V(aP+bQ)=V"(aP,+bO,)=aV"“P,+bV"°Q, =aV(P)+bV( Q)

11
The linearity of the operation is already known.
All writings:
P(V) = V(P) = (P,V) = (VP) = VP, iter
are equivalent and represent the heterogeneous scalar product between
a vector and a covector.
By the new introduced notation the duality condition between bases
eq.1.8 is currently expressed as:
eee Rene ae.
The homogeneous scalar product between vectors or covectors of the
same kind requires a different definition that will be introduced later.

1.5 The Kronecker6 -

(aetor b=cx
Eq.1.7 defines the Kronecker 8: 8), = 4 ;
0 otherwise
A remarkable property of the Kronecker 5 often used in the
calculations is that 5% acts as an operator that identifies the two
indexes a, B turning one into the other.
For example: 2] Bo rs Nae)
Note that the summation that is implicit in the first member collapses
to the single value of the second member. This happens because 5°
removes from the sum all terms whose indexes a, f are different,
making them equal to zero.
Roughly speaking: 6° “changes” one of the two indexes of its
operand into the other one; what survives is the free index (note the
“balance” of the indexes in both eg. /./3).

© We prove the we ofWe LS:

Multiplying 5, = @°(é,) (eqg.1.8) by V™ gives:
Cie ey =e Vay
(the last equality of the chain is the rule eg. 1.10).
Similarly for the other equation eg. /./3.
In practice, this property of Kronecker 6 turns useful while
calculating. Each time we can make a product like @°(&,) to appear
in an expression, we can replace it by 5° , that soon produces a
change of the index in one of the factors, as shown in eg. /. 13.

iQ
So far we have considered the Kronecker symbol 5° as a number; we
will see later that 5° is to be considered as a component of a tensor.

1.6 Metaphors and models

The fact that vectors and covectors can both be represented as a
double array of basis elements and components
> = > => wal 9) m3}
€; © ©€3 ... &x Eee ees -e
Cy ee ls EP ae
suggests an useful metaphor to display graphically the formulas.
* Vectors and covectors are represented as interlocking cubes or
“building blocks” bearing pins and holes that allow to hookup each
other.

bse III

13
Vectors are cubes with pins upward; covectors are cubes with holes
downward. We'll refer to pins and holes as “connectors”.
Pins and holes are in number of 7, the dimension of space.
Each pin representsa @, (a= 1, 2,... 7); each hole is fora e°.
In correspondence with the various pins or holes we have to imagine
the respective components written sideways on the body of the cube,
as shown in the picture
The example above refers to a 3D space (for n = 4, for instance, the
representation would provide cubes with 4 pins or holes).
The n pins and the 7 holes must connect together simultaneously.
Their connection emulates the heterogeneous scalar product between
vectors and covectors and creates an object with no exposed
connectors (a scalar). The heterogeneous scalar product

ele)
[ scalar x
So
A product PV
eg a
es a

may be indeed put in a pattern that may be interpreted as the metaphor

of interlocking cubes:

pea eG
ek? =P PP. Pp
\ scalar gee ee ce x"
product Vee ye

as shown in the previous picture, once we imagine to have made the

fit between the two cubes.

1.7 The “T-mosaic” model

In the following we will adopt a more simple drawing without
perspective, representing the cube as seen from the short side, like a
piece of a mosaic (a “tessera’”) in two dimensions with no depth, so
that all the pins and holes will be aligned along the line of sight and
merge into one which represents them collectively. The generic name
of the array (€, for pins or é" for holes) is thought as written upon

14
it, while the generic name of the component array ( V“ for vectors
or P, for covectors) is written in the piece. This representation is
the basis of the model that we call “T-mosaic” for its ability to be
generalized to the case of tensors.
* So, from now on we will use the two-dimensional representation:

Vector V = Covector P =

Blocks like those in the figure above give a synthetic representation of

the expansion by components on the given basis (the “recipe” eq. 1.2,
eq.1.5).
« The connection of the blocks, i.e. the application of a block to
another, represents the heterogeneous scalar product:

The connection is made between homonymous connectors ( = with the

same index: in this example @“ with 2, ). When the blocks fit
together, the connectors disappear and bodies merge multiplying to
each other.
e.

« Basis-vector will be drawn as: Jb

and basis-covector as: ii

eo
For simplicity, nothing will be written in the body of the tessera which
represents a basis-vector or basis-covector, but we have to remember
that, according to the perspective representation, a series of 0 together
with a single | are inscribed in the side of the block.
Example in 5D:

Nyi) III

This means that, in the scalar product, all the products that enter in the
sum go to zero, except one.

« The application of a covector to a basis-vector to get the covector

components (eq. /.4) is represented by the connection:

Similarly, the application of a vector to a basis-covector to get the

components of the vector (eq. /./0) corresponds to the connection:

Ino

16
A “smooth” block,,i.e. a block without free connectors, is a scalar (=a
number).
* Notice that:

_In T-mosaic representation the connection always occurs between

onnectors with the same index (same name), in contrast to what
_ happens in algebraic formulas (where it is necessary to diversify
| them in order to avoid the summations interfere with each other).

" However, it is still possible to perform blockwise the connection

between different indexes, in which case it is necessary to insert a
block of Kronecker 6 as a “plug adapter”:

P(A) = P,e* (4°@,) = P,A® b"(2,)= P,APdg = P,A®

A 55 ,

The chain of equalities above is the usual sequence of steps when

using the conventional algebraic notation, which makes use of
different indexes and the symbol Kronecker 6.
Note the correspondence between successive steps in algebraic
formulas and blocks.

Wi
It is worth noting that in the usual T-mosaic representation the >
~X a= ae awe
connection occurs directly between P,é° and de, by means ol
—

the homonymic a-connectors, skipping the first 3 steps.

« The T-mosaic representation of the duality relation (eg./.8 or
eq.1.12) is a significant example of the use of Kronecker 6 as a “plug
adapter”:

e e"

n TL

af = \ oa
( e e y = _—_ B >

73 we

e e

In practice, it does not matter plugging directly connectors of the same

name or connectors with different index via an interposed plug
adapter: the first way is easier and faster, the second allows a better
correspondence with algebraic formulas.
We will see later that using the Kronecker 8 as a “plug adapter” block
is justified by its tensor character.

18
2 Tensors
The concept of tensor T is an extension of those of vector and
covector.
A tensor is a linear scalar function of h covectors and k vectors (h, k =
Oh eo we):
We may see T as an operator that takes h covectors and k vectors in
input to give a number as a result:
T(A,B,...P,O,...) = number € R 2.1

By (7) or even r=h+k we denote the rank or order of the tensor.

A tensor (3) is a scalar; a tensor (j) is a vector; a tensor () isa
covector.
Warning: in the notation T( , ,...) the parenthesis following the
symbol of tensor contains the list of arguments that the tensor takes as
input (input list). It does not simply “qualify” the tensor, but it
represents an operation already performed. In fact, T(, ,...) is the
result of applying T to the list within parentheses. The “naked tensor”
is simply written T.
* The components of a tensor T are defined in a way similar to
vectors and covectors by applying the tensor to basis-vectors and
covectors. In simple words: we input into the tensor T the required
amount of basis-vectors and basis-covectors (/ basis-covectors and k
basis-vectors); the number that comes out is the component of the
0
tensor on the given bases. For example, the components of a ',)
tensor result by giving to the tensor the various couples @, &,
Wily2p) alate Oe
in order to obtain nm’ numbers marked by the double index o B (for
instance, from @).@ weget 7,. , and so on).

19
In general:
Sa AT Mavisres :
Titetnen vere au) = Lane 2.3
« This equation allows us to specify the calculation rule left
undetermined by eg.2.1 (which number does come out by applying the
tensor to its input list?). For example, given a tensor S of rank io for
which eg.2.3 becomes S$(é,,2”) = SX , we could get:
S(V,P)=S(4V 2P,)=V"PS(G.e)=V PS, 24
In general eg.2./ works as follows:
Tide hee Old Ben e me
Oe. 25
and its result is a number (one for each set of values p, v, a, B).

|An expression like A*B’ P.O, T%3 that contains only balanced
dummy indexes is a scalar because no index survives in the result
_ of the implicit multiple summation.

Eq.2.4, eq.2.5 appear as an extension to tensors of eq./.6, eg. 1.9 valid

for vectors and covectors. Applying the tensor T to its input list
(, ,...) is like the application 7 (P) or P(V) ofavector or covector
to its respective argument, meaning heterogeneous scalar product. It
may be seen as a sort of multiple scalar product, i.e. a sequence of
scalar products between the tensor and the vectors / covectors of the
list (indeed, it is a tensor “inner product” similar to the scalar product
of vectors and covectors as we'll explain later on).
« Speaking of tensor components we have so far referenced to bases of
vectors and covectors. However, it is possible to express the tensor as
an expansion by components on its own basis. That is to say, in the
case ofa (?) tensor:
A —Behaop ey 26
(it's the “recipe” of the tensor, similar to that of vectors). This time the
basis is a tensorial one and consists of basis-tensors @** with double
index, in number of 7’.
This expression has only a formal meaning until we specify what sort
of basis is that and how it is related to the basis of vectors / covectors
defined before. To do this we need to define first the outer product
between vectors and /or covectors.

20
2.1 Outer product between vectors and covectors
Given the vectors A,B and the covectors P.O we define vector
outer product between the vectors A and B:
A@B suchthat: 4eB(P,O) = A(P) B(O) og
Namely: A@B is an Operator acting on a couple of covectors (i.e.
vectors of the other kind) in terms of a scalar products, as stated in the
right member . The result is here againa number €IR
It. scan. be immediately seen that the outer product ® is non-
commutative: A@B # Bed (indeed, note that Be A against the
~

same operand would give as a different result B(P) A(O) ).

Also note that A@B is a rank () tensor because it matches the
given definition of tensor: it takes 2 covectors as input and gives a
number as result.
Similarly we can define the outer products between covectors or
between vectors and covectors, ranked 0) and ()) rispectively:
Pe O such that: Pe (A,B) = P(A) O(B) andalso
Pe@A suchthat: P @A (B,O) = P(B) A(Q) ete.
« Starting from vectors and covectors and making outer products
between them we can build tensors of gradually increasing rank.
In general, the inverse is not true: not every tensor can be expressed as
the outer product of tensors of lower rank.
« We can now characterize the tensor-basis in terms of outer product of
basis-vectors and / or covectors. To fix on the case (3) pitds:

eae Ore. 2.8

°In fact, * from the definition of component = Tee é,)

(eq.2.2), using the expansion T = T,, é@’ (eq.2.6) we get:

Tg = 1, € (€,,€,) » Which 1s true only if:

* The most direct demonstration, based on a comparison between the two forms
T=P@0 =P, 2@ 0,2 = P,O,2°@ 2 =T. 2 @2 and THT yé
~ of

holds only in the case of tensors decomposable as tensor outer product.

Al
 e"’(é,é,) = 546, because in that case:
Ugv
Tel O80 gs:
Since 64 =é"(é,) and 6,=é'(é,) the second-last equation
becomes:
poec => ~ => ~v
Oe ay We (é,) € (25)

which, by definition of @ (eq.2.7), is equivalent to:

e’ = eee yq.e.d.

The basis of tensors has been so reduced to the basis of (co)vectors.

The 0) tensor under consideration can then be expanded on the
basis of covectors:
lig ee ere. ? ies)
It's again the “recipe” of the tensor, as well as eg.2.6, but this time it
uses basis-vectors and basis-covectors as “ingredients”.
« In general, a tensor can be expressed as a linear combination of (or
as an expansion over the basis of) elementary outer products
€,8 €,@...e°@ @ ®... whose coefficients are the components.
3
For instance, a ‘;) tensor can be expanded as:
T =Ti*” 2,0 &@ &0 & 2.10
which is usually simply written:

T= enc ones 2AI

Note the “balance” of upper / lower indexes.
The symbol ® can be normally omitted without ambiguity.

© In fact, Products AB or VP can be unambiguously interpreted

as A@B or VeP because for other products other explicit
symbols are used, such as V(P) ; (VP) or VeW for scalar
products, T(...) oreven * for inner tensor products.
« The order of the indexes is important and is stated by eg.2.10 or
eq.2.11 which represent the tensor in terms of an outer product: it is
understood that changing the order of the indexes means to change the
order of factors in the outer product, in general non-commutative.

22
Thus, in general T°?¥ x T8% eT,
To preserve the order of the indexes is often enough a notation with a
double sequence for upper and lower indexes like Y37" . However,
this notation is ambiguous and turns out to be improper when indexes
are raised / lowered. Actually, it would be convenient using a scanning
with reserved columns like Y eee ; It aligns in a single sequence
upper and lower indexes and assigns to each index a specific place
wherein it may move up and down without colliding with other
indexes. To avoid any ambiguity we ought to use a notation such as
Y°37!, , Where the dot - is used to keep busy the column, or
YH
simply Y%,’", replacing the dot with a space.

2.2 Matrix representation of tensors

-A tensor of rank 0 (a scalar) is a number

-a tensor of rank 1, that is () or (3) , is an n-tuple of numbers
-a tensor of rank 2, that is (), () (9) , iS a Square matrix n x n
-a tensor of rank 3 is a “cubic lattice” of m x n x n numbers, ete...
(In each case the numbers are the components of the tensor).
A tensor of rank r can be thought of as an r-dimensional grid of
numbers, or components (a single number or n-array or nxn matrix,
etc.); in all cases we must think the component grid as associated with
an underlying “bases grid” of the same dimension.
On the contrary, not every n-tuple of numbers or n x n matrix, and so
on, is a vectors, tensor, etc.
Only tensors of rank | and 2, since represented as vectors or matrices,
can be treated with the usual rules of matrix calculus (the interest to
do that may be due to the fact that the inner product between tensors
of these ranks is reduced to the product of matrices).

In particular, tensors (*) : G or (?) can all be represented by

matrices, although built on different bases grids. For instance, for
tensors of rank () the basis grid is:

23
 2® 1 2® 2 €,8€,

&@ Be, g @e, €, Oe,

jinn ye Geo

21 22 2n

es ai 2.12
ee. LF he pow (va)

iets (x jee

Similarly: ;

for () tensor: T =|7;| ongrid @,@ eF

for () tensor alae bar on grid @%@ é

« The outer product between vectors and tensors has similarities with
the Cartesian product (= set of pairs).
For example V@W generates a basis grid &.@ @3 that includes all
the couples that can be formed by @x and @ 3 and a corresponding
matrix of components with all possible couples such as
v“w*(=T“*) ordered by row and column.
2 =
If X is a rank (5) tensor, the outer product X@V produces a
3-dimensional cubic grid @,®@,®@, of all the triplets built by
€. ,@s; ,€, and a similar cubic structure of all possible couples
poe
« It should be stressed that the dimension of the space on which the
tensor spreads itself is the rank 7 of the tensor and has nothing to do
with n, the dimension of geometric space. For example, a rank 2
tensor is a matrix (2-dimensional) in a space of any dimension; what
varies is the number 7 of rows and columns.
Also the T-mosaic blockwise representation is invariant with the
dimension of space: the number of connectors does not change since
they are not individually represented, but as arrays.

24
2.3 Sum of tensors and product by a number
As in the case of vectors and covectors, the set of all tensors of a
h :
certain rank (,) defined at a point P has the structure of a vector
Space, once defined operations of sum between tensors and
multiplication of tensors by numbers.

The sum of tensors (of the same rank!) gives a tensor whose
components are the sums of the components:
Aa BSC tS26 UV... = tet 2.13
The product of a number a by a tensor has the effect of multiplying by
a all the components:
comp
OMe Aan
Revie 2.14

2.4 Symmetry and skew-symmetry

A tensor is told symmetric with respect to a pair of indexes if their
exchange leaves it unchanged; skew-symmetric if the exchange of the
two indexes involves a change of sign (the two indexes must be both
upper or both lower indexes).
For example: 7 xsy,., is
* symmetric with respect to indexes a, yif Tyga... =T apy...
- skew-symmetric with respect to indexes B,y if Ta,,...=—T apy...
Note that the symmetry has to do with the order of the arguments in
the input list of the tensor. For example, taken a () tensor:
oes ae ieee at BT
Wipetiea Alice )a4 BT.
= the order of the arguments in the list is not relevant if and only if
the tensor is symmetric, since:
ae Ae
a1 (Bed) 25
« For tensors of rank (9) or e , represented by a matrix, symmetry/
skew-symmetry reflect into their matrices:
* symmetric tensor > symmetric matrix: |TXB =n
- skew-symmetric tensor > skew-symmetric matrix yeer = =|i a

ZS
« Any tensor T ranked (3) or (2)
0
can always be decomposed into a
symmetric part S and skew-symmetric part A :
T=S+A
that is es apts where: 2 16

Sap =5(Tap+T 5.) and Ags =5(Laa—T pa) ea Wis

Tensors of rank greater than 2 can have more complex symmetries

with respect to exchanges of 3 or more indexes, or even groups of
indexes.
" The symmetries are intrinsic properties of the tensor and do not
depend on the choice of bases: if a tensor has a certain symmetry in a
basis, it keeps the same in other bases (as it will become clear later).

2.5 Representing tensors in T-mosaic

* Tensor T “naked”: it consists of a body that bears the indication of

the components (in the shaded band); at edges the connectors:
- pins @, (in the top edge)
‘holes é" (in the bottom edge)

= apy ~u > -
Wises rene. cacs
—_—

component & connectors

° When necessary to make explicit the order of indexes by means

of reserved columns a representation by compartments will be
used, as:

26
The exposed connectors correspond to free indexes; they determine
the rank, given by (”) _— {number of pins @
as
Eo neeerorioee ch Ol cvcmoyey —viani
« Blocks representing tensors can connect to each other with the usual
rule: pins or holes of a tensor can connect with holes or pins (with
equal generic index) of vectors / covectors, or other tensors. The
meaning of each single connection is similar to that of the
heterogeneous scalar product of vectors and covectors: connectors
disappear and bodies merge multiplying to each other.
« When (at least) one of the factors is a tensor (7 > 1) we properly refer
to it as an inner tensor product.
« The shapes of the blocks can be deformed for graphic reasons
without changing the order of the connectors. It is convenient to keep
fixed the orientation of the connectors (pins “on”, holes “down”’).

2.6 Tensors in T-mosaic model: definitions

Previously stated definitions for tensors and tensor components have
simple graphical representation in T-mosaic:
: Definition of tensor: plug all r connectors of the tensor with vectors
or covectors:

setting:
Ti Aah Oe

Hd
The result is a single number_X (all the indexes are dummy).
= Components of tensor T : obtained by saturating with basis-vectors
and basis-covectors all connectors of the “naked” tensor. For example:

The result T** are n> numbers, the components (3 are the indexes).
Intermediate cases between the previous two can occur, too:
* Input list with basis- and other vectors / covectors:
MCS even nieeeree, e.\= Pe Tes Gees) = haa

epee.

rn Wu
V:
= = y.
A :

e~
HL :
a setting:
éa jee = Ne

28
The result Y. are n°? numbers (survived indexes are 2): they are the
vV> +e
components of a double tensor Y= Yye,é"; but it is improper to
say that the result is a tensor!
Remarks:
" The order of connection, stated by the input list, is important. Note
diate ditterem@t tel Mie.te “P)— 2.4 Tle,,P,e) =.
would be obtained by connecting P with @” instead of é"
= In general a “coated” or “saturated tensor” , that is a tensor with all
connectors plugged (by vector, covectors or other) so as to be a
“smooth object” is a number or a multiplicity of numbers.

!
« It is worth emphasizing the different meaning of notations that are
similar only in appearance:

is the tensor “naked”

T(é*, 2, &,)= T°" is the result of applying the tensor to the
list of basis-vectors (i.e. a component).
Input list:
“T applied to ...”
« The input list may also be incomplete (i.e. it may contain a number
of arguments <7 , rank of the tensor), so that some connectors remains
unplugged. The application of a tensor to an incomplete list cannot
result in a number or a set of number, but is a tensor lowered in rank.

2.7 Tensor inner product

The tensor inner product consists in the connection of two tensors T
and Y realized by means of a pair of connectors (indexes) of different
kind belonging one to T , the other to Y. The connection is a single
one and involves only one @ and only one @, but if the tensors are of
high rank can be realized in more than one way.
To denote the tensor inner product we will use the symbol * and we'll
write T*Y to denote the product of the tensor T on Y, even if this
writing can be ambiguous and requires further clarifications.
The two tensors that connect can be vectors, covectors or tensors of
rank r>1.

aS,
 A particular case of tensor inner product is the familiar heterogeneous
dot product between a vector and a covector.
Let's define the total rank R of the inner product as the sum of ranks of
the two tensors involved: R = 7, +7 (R is the total number of
connectors of the tensors involved in the product). For the
heterogeneous scalar (or dot) product is R=1+1=2.
In a less trivial or strict sense the tensor inner product occurs between
tensors of which at least one of rank r > 1, that is, R > 2. In any case,
the tensor inner produci lowers by 2 the rank R of the result.
We will examine examples of tensor inner products of total rank R
gradually increasing, detecting their properties and peculiarities.

« Tensor inner product tensor * vector /covector

For the moment we limit ourselves to the case T*V or T*P for
which R= 2+1=3.
Let's exemplify the case T*P. We observe that making the tensor
inner product of a rank (*) tensor T=T"é,e, with a covector P
means applying the former, instead of acomplete list like T(P,O),
to an incomplete list formed by the single element P.
We see immediately that this product T*P can be made in two ways,
depending on which one of the two connectors @ of T is involved,
and the results are in general different; we will distinguish them by
writing T(P, ) or T( ,P) where the space is for the missing
argument. The respective schemes are:

: é
H v

and:

30
 setting:
fhcob saree at|ie

Only one connector of the tensor is plugged and then the rank r of the
tensor decrease by | (in the examples the result is a vector (FI 5
Algebraic expressions corresponding to the two cases are:

Te Ree ee, (Pee yar Pee 2,(6%) =

a Ep ree Ne,| ES ev pre ce. = TAP re: = ye ‘
h

Nm paglat)ar pasta aaa

The notation T(P) or T*P may designate both cases, but turns to
be ambiguous because it does not specify the indexes involved in the
inner product. Likewise ambiguous is the writing @,é,(é°) in
equations written above.
In fact, in algebra as well as in T-mosaic block connection, we need to
know which indexes connect (via connectors’ plugging or indirectly
by Kronecker 46), i.e. on which indexes the inner product is performed.
Only if T is symmetrical with respect to 1,vthe result is the same and
there is no ambiguity.
>
- In general, a writing like @* @°é@, é@,(é") (which stands for
é“@ é'@ é€.@é,(é") with @ implied) has the meaning of an inner
product of the covector é“ by one element among those of the
different kind aligned in the chain of outer products, for example:
~ > ~~ /~ ~ ~ > ~ ~ > +> /K~K ~xarpB > K
ereseue Waete’ 2.5 Yor exer ee (é") =e Se & 5.
ans s+
5)

Bl
The results are different depending on the element (the index)
“hooked”, that must be known from the context (no matter the position
of é or €. inthe chain).
Likewise, when the internal product is made with a vector, as in
e" &° & & (&.) we have two chances:
eee(eé)aleegds° or @
5; 5x
depending on whether the dot product goes to hook é* or eP
Formally, the inner product of a vector or covector é. or &*
addressed to a certain element (different in kind) inside a tensorial
chain é“ é° é, é&,--- removes the “hooked” element from the chain
and insert a 6 with the vanished indexes. The chain welds with a ring
less, without changing the order of the remaining ones.
Note that product P+T on fixed indexes cannot give a result different
from T*P. Hence P*T=T*P and the tensor inner product is
commutattive in this case.the
* Same as above is the case of tensor inner product tensor * basis-
covector. Here as well, the product can be realized in two ways:
T(é") or T(é"). We carry out the latter case only, using the same T
of previous examples:

T( ,é)=Tee= Teac C\C ewig 26,0, elk se,

which we represent as:

sh

(poe:
, the component of T , would be the result if the input list had
— complete. Having aed a basis-covector in the input list has
the effect of leaving uncovered a connector @ , so that the result is
here a vector.

32
Similar considerations apply to inner products tensor * vector whereT
is ranked e:
"If T is ranked (1) the tensor inner products T*V and T*P have an
unique (not ambiguous) meaning because in both cases there is only
an obliged way to perform them (it is clear in T-mosaic).
Even here the products commute: for example TeV =V eT.
« In conclusion: inner tensor products with rank R = 3 may or may not
be twofold, but they are anyways commutative.

: Inner tensor product tensor ¢ tensor { R> 4)

When the total rank R of the inner tensor product is R>4 the
multiplicity of possible products increases and further complications
arise, due to the non-commutativity of the products and for what
concerns the order of the indexes that survive (when they come from
both tensors, how order them?). Let's specify better.

* Given two tensors A,B we main by:

¢ multiplicity the number of inner product possible upon various in-
dexes (connectors) after fixed the order of the factors (A*B or BeA).

* commutativity the eventuality that is AeB = BeA afier fixed the pair
of indexes (connectors) on which the products are performed.

: Example of acase R=2+2= 4 is the following, with A (5)and B Ge

@ Multiplicity
4 different tensor inner products A+B are possible, depending on
which connectors plug (that is, which indexes are involved):

A*B=(A,,2"2") + (BY
& &)=

=A, SBP be, Sk = A, BY Bi e.= CL ee,

Ee a ee, 0 = A Bee,=Dae en
cs EE cde BYE Sieh = AY Baeheinael sel ey
pen rr’ By ee Bee er ene,

33
which correspond rispectively to the following T-mosaic patterns: *

| at
am oa ae ars
on é,

= |
' | A
| ~X ~X
| é @

Ce ep | Cr &e

| BO Re

* The 4 results of AeB are in general different. But it may happen that:
J Le PrOcucl =.
A symmetrical (> é",
u
2” interchangeable)>
| 3° product = 4°
l-product = 3”
B symmetrical (> @,, é, interchangeable) =
2° product = 4°
The 4 products coincide only if both A and B are symmetrical.

® Non-commutativity and indexes' arrangement

B-A represent 4 more inner products, distinct from one another and
different from the previous **; e.g. the first one is (product on au):
BrA=( Bie e,)(vcte
6, c.e ©
Comparing with the first among the products above we see that the
inner tensorial product on a given pair of indexes between tensors of
rank r >| is in general non-commutative: A*B # BeA.

* We use here the artifice of 6 as “plug adapter” to keep the correspondence of in-
dexes between equations and blocks.
** Of course, the 4 possible pairs of indexes (connectors) are the same as the
previous case, but their order is inverted. Note that the multiplicities of A*B are
counted separately from those of B*A.

34
* How to account for the different results if T-puzzle graphical
representation for A*B and BeA is unique? The distinction lies in a
different reading of the result that takes into account the order of the
items and give them the correct priority. In fact, the result must be
constructed by the following rule: *
| list first connectors (indices) of the first operand that survive
free, then free connectors (indices) survived of the second one.
_ Reading of the connectors (indexes) is always from left to right.

Obviously indexes that make the connection don't appear in the result.

« If both A and B are symmetrical, then AeB = BeA, and in addition

the 4+4 inner products achievable with A and B converge in one, as is
easily seen in T-mosaic.
As can be seen by T-mosaic, the complete variety of products for
R=4 includes, in addition to the 4 cases just seen, the following:

* 7 cases of inner product V*T with T Gh Che)

Ke
* 7 cases of inner product P*T with T (), (‘) (3)
with multiplicity 3, 2 or 1, all commutative;

* 6 cases of tensor product A*B with A (0) and B abcas )

all with multiplicity 2, non-commutative,
giving a total of 24 distinct inner products (+ 24 commutated)
for R =4 (including 4 cases considered before). The number of
products grow very rapidly with R; only the presence of
symmetries in tensors reduces the number of different products.

* Incomplete input lists and tensor inner product

There is a partial overlap of the notions of inner product and the
application of a tensor to an “input list” ** The complete input list is
used to saturate all the connectors (indexes) of the tensor in order to
give a number as a result; however, the list may be incomplete, and

* This rule is fully consistent with the usual interpretation of the intner tensor
product as "external tensor product + contraction" which will be given later on.
** At least for what concerns the product “tensor * vector or covector” (input lists
contain only vectors or covectors, not tensors.

35
then one or more connectors (indexes) residues of the tensor are found
in the result, which turns out to be a tensor of lowered rank. The
extreme case of “incomplete input list” is the tensor inner product
tensor * vector or covector, where all the arguments of the list are
missing, except one. Conversely the application of a tensor to a list
(complete or not) can be seen as a succession of more than one single
tensor inner products with vectors and covectors.
The higher the rank 7 of the tensor, the larger the number of possible
incomplete input lists, i.e. of situations intermediate between the
complete list and the single tensor inner product with vector or
covector. For example, for r = 3 there are 6 possible cases of
incomplete list. * In the case of a (*) tensor one among them is:

2 ey
T( ,P,é)=
ali
SE
e
Lage
e
— =
ee |

setting
4 Hv del v
3° tN eS

The result is n covectors, one for each value of v.

This scheme can be interpreted as a tensor inner product between the
tensor T and the covector P , followed by a second tensor inner
product between the result and the basis-covector é°, treated as such
in algebraic terms:

2) eles alae Cxe,eal Pac |= Pea Phere Oro) sabe 12 meee. oe

. > V~ => ~ J ~ > ~ > ~ =

a 4 r 3

5,

Himes Cu) =) Ce On eie -

a a

* 3 lists lacking of one argument + 3 lists lacking of 2arguments.

36
2.8 Outer product in T-mosaic
According to T-mosaic metaphor the outer product ® means “union
by side gluing”. It may involve vectors, covectors or tensors.
Of the more general case is part the outer product between vectors
and/or covectors; for example:

or else:

Pada tA Coe, = Pee eV eum Y

The outer product makes the bodies to blend together and components
multiply (without the sum convention comes in operation).
It is clear from the T-mosaic representation that the symbol ® has a
meaning similar to that of the conjunction “and” in a list of items and
can usually be omitted without ambiguity.
« The same logic applies to tensors of rank r>1, and one speaks about
outer tensor product.
The tensor outer product operates on tensors of any rank, and merge
them into one “for side gluing” The result is a composite tensor of
rank equal to the sum of the ranks.
For example, inacase A(!) @ B(})=C(3)

3
 (Avé,@2°) @(Bi.€,@2 @é) = ASB. e,8 eee ee ee =
ae Ghe
&, 86 B @E, @e BE
> ~ => ~V mK

BvK

: XU > Bo <V ~K
usually written C5, €,€ ee €
« Note the non-commutativity: AeB# BeA.

2.9 Contraction

Identifying two indexes of different kind (one upper and one lower), a
tensor undergoes a contraction (the repeated index becomes dummy
and appears no longer in the result). Contraction is an “unary”
operation.
h h-1
The tensor rank lowers from i to or

In T-mosaic metaphor both a pin and a hole belonging to the same

tensor disappear.
Example: contraction fora =C:

Cr ey an

contraction
Kn=T
> —}

sh oye’ en wes

38
It is worth noting that the contraction is not a simple canceling or
“simplification” of equal upper and lower indexes, but a sum which is
triggered by repeated indexes. For example:

Gee 6 Ct eC ae
« In a sense, the contraction consists of an inner product that operates
inside the tensor itself, plugging two connectors of different kind.
* The contraction may be seen as the result of an inner product by a
tensor carrying a connector (an index) which is already present, with
opposite kind, in the operand. Typically this tensor is the Kronecker 6.
For example: ~
Cove 8n°= Cava = Cay where contraction is on index a.
The T-mosaic representation of the latter is the following:
= —_>
Cn ey

Lax} ® Re |
3
any

~X

« For subsequent repeated contractions a tensor 4 can be reduced

until = 0 ork =0. A tensor of rank (") can be reduced to a scalar.

« The contraction of a () tensor gives a scalar, the sum of the main

diagonal elements of its matrix, and is called the trace:

AX= Aj+Ajt+..+4) | 2.18

The trace of I is 5¢ = 1+1+...=n , dimension of the manifold. *

* | is the tensor “identity” whose components are Kronecker-6: see later.

ay)
2.10 Inner product as outer product + contraction
The inner tensor product A*B can be interpreted as tensor outer
product A @B followed by a contraction of indexes:
A*B =contraction of (A®B).
The multiplicity of possible contractions of indexes gives an account
of the multiplicity of inner tensor product represented by A°B.

For example, in a case A(5) : B(;) = C(;) , with total rank R=5:

AB =e =, = C (produccom)):

e
eg.B ’
Cx

ef eS BR
€

The 1‘ step (outer product) is univocal; the 2" step (contraction)

implies the choice of indexes (connectors) on which contraction must
take place. Gradually choosing a connector after the other exhausts the
choice of possibilities (multiplicity) of the inner product A*B. The
same considerations apply to the switched product B°A.
« This 2-steps modality is equivalent to the rules stated for the writing
of the result of the tensor inner product. Its utility stands out especially
in complex cases such as:
Mie
Cu at Cis
uv: CS piso So uveS-B- __ uvc::
2.19
2.11 Multiple connection of tensors
In T-mosaic the tensor inner product is always performed by means of
a simple connection between a pin @ ofatensor anda hole @ of the
other.
Multiple connections between two tensors, easy to fulfill in T-mosaic,
can be algebraically described as an inner product followed by
contractions in number of m—1, where m is the number of plugged
connectors) .

40
2.12 “Scalar product” or “identity” tensor
The operation of (heterogeneous) scalar product takes in input a vector
and a covector to give a number = it is a tensor of rank () . We
denote it by I:
Preah ge = PL" 220
and can expand itas: I = J; é,@é° , thatis I = [e,€
How is it I? Let us calculate its components giving to it the dual basis-
vectors as input list:
eC es 8 ee ack 221
hence: eS, 6 e, 222

MCE DMRERCs) BRE,ei aa

w2 => ~2 = ~2 =>

6 =I = [es] =|? 520 since! (2c Gi| alo wien1

(2",€;)
ER 8",PEC 2) ae een ee

namely: S5=!1-> 8 2.24

The heterogeneous scalar product is the tensor I, identity tensorits

| components are the Kronecker's 55
_ its related matrix is the unit matrix /= diag (+1)
&

How does | act? Its complete input list contains two arguments: a
vector and a covector. Let's apply it to a partial list that contains only
one of the two; there are 2 possibilities:

O 17) = & &e(V2,) = of Vee, (2,) = 85 OV"=

ct

® IP)
>
= 6;“a e°2.(P,e")=8,
rp> ~ a
P,e'e,(é")
~B > (~
=; o,Pye
Son ~B
=

4]
(note: 5; 5) = 6))
The T-mosaic blockwise representation of I(7) is:

SY Ill

Actually, | transforms a vector into itself and a covector into itself:

(WV) =V ;: WPy=P 205
hence its name “identity tensor”.
The same tensor is also called “fundamental mixed tensor”.*
We also observe that, for Vv T
TT lee; 2.26

2.10 Inverse tensor

Given a tensor T , if there exists a unique tensor Y such that

T*Y =I , we say that Y is the inverse of T, ie. Y=T™ and
TeT'=1 227
Only tensors T of rank 2, and among them only (i) type or symmetric
(5)or (") type tensors, can satisfy these conditions ** and have an
inverse T’.

* Hereafter the notation 6 will be abandoned in favor of I.

** That eq.2.27 is satisfied by tensors T and T™ both ranked r = 2 can easily be
shown in terms of T-mosaic blocks. If T e T“ are tensors ranked (5) or (4) ,
eq.2.27 stands for 4 different inner products and, for a given T , can be satisfied
for more than one T~; only if we ask that T is symmetric ( > T™ simmetric,
too) the tensor T * that satisfies it is unique and the uniqueness of the inverse is
guaranteed. For this reason one restricts the field to symmetric tensors only.

42
For tensors of rank r # 2 the inverse is not defined.

"The inverse T’ ofa symmetric tensor T of rank (?)or a) has the

following properties:
+ the indexes position interchanges upper © lower *
- it is represented by the inverse matrix
- it is symmetric

For example: given the (2)

(9) symmetric tensor T “4” 7° , its inverse
comp
is the (9) tensor T' > De such that:

fp ee 2.28
Furthermore, denoting T and T the matrices associated to T and
T" , we have: i
1D
ke | 2.29
where J is the unit matrix; namely, the matrices T and 7 are inverse
to each other.

° Indeed, for (3) tensors the definition eg.2.27 turns into eq.2.28.
But the latter, transcribed in matrix terms, takes the form
eseGee =I ,which is equivalent to eg.2.29.

Since the inverse of a symmetric matrix is symmetric as well, the

symmetry of T* follows: if a tensor is symmetric, then its inverse is
symmetric, too.

« The correspondence between the inverse matrix and the inverse

tensor forwards to the tensor other properties of the inverse matrix:
- the commutativity T-T = T-T=I , which applies to inverse
matrices, is also true for inverse tensors: TeT'= T**T =|
- in order that T’ exists, the inverse matrix must also exist and for
that it is required to be det T #0. **

Currently we say that tensors 7 “and T xp are inverse to each

* This fact is often expressed by saying that the inverse of a double-contravariant
tensor is a double-covariant tensor, and vice versa.
** A matrix can have an inverse only if its determinant is not zero.

43
other: usually we call the components of both tensors with the same
symbol 7 and distinguish them only by the position of the indexes.
However, it is worth realizing that we are dealing with different
tensors, and they cannot run both under the same symbol T (if we call
T one of the two, we must use another name for the other: in this
instance T*).

* It should also be reminded that (only) if 7° is diagonal (i.e.

T’'s0 only for «=8 ) its inverse will be diagonal as well, with
components T,;= 1/7“, and viceversa.
* The property of a tensor to have an inverse is intrinsic to the tensor
itself and does not depend on the choice of bases: if a tensor has
inverse in a basis, it has inverse in any other basis, too (as will become
clear later on).

* An obvious property belongs to the mixed tensor 7; of rank |)

“related” with both T,,ap and 7“* , defined by, their inner p product:
a _ may
T,=T'Tys
Comparing this relation with eg.2.28 (written as T “’ T,,= 53 with
B in place ofv) we see that:
Ts = 55 2.30
Indeed, the mixed fundamental tensor () 53 . or tensor |, is the
“common relative” of all couples of inverse tensors Ty, , T“". ).*
comp

* The mixed fundamental tensor | > 8} has (with few others **)
the property to be the inverse of itself.
= Indeed, an already noticed *** property of Kronecker's 8:
54 5) = 8)
Q X ° B sae BLS

is the condition of inverse (similar to eg.2.28) for 85.

(I-mosaic icastically shows the meaning ofthis relation).

* That does not mean, of course, that it is the only existing mixed double tensor
+L B
(think to Cy= 4,,B’*
aewhen Ae B are not related to each other).
. ] . F . ~
** Also auto-inverse are the tensors (,/ , whose matrices are mirror images of I.
*** Already noticed about the calculation of I( P).

44
2.14 Vector-covector “dual switch” tensor

A tensor of rank 0
(5) needs two vectors as input to give a scalar. If the
input list is incomplete and consists in one vector only, the result is a
covector:

G(V)= GAC: et (Aer Ne Gp VOR €, Cay 2 ke = Pp

et
having set G,,V" =P, . a

The representation in T-mosaic is:

G = ap 7 =

ee
a
a aa
7 = Fa setting:
= GupV% = P,
to be read: G(/) = Ge? Seca =P
0 ed

By means of a (,) tensor we can then transform a vector V into a

covector P belonging to the dual space.
Let us pick out a 0) tensor G as a “dual switch” to be used from
now on to transform any vector V/ into its “dual” covector V :
G(V) =V 2.29
G establishes a correspondence G: V +V between the two dual
vector spaces (we use here the same name V with different marks
above in order to emphasize the relationship and the term “dual” as
“related through G in the dual space”).
The choice of G is arbitrary, nevertheless we must choose a tensor
which has inverse G* in order to perform the “switching” in the
opposite sense as well, from V to V . In addition, if we want the
inverse G" to be unique, we must pick out a G which is symmetric, as
we know. Note that, in this manner, using one or the other of the two
é connectors of G becomes indifferent.

45
Applying G" to the switch definition eq.2.3/:
G"(G(V)) = G*(V)
but G(G)=1 and I(V)=/ ,then:
v= Gy) 232
G" thus establishes an inverse correspondence G*: 7 3 V .
In T-mosaic terms:

setting:
CoV eee
to be read G'(7) = Gey, & =Vv'é =V

« The vector + covector switching can be expressed componentwise.

In terms of components G(V) = V is written as:
Cig a Pes)

which is roughly interpreted: G., “lowers the index’.

Conversely, G"(V) = V can be written:

Gye 2.34
and interpreted as: G** “raises the index”.

2.15 Vectors / covectors homogeneous scalar product

It presupposes the notion of switch tensor G.
We define the homogeneous scalar product between two vectors as the
scalar product between one vector and the dual covector of the other:

46
 A°B s (A,B) or, likewise, Oe Edy 2:55
From the first equality, expanding on the bases and using the switch G
we get:

Hopi Ba Aes, Bie ee GB el) =

> —>

= G,, 4B Gee G, ACB8, = GAB’ =.G (A,B)

In short: A*B = G(A,B) 2.36

Hence, the dual switch tensor G is also the “scalar product between
two vectors” tensor.
The same result follows from the second equality eg.2.35.
The symmetry of G guarantees the commutative property of the scalar
product: aes
A*B=BeA
or G(A,B)=G(B,A) 2.37
(note this is just the condition of symmetry for the tensor G eq.2./5).

* The homogeneous scalar product between two covectors is then

defined by means of G":
4-B=6"(4,3) 2.38
G", the inverse dual switch, is thus the “scalar product between two
covector’’ tensor.

« In the T-mosaic metaphor the scalar (or inner) product between two vectors
takes the form:

47
while the scalar (or inner) product between two covectors is:

The result is a number in both cases.

« How is it G? Let's compute its components using as arguments the basis-

vectors instead of 4, B

Ge Ge, nea) eaCerie s =>

1°€; €,°@, €,°e,,

OE EOE Bee 2.39
— — Zz n

= G= [Gas] =

€,° ey €,°&, Cao’,

It 's clear that the symmetry of G is related to the commutativity of the scalar
product:
€, te, ee, ee GG, = Gesymimenic
and that its associated matrix is also symmetric.

In a similar way for the inverse switch:

Bis| fers rs pe a
G = G ile se eee" >
al oil mall ay wliw
EE Ee é 96"
4 ee! poee- oon 2.40
= G = Ge = e a

xnx! CAD Ss ~n an

48
 Notation
Various equivalent writings for the homogeneous scalar product are:
. between vectors:
AeB = BA =(A,B) =(4,B) = G(A, B) = G(B, A)
* between covectors:
Ae B= Bed =(A,B) =(4,B) = G"(A,B)=GB,A)
The notation ( . ) is reserved to he ee scalar product
vector-covector

2.16 G applied to basis-vectors

G transforms a basis-vector into a covector, but in general not into a
basis-covector:
G(é,) = G,,8"@"(&) = G,,2"5) =G,,2" 2.41
and this is not =é* because G,,.@" is a sum over all &” and can't
collapse to a single value @* (except particular cases). Likewise:
GIC\I=G ¢ceiej=G ¢O-G ere. Meo)
° Notice that in eg.2.41 we have made use of the duality condition
(eqg.1.8) that link the bases of vectors and covectors; it is a
relation different from that stated by the “dual switching”.

2.17 G applied to a tensor

Can we assume that the converter G acts on the single index of the
tensor (i.e. on the single connector @,) as if it were isolated, in the
same way it would act on a vector, that is, changing it into a @&
without changing other indices and their sequence? Not quite. (The
same question concerns its inverse G*).
apya> =>
We see that the application of G to the tensor (*) XaX ee, eyes
G, oe Xk By

has, in this example, really the effect of lowering the index @ involved
in the product without altering the order of the remaining others.
However, this is not the case for any index. What we need is to
examine a series of cases more extensive than a single example,
having in mind that the application of G to a tensor according to
usual rules of the tensor inner product G(T) =GeT gives rise to a

49
multiplicity of different products (the same applies to G*). To do so,
let's think of the inner product as of the various possible contractions
of the external product: in this interpretation it is up to the different
contractions to produce multiplicity.
° Referring to the case, let's examine the other inner products you
can do on the various indices, passing through the outer product
G,,X°'Y
uv = x'°**”
uy and then performing the contractions.
The p-a contraction leads to the known result X Sh AO: ein
addition:
* contraction u-B gives Ae oo) Coa
* contraction p-y gives X ay =e
(since G is symmetric, contractions of v with a, B or y give the
same results as the contractions of i). -
Other results rise by the application of G in post-multiplication:
frome “OG, =e Rive Wer eet A: | nouN at HEX pnand 2other
similar contractions for v.
We observe that, among the results, there are lowerings of indices
(e.g. aly, lowering &\ v, and X*" , lowering YS v), together
with other results that are not lowerings of indices (for example
X“": B is lowered Bxy but also shifted). X°.” does not appear
among the results: it is therefore not possible to get by means of G
the transformation:

R
fas)
og

as if é, were isolated.

It's easy to see that, given the usual rules of the inner tensor product,
only indices placed at the beginning or at the end of the string can be
raised / lowered by G (a similar conclusion applies to G* ).
It is clear, however, that this limitation does not manifest itself until
the indexes' string includes only two, that is, for tensors of rank r=2.
« For tensors of rank r=2 and, restricted to extreme indexes for tensors

50
of higher rank, we can enunciate the rules:
G applied to a tensor lowers an index (the one by which it connects).
Only the writing by components, e.g. G,, 7", = T°"vy ? clarifies
which indexes are involved.
G" applied to a tensor raises an index (the one by which it connects).
ap ESE ap ev
Potexamplec (17 Ga Io w

Mnemo

Examples: Ge el eep==Ty"s hook x , raise it, rename it v |

Puc” = T°5” : hook u, raise it, rename itv |

« A special case is when the tensor G applies to its inverse G":

Gy, GS Gy

which can be thought to as a raising as well as a lowering of an index.

But since the two tensors G and Gare inverse to each other:
Gy Gaz 5

and from the last two it follows (not surprisingly, given the eg.2.28!)
that:
Garo, 2.43

2.18 Relations between I, G, 6

All equivalent to (A, B) = (A, B)= A+B = A+B and to one another
are the following ex pressions:
(A,B) = (A,B) = G(A,B) = G"(4,B) 2.44
(easy to see using J-mosaic).
« The componentwise writing for G(G") =1 gives:

ie Ip
that, together with eq.2.43, leads to:
Gi, = 9; 2.45
Likewise:
(FO OP BOF ot Oa al gsSng 2.46

51
 c That does not mean that G and | are the same tensor. We observe
that the name G is reserved to the tensor whose components are
Gy3 ; the other two tensors, whose components are
G; and G°" , are different tensors and cannot be labeled by
the same name. In fact, the tensor with components G** is G",
while that one whose components are G,; coincides with I.
It is thus matter of three distinct tensors: *

(lees ooeeeny
Gee OG reed res xB
: ee Seig (ES a3 es as cae

Note that only 53 is the Kronecker delta, represented by the

matrix diag(+1).
Besides, neither /,, nor 1°? (and not even d4, and 5°") deal
with the identity tensor | (but rather with G; their matrix may be
diag(+1) or not).

The conclusion is that we can label by the same name tensors

with indexes moved up / down when using a componentwise
notation, but we must be careful, when switching to the tensor
notation, to avoid identifying as one different tensors.

Just to avoid any confusion, in practice the notations J,,, / ee

Onas 5°” are almost never used.

>
*
The rank is also different: ‘)):(3)\3) respectively. Their matrix representation can
be formally the same if G = diag (+1), but on a different “basis grid”!

52
3 Change of basis

The vector V has expansion V*é, on the basis of vectors {é,}.

Its components will vary as the basis changes. In which way?
It's worth noting that the components change, but it does not the
vector )'!
Let us denote by /* the components on the new basis [@,,) ; it is
now V = V’é,, , hence:
V =V" e. = V2, 3.1
In other words, the same vector can be expanded on the new basis as
well as it was expanded on the old one (from now on the upper ’ will
denote the new basis).

* Like all vectors, each basis-vector of the new basis @,, can be
expanded on the old basis-vectors @,
Cees. Ba,aa) 3.2
Az, are the coefficients of the expansion that describes the “recipe”
of the new @,, on the old basis [@,} (i.e. on the basis of the old
“ingredients”).
Taken as a whole, these coefficients express the new basis in terms of
the old one; they can be arranged in a matrix n xn |Ag.|

« Conversely we can express the old basis-vectors on the basis of new

ones as:
Boe eh, (a=1,2-..7) 3.3
The two matrices that appear in eg.3.2 and eq.3.3 are inverse to each
other: exchanging the indexes the matrix is inverted because the sense
of the transformation reverses; applying both them one after the other
we return to the starting point.
« We now aim to find the relation between the new components of a
given vector V and the old ones. Using eq. 3.3:
Bs, 1 ee oo Kia arm A
V = VC Ng earl
} > yr’ =ae'y* 3.4
and since: V PAVECx

a3
« What about covectors? First let us deduce the transformation law for
components. From P, = P(é,) eq.1.4, which also holds good in the
new basis, by means of the transformation of basis-vectors eq.3.2 that
we already know, we get:
(easy a) akan JEW aed mea A ea a 3.5
From the definition of component of P and using the eq.3.5 above,
we deduce the inverse transformation for basis-covectors (from new to
old ones):

P= P,& |
~ =f5l a ~B! => ea = Nee:
P= Pe = Ag Pye

and hence the direct from old to new: e

e. Neree 3.6
« To summarize, all direct transformations (from old to new basis) are
ruled by two matrices:
[At expresses the transformation of the components of vectors
(eq.3.4) and of basis-covectors (eq.3.6)
|Ag. expresses the transformation of the components of covectors
(eq.3.5) and of basis-vectors (eqg.3.2)

The two matrices are one the transposed inverse * of the other.

* The transpose M7’ of a matrix M is obtained by interchanging rows and columns;

the transposed inverse (')’ coincides with the inverse transpose (M/") '
The notation we use cannot distinguish a matrix from its transpose (and the trans-
posed inverse from the inverse, too) because the upper / lower indexes do not
qualify rows and columns in a fixed way. Hence, the two matrices Re in
eq.3.3 and eq.3.6 are not the same: they are the inverse in the first case and the
transposed inverse in the second. It can be seen by expanding the two equations:
> wes Bites ' '
CN Nes, toe APO
eg3.3: .
@,=A, é, >
a B'>
“\G,=A, ey +A; y+...
Pe gl l'=> =
= AQ=lAY A
bee ’ '

= AM Bly Al’ B24 came

‘; ~B’_§ a, BY ~o
CGSOme a= oe. = @~2 =Al Dierelé +A; oe e+
Hp) B'
= Ao =)A5' 0 hs2
On the contrary, the inverse transformation (from old to new basis) is
ruled by two matrices that are the inverse of the previous two.
So, just one matrix (with its inverse and transposed inverse) is enough
to describe all the transformations of (components of) vectors and
covectors, basis-vectors and basis-covectors under change of basis.
" Let us agree to call A (without further specification) the matrix
that transforms vector components and basis-covectors from the old
bases system with index « to the new system indexed 8’:

FEI VES| 3.7

Given this position, the transformations of bases and components are
summarized in the following table:
a seat LG

. Ay 7 Me eee
é Cn, e 3 6
; : 3.8
Nast (a-)"
Lire esbe Po) Pe,
Roughly speaking: if the bases vary in a manner, the components vary
in the opposite one in order to leave the vector unchanged (as well as
the number that expresses the measure of a quantity increases by
making smaller the unit we use, and vice versa).
The transformations in the opposite sense (<—) require to invert all the
matrices of the table (remind that the inverse of |Aa) ise: |):
« For a transformation to be reversible, it is required that its matrix
A is invertible, that means detA #0 .
« The duality relation between bases of vectors and covectors holds
good in the new basis, too:

oy = (Aye pAgre,) = Ay Ag (2,24) =

AN AGO aN, AG = 5,
(the two matrices are inverse to each other, [AY ]= iAeales and hence
related by AY’ Aj. = 55, ).
: The matrix A that rules the transformations can be expressed in
terms of both old and new basis:

2p)
 Suea e aN Ne Neg re e
only possible if (&,, 2’) =A’ since then 54=A%, AY’ .
Hence, the element of the matrix A is:

Av=lé.,e 5 mee
and the transformation matrix is thus built up by crossing old and new
bases.
« In practice, it is not convenient trying to remind the transformation
matrices to use in each different case, nor reasoning in terms of matrix
calculus: the balance of the indexes inherent in the sum convention is
an automatic mechanism that leads to write the right formulas in every
case.

Mnemo
ek es a, |
The transformation of a given object is correctly written by simply
taking care to balance the indexes. For example, the transformation
of components of covector from new to old basis, provisionally
written P,=A P,, , can only be completed as P, =A) P,, =
the matrix element to use is A‘

3.1 Basis change in T-mosaic

In the T-mosaic metaphor, the change of basis requires each connector
to be converted. The conversion is performed by applying a “basis
converter” extra-block to the connector; for convenience we represent
it as a standard block with a pin and a hole (but beware: it is not a
tensor!).
The basis-converter block is one and only, in two variants
distinguished only by the different position of the indices with apex ':

56
The connection is done “wearing” the basis-converters blocks as
“shoes” on the connectors of the tensor, docking them on the pin-side
or the hole-side as needed, "apex on apex" or "non-apex on non-apex".
The body of the converter blocks will be marked with the element of
the transformation matrix A’or A®, with the apices ' up or down
oriented in the same way with those of connectors (this implicitly
leads to the correct choice of A® or A®, ).
For example, to basis-transform the components of the vector V“é,
we must apply on the @, connector a converter block that hooks it
and replaces with @,.
Cyr

{
OQ

since: Aja uy

Similarly, to basis-transform the components of the covector P,é” ,

the appropriate converter block applies to the old connector é" :

. - : ri
(Zeal

. ax
since: A,P, = Py:

of,
* This rule doesn't apply to basis-vectors Lin] (the converter block
would contain in that case the inverse matrix, if one); however the
block representation of these instances has no practical interest.
« Subject to a basis transformation, a tensor needs to convert all its
connectors by means of the matrices A*'or A&, ; an appropriate
conversion block must be applied to each connector.
For example:

>
QnX

2
5
~X ea :

(2
é x xX

i * :
~U ~v ~ ~
e e ae (Aaa
4
a tax) G

Cac a
since tneAs : te ine le
: «
algeoa ee
é ul ey

The position just made:

Ties a NaeON NS, Tee 3.10

exemplifies the transformation rule for tensors:

_ to old — new basis transform the components of a tensor we must

pply as many A® as upper indexes and as many Aj, as lower
_ indexes.

58
 « A very special case is that of tensor 1= 655, é° whose components
never change: 53 = diag(+1) is true in any basis:

sincereNGN 0, nA uN AO.

3.2 Invariance of the null tensor

A tensor is the null tensor when all its components are zero:

C=0 = VC =0 * Sat

If a tensor is null in a certain basis, it is also null in any other basis.

° In fact:
Ce eee Ste a Nee 0 Bale
for all A®’, A‘, ..., that is for any transformation of bases.

From that the invariance of tensor equations follows.

* It makes no sense equaling a tensor to a number; writing C =0 is only a

conventional notation for V C\"""=0. Otherwise written 0.

ayy
3.3. Invariance of tensor equations
Vectors, covectors and tensors are the invariants of a given
“landscape”: changing the basis, only the way by which they are
represented by their components varies. Then, also the relationships
between them, or tensor equations, are invariant. For tensor equations
we mean equations in which only tensors (vectors, covectors and
scalars included) are involved, no matter whether written in tensor
notation (T, V, ecc.) or componentwise.
Reduced to its essential terms, a tensor equation is an equality
between two tensor like:
A=B or Al"
(ees =B?"
hace 3213
Now, it's enough putting A-B=C to reduce to the equivalent form
eq.3.12 C=0 or Cy’ =0 that, as is valid in a basis, is valid in all
bases. It follows that eg.3.13, too, as is valid in a basis is valid in all
bases. So the equations in tensor form are not affected by the
particular basis chosen , but they apply in “absolute”.
In practice

_ an equation derived in a system of bases, once expressed in tensor

_ form, applies as well in any system of bases.

Also some properties of tensors, if expressed by tensor relations, are

valid regardless of the basis. It is the case, inter alia, of the properties
of symmetry / skew-symmetry and invertibility. For example, eg.2.15
that expresses the symmetry properties of a double tensor is a tensor
equation, and that ensures that the symmetries of a tensor are the same
in any basis.
The condition of invertibility eg.2.27, too, is a tensor equation and
therefore a tensor which has inverse in a basis has inverse in any other
basis.
In these features reside the strength and the most interest of the tensor
formulation.

60
4 Tensors in manifolds

We have so far considered vectors and tensors defined at a single point

P . This does not mean that P should be an isolated point: vectors and
tensors are usually given as vector fields or tensor fields defined in
some domain or continuum of points.
Henceforth we will not restrict to IR” space, but we shall consider a
wider class of spaces retaining some basic analytical properties of
IR" , such as the differentiability (of functions therein defined).
Belongs to this larger class any n-dimensional space M whose points
may be put in a one-to-one (= bijective) and continuous correspond-
ence with the points of IR” (or its subset). Continuity of correspond-
ence means that points close in space M have as image points close in
IR” , that is a requisite for the differentiability in M.
Under these conditions we refer to WM as a differentiable manifold.
(Sometime we'll also use, instead of the term “manifold”, the less
technical “space” with the same meaning).
Roughly speaking, a differentiable manifold of dimension n is a space
that can be continuously “mapped” in IR” (with the possible excep-
tion of some points).

° In more precise terms:

It is required that every infinitesimal neighborhood of the
generic point P € WM has as image an infinitesimal neighbor-
hood of the corresponding point P’ in IR” or, turning to finite
terms, that for every open set UC WM there is a continuous
correspondence gy: U — IR” . A couple of elements (U, 9) is
called a “chart”.
= One complication comes from the fact that, in general, there is
not a correspondence that transports the whole space WM into
IR” , i.e. there is not a single chart (M, g). To map M com-
pletely we need a collection of charts (U; , i), called “atlas”.
« The charts of the atlas must have overlapping areas at the
edges so as to ensure the transition between one chart to the
other. Some points (or rather, some neighborhoods) will appear
on more than one charts, each of which being the result of a
different correspondence rule. For example, a point Q will be
mapped as point g(Q) on a chart and as y(Q) on another one: it

61
 is required that the correspondence g(Q) <— w(Q) is itself
continuous and differentiable.

An example of a differentiable manifold is a two-dimensional

spherical surface like the Earth's surface, that can be covered by two-
dimensional plane charts (even though no single chart can cover the
entire globe and some points, different depending on the type of
correspondence used, are left out; for example, the Mercator
projection excludes the poles).
The fact that there is no correspondence able to transport by itself the
whole manifold into IR” is not an heavy limitation when, as often oc-
curs, only single points are left out. One correspondence can suffice in
these cases to describe almost completely the space. In practical terms,
we can say that there is a correspondence g: #E— IR” , meaning now
with M the space deprived of some points.*
In any case the limitation that until now has brought us to consider
vectors emerging from a single point is still valid: each vector or
tensor is related to the point where it is defined and cannot be
“operated” with vectors or tensors defined at different points, except
they are infinitely close. This limitation comes from the fact that we
cannot presume to freely transport vectors (and tensors) in any space
as it is usually done in the plane or in spaces IR”.

As already mentioned, the set of tensors of rank (7) defined at a

point P is itself a vector space of dimension n"*" . In particular, the
already known vector space of dimension n of the vectors defined in a
point P is called the tangent space; the similar for covectors is named
the cotangent space.
Due to the regularity of the correspondence gy , an enough small
neighborhood of any point P of the differentiable manifold will
behave as a neighborhood of IR” : a differentiable manifold appears
locally like a flat one, even if its overall structure is different.
In practice, the term differentiable manifold means a space to which
we can apply a coordinate system: this is indeed the meaning of the

* In the following, when we talk about a coordinate system defined on a manifold,

we will tacitly assume that some single points can be left outside. To be more
precise, may be that “null measure sets” (as is a line in a 2D space) are excluded.

62
correspondence 9 .

4.1 Coordinate systems

Given a n-dimensional differentiable manifold WM , defining a certain
correspondence g: Wl — IR” means “tagging” each point P of M with
mn numbers x" (u=1,2,...2) that identify it uniquely. The n-tuple
expresses the coordinates of P (another way, punctual, to designate the
correspondence @ is to write P{x"} ).
Since the manifold is differentiable, the correspondence is continuous
and transforms each neighborhood of P in a neighborhood of {x'}.
The numbers that express the coordinates may be lengths, angles or
otherwise. We note that a coordinate system does not presuppose any
definition of distance between two points of the manifold.

4.2 Coordinate lines and surfaces

In the neighborhood of a point P whose coordinates are (x',x’,... x”)
no other points can have the same coordinates, but there are points
that have some coordinates equal to P (provided that at least one is
different).
The points that share with P only a single coordinate forms a (hyper)
surface in n-1 dimensions. These coordinate surfaces passing
through P are 1 in number, one for each coordinate which remains
fixed.
The points that share with P n-—1 coordinates and differ only in one,
let's call it x”, align ona line along which only x’ changes.
n coordinate lines of this kind emerge from P .
A coordinate line originates from the intersection of n—1 coordinate
(hyper)surfaces (the intersection leaves free one coordinate only).
Thus, at each point P of the manifold » coordinate surfaces and n
coordinate lines intersect.
° The representation comes easy in 3D:
At any point P three coordinate surfaces intersect; on each of
them the value of a coordinate remains constant. These surfaces,
intersecting two by two, generate 3 coordinate lines; on each of
them two coordinates are constant and only the third varies. The
coordinate surfaces are labeled by the coordinate that remains
constant, the coordinate lines by the coordinate that varies, as

63
 shown in the figure.

Roughly speaking: defining a coordinate system in a manifold means

to draw an infinitely dense n-dimensional grid of coordinate lines
within the space (in general not straight nor intersecting at right angle).

4.3 Coordinate bases

An opportunity that arises after defined a coordinate system is to link
the bases of vectors and covectors to the coordinates themselves.
The idea is to associate to the coordinates a basis of vectors consisting
of n basis-vectors, each of which is tangent to one of the n coordinate
lines that intersect in the point.

Given a generic point P of coordinate x" , infinite parametric lines *

pass through it; let € be one of them. Moving along @ by an
infinitesimal the point moves from P to P’ while the parameter
* A parametric line in a n-dimensional manifold is defined by a system of 7
equations x"=x"(s) with parameter s (u = 1, 2, ... m). To each value of s
corresponds a point of the line.

64
increases from s to s + ds and the coordinates of the point move from
x oy aux to F+ax x? + be... x" dx”.
comp
The displacement from P to P’isthen d®¥ — dx" ,or:
Ge = dhe. 4.]
This equation works as a definition of a vector basis {@,} in P, in
such a manner that each basis-vector is tangent to a coordinate line.
Note that dX is a vector (inasmuch it is independent of the
coordinate system which we refer to).
A basis of vectors defined in this way, related to the coordinates, is
called a coordinate vector basis. Of course it is a basis among other
ones, but the easiest to use because only here d% — dx“! *
It is worth noting that in general it depends upon the point P .
: A further relation between dx and its components dx" is:
Give 4d x) 4.2
(it is nothing but the rule eqg././0, according to which we get the
components by applying the vector to the dual basis); its blockwise
representation in T-mosaic metaphor looks like:

The basis {é"} is the coordinate covector basis, dual to the previ-
ously introduced coordinate vector basis.
= We aim now to link even this covector basis to the coordinates.
Let us consider a scalar function of the point f defined on the manifold
(at least along @) as a function of the coordinates. Its variation from the
initial point P along a path dX is given by its total differential:

Of eet
= iat 43
* Tf the basis is not that defined by eg.4./, we can still decompose dx along the
coordinate lines x", but dx" is no longer a component along a basis-vector.

65
We note that the derivatives ue are the components of a covector
Ox"
because their product by the components dx“ of the vector dX
gives the scalar df (in other words, eq.4.3 can be interpreted as an
heterogeneous scalar product).*
~ comp OQ .
Let us denote by Vf — at this covector, whose components
in a coordinate basis are the partial derivatives of the function f and
therefore it can be identified with the gradient of / itself.
In symbols, in a coordinate basis:
~ Ai : comp fa) 4 4
= —
ah Ox
hee) eee
or, in short notation ©, = aH for partial derivatives:

Vi ancu
4.5
Note that the gradient is a covector, not a vector.
The total differential (eg.4.3) can now be written in vector form:

df =V f (dz) =(Vf, dz)

If as scalar function fwe take one of the coordinates x° ** we get:
dx’ = (Vx",d%)
By comparison with the already known dx’=(é",dxX) (eq.4.2) =
= &’ = Vx’ inacoordinate basis 4.6
This means that in coordinate bases the basis-covector €° coincides
with the gradient of the coordinate x* and is therefore oriented in
the direction of the faster variation of the coordinate itself, which is
that of the normal to the coordinate surface x* = const.

_ In summary, provided we use coordinate bases:

- the basis-vectors @, are tangent to coordinate lines
_+the basis-covectors é* are normal to coordinate surfaces

* Note that, as we ask dx" to be a component of dX, we assume to work in a

coordinate basis.
** Tt means taking as line @ the coordinate line x”.

66
as shown in the following figures that illustrate the 3D case:

When the coordinate system is orthogonal ( => the coordinate lines,

in general not straight, intersect at each point at right angle) basis-
vectors and basis-covectors have the same direction.* If the
coordinates are not orthogonal the two sets of vectors and covectors
are differently oriented.
Covectors, as well as vectors, can be represented by arrows, although
we must keep in mind that they are entities of a different kind (for
instance, vectors and covectors are not directly summable).**

4.4 Coordinate bases and non-coordinate bases

In 3D Cartesian coordinates it is usual to write the infinitesimal

displacement as:
Ok =(art aya kaz
or, labeling by e the unit vectors:
d% = é\dx'+é,dx’+é,dx = é, dx" 4.7
which is precisely the condition of coordinate basis dx = é,,dx"
(eq.4.1) with @, = é,
This means that unit vectors @,, or famine are a coordinate basis.
Vectors ey, k, are in fact everywhere oriented as coordinate lines,
and this is true not only punctually, but in the whole space IR’
It is not always the case. For example, in plane polar coordinates (p, @)

* Tn general, however, they will not match in length or magnitude.

** Some authors shy away from this representation, that is entirely lawful with the
warning of the diversity of kind.

67
 df is expressed as:
dx = €,dp+é,pd0 é 4.8
and this can be identified with the coordinate basis condition
dx=é,dx" provided we take as a basis:
g = 2,, & = pee 4.9
Here the basis-vector @ “includes” p, it's no longer a unit vector and
also varies from point to point. Conversely, the basis of unit vectors
{é,,é)} which is currently used in Vector Analysis for polar
coordinates is not a coordinate basis.
ec An example of a non-coordinate basis in 3D Cartesian
coordinates is obtained by applying a 45° rotation to unit vectors
“i on the horizontal plane, leaving &- unchanged.
Shee 7,7 in terms of the new rotated vectors we i’,j'
get for dx:
d% = 2(7'-j'\dx +2747 ")dy + kdz , 4.10
2
and this relation matches the coordinate bases condition (eg.
4. /)
only by taking as basis vectors:
OP yaa V2 a +
= eal
—=(i'- AolPati Mae a
<

that is nothing but the old coordinate basis {i 7,k} . It goes

without saying that the rotated basis [i’, 7'k} is not a
coordinate basis (as we clearly see from eq.4.10).
This example shows that, as already said, only in a SIAL
comp
basis dX — dx" holds good. Not otherwise!

« As an example we can deduce the dual coordinate basis of covectors

from the duality relation (é",é@,) = 6), in both the following cases:
Vv

@ In 3D Cartesian coordinates it is easy to see that the vector

coordinate basis {2@,}={7,7,k} coincides with the covector
coordinate basis {é"}={i, 7,k} obtained by duality *

* 7 andi (in general @, and é") remain distinct entities, although super-
imposable. In Cartesian they have the same expansion by components and their
"arrows" coincide, but under change of coordinates they return to differ.

68
 ° Indeed, it is already known that in Cartesian the coordinate basis
is made of the unit vectors i,j,k. They can be written in terms
of components:
Pot,
0 0) er =O 0) e050, 1)
The coordinate covector basis will necessarily be:

TS 0nOees = (OMeopey eS (07081)

because only this way you can get:

On a i ue = 0,
Set Vic ee al we n ae = Os
0 er 0 ae Chek= 1.
as required by the condition of duality.
® In polar coordinates, on the contrary, the vector coordinate basis
{é,}={ é,,@3} does not match with the covector basis deduced from
duality condition {@’} = [2°, 8°}.
© Indeed: unit vectors in polar coordinates are by definition:
é,=(1,0), @=(0,1). Thus, from eq.4.9:
2, = 11,0)" Ge «ey = (0/)
Letbe 2@°=(a,b) , 8°=(c,d). From (",é,) = 64 =
fee cle = (a,b)*(1,0)=a
= (a) )-(\0.p)=bp => b=081
sos =(1,0)
0 22,
=> cm )
(c,d)*(1,0)=c F
0 = (°, =

1 = (2°,2)= (c,d)-(0,p)=dp = d=4 moat Sl

Note that the dual switch tensor G , even if already defined, has no
role in the calculation of a basis from its dual.

4.5 Change of the coordinate system

The change of coordinates, by itself, does not request the change of
the bases, but we must do it if we want to continue working in
coordinate basis in the new system as well. As usual, the change of
basis will be done by means of a transformation matrix RENKy |
which depends upon both the old {x} and new {x’'} coordinate

69
systems (an apex ' marks the new ones). But which A must we use for
a given transformation of coordinates?
To find the actual form of A we impose to vector basis a twofold
condition: that the starting basis is a coordinate basis (first equality)
and that the arrival basis is a coordinated basis, too (second equality):
> ee > nyt
dx = é,dx" = é,dx ze
The generic new coordinate x” will be related to all the old ones
x’, x’,...x" bya function x” =x"'(x', x’,...x") ,ie.

whose total differential is:

ax = os dx"
Ox! 3
Substituting into the double equality eg.4. 11:

AX= 6.08"=e,,——-
x = @,dx ey ae ax = éSee ey aa
ae 4.12
=> => => ox” > > ox”

A comparison with the change of basis-vectors eg.3.3 (inverse, from

new to old):
= M6,
leads to the conclusion that:

4.13
ay 0 ae

A=
i 0 x' 7

> Ay is the matrix element of A complying with the definition

eq.3.7 that we were looking for.*
Since the Jacobian matrix of the transformation is defined as:

ax!’
dx
ag!
Ox?
ae
Ox”
Oe Ox?’ Ox a
Se aes eee Aone | Es 4.14

aa” ae”
Diy 50%,
ax
hee

* Or equally, as in the case, element of its transpose.

70
we can identify:
N=J 4.15
* The coordinate transformation has thus as related matrix the
Jacobian matrix A =J (whose elements are the partial derivatives
of the new coordinates with respect to the old ones). It states, together
with its inverse and transpose, how the old coordinate bases transform
into the new coordinate bases, and consequently how the components
of vectors and tensors transform.
_After a coordinate transformation we have to transform bases and
_components by means of the related matrix A=J (and its
_ inverse / transpose) to continue working in a coordinate basis.

« As always, to avoid confusion, it is more practical to start from the

transformation formulas and take care to balance the indexes; the
indexes of A will suggest the proper partial derivatives to be taken.
0x"
For example, P,,=A\,P, = use the matrix A‘,= : vi
x
Note that the upper / lower position of the index marked ’ in partial
derivatives agrees with the upper / lower position on the symbol A.

4.6 Contravariant and covariant tensors

We summarize the transformation laws for components of vectors and

covectors in a coordinate basis:
‘)

* vector components: Vy’ Po = OEy.- Ve (contravariant scheme)

Ox

-covector components: Py, =

ee
ahve
|
(covariant scheme)
x
In the traditional formulation of Tensor Calculus “by components”, the
two transformation schemes above are assumed as definitions of
contravariant vector and covariant vector respectively.
The equivalence with the terminology used so far is:
- vector < contravariant vector
-covector (or “l-form”) < covariant vector

For a tensor of higher rank, for example (3) > the following law of
transformation of the components applies:

71
 T= OMI One Cm
paval — ’ ' tea 4.16
Ox Ox” Ox%
which is just a different way of writing eg.3./0 in case of coordinate
basis (in that case eg.4.13 holds).
The generalization of eqg.3.10 to tensors of any rank is obvious.
In general, a tensor of rank is is told contravariant of order (= rank)
h and covariant of order k.
Traditional texts begin here, using the transformation laws under
coordinate transformation of components* as a definition: a tensor is
defined as a multidimensional entity whose components transform
according to example eq.4. 16.

4.7 Affine tensors

In conformity with the traditional definition, tensors are those quantit-

ies that transform according to the contravariant or covariant schemes
under any admissible coordinate transformation. If we restrict the
class of the allowed coordinate transformations, the number of quant-
ities that underlie the schemes of “tensorial” (contravariant / covari-
ant) transformation increases. In particular, if we restrict to consider
linear transformations, we identify the class of affine tensors, wider
than that of tensors without further qualification.
The coordinate transformations to which we restrict in this case have
the form x” = a’ x" where a’ are purely numerical coefficients.
These coefficients can be arranged in a matrix la\'| that expresses
the law of coordinate transformation. But also the transformation
matrix for vector components, i.e. the Jacobian matrix / given by
Vv! 0 3p = 5 ' : 5
A, = ay" Is made in this case by the same numerical coefficients
a oe /"
because here is STE a,

So, for affine tensors, the law of coordinate transformation and the
transformation law for vector components coincide and are both
expressed by the same matrix A (the components of covectors
transform as usual by the transposed inverse of A).
* Although the traditional “by components” approach avoids speaking about bases,
it is implied that there we always work in a coordinate basis (both old and new).

72
4.8 Cartesian tensors
If we further restrict to linear orthogonal transformations, we identify
the class of Cartesian tensors (wider than affine tensors).
A linear orthogonal transformation is represented by an orthogonal
matrix.* Also for Cartesian tensors the same matrix lay| rules both
the coordinate transformation and the transformation of vector
components. Moreover, since an orthogonal matrix coincides with its
transposed inverse, the same matrix lay] transforms as well covector
components. So, as vectors and covectors transform in the same way,
they are the same thing: the distinction between vectors and covectors
(or contravariant tensors and covariant tensors) falls in the case of
Cartesian tensors.

4.9 Magnitude of vectors

We define magnitude (or norm) of a vector V the scalar 7 such
that:
7? = H-7 = G7) 4.17
Note that this definition, given by means of a scalar product, depends
on the switch G that has been chosen.

4.10 Distance and metric tensor

In a manifold with a coordinate system x" a distance ds from a point

P toa point P' shifted by dx can be defined as:
ds = \dx|\* = G(dx,dx) 4.18
In fact, what we define is an infinitesimal distance, also called “arc
element”.
After defined a distance the manifold becomes a metric space.
Since its definition is given by the scalar product, the distance depends
on the G we use. If we want the distance to be defined in a certain
way, it follows that G must be chosen appropriately.
We will denote g the tensor (?) we pick out among the possible
switches G to get the desired definition of distance.
* A matrix is orthogonal when its rows are orthogonal vectors (i.e. scalar product
in pairs = 0), and so its columns.

73
The distance ds given by the tensor equation:
ds = gldx,dx) Airez4 19
is an invariant scalar and does not depend on the coordinate system.
At this point, the tensor g defines the geometry of the manifold, i.e. its
metric properties, based on the definition of distance between two
points. For this reason g is called metric tensor, or “metric”.
« If (and only if) we use coordinate bases, the distance can be written:

ds = 2 aan dx" 4.20

- Indeed, (only) in a coordinate basis is dx = @,dx" , hence:
a= Gide 1) Gerd c,d | Ole 6. an an
pa edn

4.11 Euclidean distance

If the manifold is the usual Euclidean space IR’ , using a Cartesian

coordinate system, the distance is classically defined:
ds = Vdx’+ dy’+ dz’ 4.21
or:
ds = (ade
V4 (de) + (axF AD?
which express the Pythagoras theorem and coincides with the form
(eq.4.20) that applies in coordinate bases
ds’= (dy)+ (dx) dx |) =e.
ax ax, 4.23
provided we take:
ir 70eeO
Se IetOt cea) | —a
ah 0 fora #8 oe omy, ; ' = diag (+1)
4.24
Notice that in this case g=g"' ,namely g,,= g°° .

4.12 Generalized distances

The definition of distance given by eg.4.20 is more general than the

Euclidean case and includes any bilinear form in dx', dx’, ...dx” such
as:
g,,dx'dx'+g ,dx'dx’+ g,,dx'dx°+...g,,dx°dx'+g,,dx’dx?+...¢,,dx"dx"
4.25
74
where 84g are subject to few restrictions. Inasmuch they build up the
matrix that represents the metric tensor g, we must at least require that
the matrix is symmetric and det| Lap #0 such that g is invertible and
g” exists.

° Note, however, that g is symmetrizable in any case: for example,

if it were 81.*Z>, in the bilinear form eg.4.25, just taking
2/19 = 8'9 =(Kyt+81)/2 nothing would change in the
definition of distance.

Metric spaces where the distance is defined by eq.4.19 with any g,

provided symmetric and invertible, are called Riemann spaces.
* Given a manifold, its metric properties are fully described by the
metric tensor g associated to it. As a tensor, g does not depend on the
coordinate system imposed onto the manifold: g does not change if
the coordinate system changes. However, we do not know how to
represent g by itself: its representation is only possible in terms of
components &,, and they do depend upon the particular coordinate
system (and therefore upon coordinate basis). For a given g we then
have different matrices a , one for each coordinate system, which
mean the same g, i.e. the same metric properties for the manifold.
For instance, for the 2D Euclidean plane, the metric tensor g, which
expresses the usual Euclidean metric properties is represented by
ake
ig~ a: 0 : in Cartesian coordinates and by § xB! a
0 o
in

polar coordinates. Of course, there are countless other Ca which

can be obtained from the previous ones by coordinate transformation
and subsequent change of basis by means of the related matrix A
7
AN
et 7 — a 6
(remind that |8ag) ~~ gee p16 Sty! = ALAS: Sap ).
In other words, the same Euclidean metric can be expressed by all the
[gyrve| attainable by coordinate transformation from the Cartesian

[Zas|= f :

geometry of manifold = g =
= Summary: = Say
coordinate system =>

75
4.13 Tensors and not -

The contra / covariant transformation laws (exemplified by eg.4./6)

provide a criterion for determining whether a quantity is a tensor. If
the quantity changes (in fact its components change) according to
those schemes, the quantity is a tensor.
For example, the transformation for (components of) dX (eq.4.11):

ax = wens dx"
Ox’
confirms that the infinitesimal displacement vector is a contravariant
tensor of the first order.
Instead, the “position” or “radius-vector” X is not a tensor because
its components do not transform according to the law of coordinate
transformation (which in general has nothing to do with the contra /
covariant schemes).
« Neither is a tensor the derivative of (components of) a vector. In fact,
given a vector that transforms its components:
Or
ae ae 4.26
ox
its derivatives transform (according to Leibniz rule * and using the
“chain rule’’) as:
IO eg Oye ee OO) a ere Oe
yt
or Ox oy” Ox Ox” Ox" Ox" Ox” Ox*dx”
4.27
which is not the tensor transformation scheme (it would be for a
tensor () without the additional term in 0? ). This conclusion is not
surprising because partial derivatives are not independent of the
coordinates.

4.14 Covariant derivative

« In general, the derivative of a vector (which is itself a vector) is not
simply the derivative of the components, because even the basis-
vectors vary from point to point in the manifold:

ote
OV = 7
NO I > v
RRA
> v v
5 es 4.28

* Leibniz rule for derivative

of a product: (f-g)'=f"g+f-g'

76
Of the two terms, the first describes the variability of the components
of the vector, the second the variability of the basis-vectors along the
coordinate lines x" .
We observe that 6,@,, the partial derivative of a basis-vector,
although not a tensor is a vector in a geometric sense (because it
represents the change of the basis vector @, along the infinitesimal
are dx“ on the coordinate line x" ) and therefore can be expanded
on the basis of vectors.
Hence, setting Oe, =| , we can write:

leah ee 4.29
But in reality T is already labeled with lower indexes pt,v , hence
es = Tree , So that:
Cegal es 4.30
The: vectors I, are m in number, one for each pair u,v , with n
A
components I’...uv each.
The coefficients re are called Christoffel symbols or connection
coefficients; they are in total n° coefficients.
Eq.4.30 is equivalent to:
ie
uy eo erepv Ast

The Christoffel symbols I), are therefore the components of the

_vectors “partial derivative of a basis vector” on the basis of the
vectors themselves
| namely:
' he “recipe” of the partial derivative of a basis vector uses as
~

| “ingredients” the same basis vectors while Christoffel symbols

| represent their amounts.

Inserting eg.4.30, eg.4.28 becomes:

7 > v NEG ee
Cee Cal le eat
in the last right term v,A are dummy summation
indexes: they can therefore be freely changed (and
interchanged). Interchanging v,A :
= 0) = 1.46,V eee Oyy em)

77
In short: oF ee (0,V" + eUas) 4.32

We define covariant derivative of a vector with respect to x’ :

v lef v v A
Vane On Meat ee a 4.33
(we introduce here the subscript ; to denote the covariant derivative).
The covariant derivative V;, thus differs from the respective partial
derivative for a corrective term in I . Unlike the ordinary derivative
the covariant derivative is in nature a tensor: the n? covariant
derivatives of eg.4.33 are the components of a tensor, as we will soon
See:
* The derivative of a vector is written in terms
of covariant derivative
(from eg.4.32) as: >

Oe en 4.34

The (partial) derivative of a vector is thus a vector (in a geometric,

_not tensorial, sense) whose components are the m covariant
_ derivatives of the vector.

« In the same way we treat the case of the derivative of a covector:

Ox"
ae al H
pe
a
Cay ae
Be ) Page. u er
Aloe
v me 4.35

As before, the term 0,é° describes the variability of the basis-

covector é along the coordinate line x" and, though not a covector
in tensorial sense, can be expanded on the basis of covectors.
Setting 0,é°=L , we write:
~ wh

Ib = L, g

But in reality L is already labeled with an upper v anda lower u

index, then:
Vv c* Vv ~K

La lege
hence:
=v Ve ea
Of CLs ie 4.36

which, substituted into eg.4.35, gives:

78
 Op Ale opAt Ly erdye
interchanging the dummy indexes v, in the last term:
= "0,4, + Lh 2"A,= 2°(0,4,+ L*,A)) 4.37

" What is the relationship between Fand L? They are simply

opposite in sign:
auv uv 4.38
° It can be shown by calculating separately the derivatives of both
right and left members of the duality condition (é",e,)=6) .
Since 6, =0 or 1 (however a constant), then 0,(54)=0 .
On the other hand:
0, (8",&)= (0,8", &) + (B",0,2,)
= (Li 2,8) +(e" Pye)
tec eo ele
= eo ok
ibe he
Hence 0=LY,+T\, = e9.4.38, q.e.d.

Therefore: 0,¢ oT sé 4.39

and from eq.4.37: 3,4 = @"(3,4,- PAL 4.40

A vy

We define covariant derivative of a covector with respect to x" :

Antedef Opal mA
r
4.41
which is analogous to eq.4.33.
: After this position, the derivative of a covector is written (from
eq.4.40):
A=e@A vyH
4.42
| The (partial) derivative of a covector has as components n
_ covariant derivatives of the covector.

79
4.15 The gradient V at work
We have already stated that the gradient Y is a covector whose
components in coordinate bases are the partial derivatives with
respect to the coordinates (eq. 4.4, eqg.4.5):
comp
grad = =
~

namely Vie 4.43

© That
~
V is a tensor has been deduced from eqg.4.3 in case of
V applied to f, but it is abstractly true, confirmed by the fact
Ox"
that the “chain rule” applied to its components 0,
oon
coincides with the covariant transformation scheme eq. 4. 16.

As a tensor, various tensor operation can be performed by V

applying it to other tensors. We will examine the cases:
- outer product with vectors, covectors or tensors = gradient
- inner product with vector or tensor = divergence

® Tensor outer product V ® vector

The result is the tensor () gradient of vector. In coordinate bases:

Vel = &0,0V
that is to say * Vi =e 0.7 4.44
0, V comes from eq.4.32. Substituting:
Vive= ccloy rel ay | 4.45
On the other hand, Y / may be written as expansion:

Vi =V,V be, 4.46

and by comparison between the last two we see that
VIO ey ela 4.47
which is equivalent to eg.4.33 in an alternative notation:

* Tt is convenient to think of the symbol @ asa connective between tensors. In

T-mosaic it means to juxtapose and past the two blocks é"0, and V

80
 Vi =v, 4.48
Eq.4.47 represents the covariant derivative of)vector, qualifying it as
component of the tensor gradient of vector VV (=VeP )).

The covariant derivatives of a vector are the n* components of the

| tensor “gradient of vector” VeV (more often written VV ).

© In Appendix we show that the covariant derivatives V‘,

transform according to the tensor contra / covariant scheme
exemplified by eq.4./6 and this confirms that the gradient Vi
of vector of which they are components is indeed a tensor.

« The partial derivative of a vector (eq.4.34) may be written in the new

notation in terms of V as:
Ce eaVay 4.49
namely:
ey aie RL: 4.50
« What we have seen about gradient tensor and derivative of a vector
can be summarized in the sketch:

covariant
gradient derivative
r
W components _ oV ry"
ns eee aes ss We
SY

n derivative of
components components component

bn OV
Ox”
partial
derivative

: When in particular the vector is a basis-vector the sketch above can

be reduced to (see eg.4.31):
ae nm 2 components ih
ey od ae 4.5]
iia eS

One,
 Poaceae OR Oe ne
We reserve the term “covariant derivative” to the components
which together form the “gradient tensor’:

Vie ee eee 0 le
~ => comp ; *) *)

Papal — — acs
gradient covariant partial © Christoffel
tensor derivative derivative symbol
osceconennosesveranananntannasoenin
innate gonoNeNOo

Notation
The covariant derivative of ’ withrespectto x" is symbolized

Ni aa le wok ee yu

V;

Not to be confused with the partial derivative aS indicated as

x
one or eerH
The lower index after the , means partial derivative
The lower index after the ; means covariant derivative

® Tensor outer product V ® covector

The result is the (°) tensor gradient of covector. In coordinate bases:

Vod = e004
On VA =" 0, A 4.52
We go on as in the case of gradient of a vector:
0,4 comes from eq.4.40; replacing:
ViA= ee (Opt Ay 4.53
and by comparison with the generic definition

VA=V,A ee 4.54
we get:
A
V FA 0d Sees 4.55
which is equivalent to eg.4.4/ with the alternative notation:
Vi A, = As,

* See note to eqg.4.44.

82
£q.4.55 represents the covariant derivative of covector and qualifies it
as a component of the tensor gradient of covector V 4 (=V@ Ay
Eq.4.55 is the analogous of eq. 4.47, which was stated for vectors.

« The partial derivative ofa covector (eq.4.42) may be written in the

new notation in terms of V as:
Cts as 4.57
namely:
3,4 > VLA, 4.58
" For the gradient and the derivative of a covector a sketch like that
shown for vectors applies, with few obvious changes.

Mnemo
To write the covariant derivative of vectors and covectors:
« we had better writing the I’ before the component, not vice versa
= 15t step:
V4 =0,474+1, or Vi Av Stay
(adjust the indexes of I’ according to those of the 1** member)
» 2" step: paste a dummy index to I’ and to the component A that
follows so as to balance the upper/ lower indexes: f
K

@ Tensor outer product V ® tensor ()

VeT (or VT ) isa |oe) tensor, the gradient of tensor.

By the same procedure of previous cases we can find that, for example
xO Fg ot
for a rank (4) tensor T=T, &,,Ee” is:

Viv, Ge enone namely:

vt TON TH vests Tce aT RD Teac ee A50
he ;
| In general, the covariant derivative of a tensor \,) is obtained by
attaching to the partial derivative / terms in I’ with positive sign
and k terms in I with negative sign. Treat the indexes individually,
_ one after the other in succession.

83
 |To write the covariant derivative of tensors, forexample V, ihe
|+ after the term in ©, consider the indexes of T one by one:
|- write the first term in I as it were V,,7°, then complete T
| with its remaining indexes | : > +T).> eleeTy
| «write the second terminI asitwere V,7°, thencompleteT |
|with its remaining indexes * : > +I! +t. 7)" |
| = write the third as it were V,,7, . then complete 7 |
|_with its remaining indexes “ : > -[“ > -I% re 4

« Considerations on the form of components of tensor V

Once stated that the gradient Visa tensor and 0, are its 7 tensorial
components, the question is whether applying V to a tensor T
variously ranked r = 0,1,2,3,..., is still true that:

We eons. u

Actually, it happens that ©,T, although components of VT ina

“vectorial” sense, lose their meaning of tensorial components, except
the case of r=0 (ie. T=fscalar). Notice that in any case 6,7 are
n in number while the tensorial components of VT ought to be n’™!
if T has rank r. The tensorial components of the gradient VT are in
fact the n”’| covariant derivatives. They have a form that depends on
the rank r of the tensor, since ©, applied to T operates (see eg.4.28)
the derivatives of each basis-vector (and covector) of T as well as the
derivative of the components.
Overall, naming V, the covariant derivative we may write:

Vile, HU
4.60
where V.,, is for:
¢ 0. if applied to a scalar
o,+1... if applied to (a component of) a vector V
¢ 0,—I’... if applied to (a component of) a covector P
0+ various terms in I’... according to the rank of tensor T

VY, then takes a “variable arrangement” depending on the object to

which it applies. —

84
 ~

® Inner product V° vector

V(¥) = VV" = V4 = div 4.61
It is the scalar divergence of a vector.
Note that V applied as inner product to a vector looks similar to a
covariant derivative:
Vere ony ay 4.62
but with one (repeated) index only, and is actually a number. Roughly:
| The divergence of a vector diy V looks like a covariant derivative,
| except for a single repeated index: V,V" or V°,
To justify the presence of additional terms in I it is appropriate to
think of the divergence V,,V" as a covariant derivative V,V"
followed by an index contraction v= (more precisely it is a
contraction of the gradient):
contraction v= ve ye 4.63
V ® V = ye y" oY @ é

which results in a scalar product, that is a scalar.

This definition of divergence is a direct generalization of the
divergence as known from Vector Analysis, where it is defined in
Cartesian coordinates as the sum of the partial derivatives of the
components of the vector. In fact, in a Cartesian frame, it is
divV = V,V"=0,V" provided the coefficients T are null.

© Inner product V* tensor )

Divergence(s) of tensors of higher order can similarly be defined
provided at least one upper index exists.
It results in a tensor of rank ea ') | tensor divergence of a tensor.
If there are more than one upper index, various divergences can be
defined, one for each upper index. For each index of the tensor, both
upper or lower, including the one involved, an adequate term in [
must be added. For example, the divergence with respect to B index of
the rank (‘) tensor T=T*' é,é @ isthe (|) tensor:
—>- o> . ]

V(T) = We ace namely:

VA pe
~ comp
Nel
rn
els
xB
acl ot gael eel pyle
a «KB B XK 1K ap
e404
85
It comes to the contraction of VT (eqg.4.59) foru=B .

4.16 Gradient of some fundamental tensors

It is interesting to calculate the gradient of some fundamental tensors:
the identity tensor and the metric tensor.
= comp Coe See Sa & ¢K Kt Oe
VI - V 53 = 0,0, + 0,0, —= 1.0. =
=0+13,— 1 a= 0 4.65
as might be expected.

: Vg _ Nae Eup = Oe one beens ae ~ 0 4.66

2 Indeed (eg.2.37, eg.4.30):

On Sag = On (Ene Se) = O1ee - @, a Ga Oy 2, =n
Il % YK
sp tiea)K pB

K > = = K — K K
= IF uak
e © Cat Cpe Lats = eae rie albee ee is

This important result, less obvious than the previous one, states that
in each point of any manifold with Riemannian metric it is:
Vg=0 4.67
Likewise: Vg'=0 4.68
© It can be obtained like eq.4.66, passing through V,, g** and
0,g°° and then considering that 0,@°=—TI\.é" (eq.4.39).
The last eg.4.67, eq.4.68 are often respectively written as:
V «Sap = 0 or Sig 2
; : 4.69
and: V2 =0) (cree 8

4.17 Covariant derivative and index raising / lowering

The covariant derivative and the raising or lowering of the indexes are
Operations that commute (= you can reverse the order in which they
take place). For example:
oe = dra 4.70

* Vg=0 all over the space does mot mean that g is unvarying, but that it is
punctually stationary (like a function in its maximum or minimum) in each point.

86
(on the left, covariant derivative followed by raising the index; on the
right, raised index followed by covariant derivative).
° Indeed:
ee
Bk co Peay i oan T Sach ge ON as = (sigat be
=0
having used the eg.4.69.
If is thus allowed “‘to raise/lower indexes under covariant derivative”.

4.18 Christoffel symbols

Christoffel symbols Tey give account of the variability of basis-
vectors from one point to the other of the manifold. In addition, they
are what make the difference between covariant derivatives and
ordinary derivatives: VT =0 @ 0,=V,

| If (and only if) all Christoffel symbols T are null, ordinary

/derivatives and covariant derivatives coincide.

« In the usual 3D Euclidean space described by a Cartesian coordinate

system, basis-vectors do not vary from point to point and
consequently VI =0 everywhere (so that covariant derivatives
coincide with partial derivatives).
That is no more true when the same space is described by a spherical
coordinate system ~,,9 because in this case the basis-vectors
é,,@,,€4 are functions of the point (as we saw for the plane polar
coordinates) and this implies that at leastsome I are # 0.
Just this fact makes sure that the I, cannot be the components of a
hypothetical tensor () as might seem: the hypothetical tensor T
would be null in Cartesian (since all its components are zero) and not
null in spherical coordinates, against the invariance of a tensor under
change of coordinates.
The Christoffel symbols are rather a set of 1° coefficients depending
on 3 indexes but do not form any tensor. However, observing the way
in which it was introduced ([ = Eee , €g.4.29) , each T related
to a fixed pair of lower indexes is a vector whose components are
marked by the upper index 2. It is therefore lawful (only for this
index) the raising / lowering by means of g:

87
 ped bess be 4.71

« An important property of the Christoffel symbols is to be symmetric

in a coordinate basis with respect to the exchange of lower indexes:

Lissde,
2 A
4.72

° To prove this we operate a change of coordinates and a

consequent transformation of coordinate basis by the appropriate
related matrix. Let us express the old I}, in terms of the new
ox
basis (using for this purpose the matrix Meas) :
XN > de > => ea Ke reagent
Veeex = Ones = On e,) = (Chea. Jey. aN Ay (Oe) i

Aeon ee ee a Cox ee Oe ACiten Leb

u ox” Cx! i ax” om SS et j eee
Ox CxS Ox nO xine tae
5 ° AS
where we have used the chain rule to insert x.
Since this expression is symmetric with respect to the indexes
u,v, the same result is obtained by calculating Tyres Oe,
on the new basis, then T',=TS,, .

* An important relationship links I to g and shows that in

coordinate bases the coefficients I’ are functions of g and its first
derivatives only :
K l K&

Tie = 58 (= Quy Weaie aan Seca) 4.73

(note the cyclicity of indexes u, B, a within the parenthesis).

s That comes out from:

Vg=0 = ve Se = Oct ol e ee =a)

= (using the comma instead of 0 as derivative symbol) :

d A
SoG, p= Lye Bag + Lug Zor 4.74

Cyclically rotating the three indexes a, B, 1 we can write two other

similar equations for 8g,,.=-- and Sya,g =
By summing member to member: 1‘t— 24 + 3'4 equation and using the
symmetry properties of the lower indexes eg.4.72 (which applies in a

88
coordinate basis) we get:

ie Pa Zeu,oe Zu0,8 = Po Ee

Multiplying both members by g“* and since g““g,,=5 :*

rr up .==me
K 1 Ka

SoByu ee SBu,« + Dict) » C.V.

This result has as important consequence:**

V2,g,= constant = VIT=0 AeT5
: 9
_ Ifthe components 2,, of the metric tensor g are constant, all the
|coefficients I’ are zero, and vice versa.

This is especially true in Cartesian coordinate systems.

In general we wili qualify (incorrectly) “flat” a coordinate system
where Vl =O) ***

4.19 Covariant derivative and invariance of tensor equations

A tensor equation contains only tensors, thus it may contain covariant
derivatives but not ordinary derivatives (which are not tensors). For
instance, Vg= 0 or its ea uehtwise equivalent Ve a =0
(which actually stands for n* equations) are tensor equations; it is not
the case of eq.4.73.
A strategy often used to obtain tensor equations is called “comma goes
to semi-colon” and exploits the fact that in a “flat” coordinate system,
since all I are zero, the ordinary derivative and the covariant
derivative coincide. In practice:
| Working in a “flat” coordinate system (e.g., Cartesian), a partial
erivatives equation inferred in this system can be turned into a
ensor equation simply by replacing partial derivatives with
ovariant derivatives, namely by replacing the commas with semi-
colons. The tensor equation thus obtained is invariant and applies in
| any reference.

* From eg.2.28, since g and gare inverse tensors.

** Which is already implicit in eg.2.39 and eg.4.3/.
**#*Tn fact, it is the manifold to be (or not) flat. But: flat manifold <3 a coordinate
system where Vv [=0 , as we shall see later.

89
4.20 T-mosaic representation of gradient, divergence and
covariant derivative

V_ is the covector that applies to scalars, vectors or tensors.

* Gradient of scalar: Vf =

é, ee

* Gradient of vector: VeV = = =

e” er
= DN eg
SOV Viewer,
—

covariant
derivative

* Gradient of covector: V GPa =

en en ee
— Shey
= ye aR
Se

covariant
derivative

« Gradient of tensor,

eg. g Veg = =

~rX © ~y
o vente
* Divergence of vector:

9]
 5 Curved manifolds

5.1 Symptoms of curvature

Consider a spherical surface within the usual 3D Euclidean space. The

spherical surface is a manifold 2D.
A 3D observer, or (3p, which has an outside view, sees the curvature
of the spherical surface in the third dimension. A 2D observer (2p,
who lives on the spherical surface has no outside view. (3p sees the
light rays propagate on the spherical surface along maximum circle
arcs; for Op they will be straight lines, by definition (they are the only
possible inertial trajectories, run in absence of forces). How can 2p
realize that his space is curved?
By studying the geometry in its local context @p will discover the
common properties of the 2D Euclidean geometry, the usual plane
geometry. For example, he finds that the ratio of the circumference to
diameter is a constant = 7 for all circles and that the sum of the inner
angles of any triangle is 180°. In fact, in its environment, 1.e. in the
small portion of the spherical surface on which he lives, his two-
dimensional space is locally flat, as for us is flat the surface of a water
pool on the Earth's surface (the observer (3p sees this neighborhood
practically lying on the plane tangent to the spherical surface in the
point where (2p is located).
However, when (2p comes to consider very large circles, he realizes
that the circumference / diameter ratio is no more a constant and it is
smaller and smaller than z as the circle enlarges, and that the sum of
the inner angles of a triangle is variable but always > 180°.
Orn can deduce from these facts that his space is curved, though not
capable of understanding the third dimension.
The curvature of a space is thus an intrinsic property of the space itself
and there 1s no need of an outside view to describe it. In other words,
it is not necessary for a n-dimensional space to be considered
embedded in another m +1 dimensional space to reveal the curvature.
* Another circumstance that allows (2p to discover the curvature of his
space is that, carrying a vector parallel to itself on a large enough
closed loop, the returned vector is no longer parallel ( = does not
overlap) to the initial vector.
In a flat space such as the Euclidean one vectors can be transported

92
parallel to itself without difficulty, so that they can be often considered
delocalized. For example, to measure the relative velocity of two
particles far apart, we may imagine to carry the vector ¥, parallel to
itself from the second particle to the first so as to make their origins
coincide in order to carry out the subtraction ¥,—7¥,
But what does it mean a parallel transport in a curved space?
In a curved space, this expression has no precise meaning. However,
Ory can think to perform a parallel transport of a vector by a step-by-
step strategy, taking advantage from the fact that in the neighborhood
of each point the space looks substantially flat.

Let € be the curve along which we want to parallei-transport the (foot

of the) vector V . At first the observer Op and the vector are in P, ;
the vector is transported parallel to itself to P, , a point of the
(infinitesimal) neighborhood of P; . Then 2p goes to P2 and parallel
transports the vector to P; that belongs to the neighborhood of P» ,
and so on. In this way the transport is always within a neighborhood in
which the space is flat and the notion of parallel transport is
unambiguous: vector in P; // vector in P2; vector in P2 // vector in P3,
etc.
But the question is: is vector in P; // vector in P, ? That is: does the
parallelism which works locally step-by-step by infinitesimal amounts
hold globally as well?
To answer this question we must transport the vector along a closed
path: only if the vector that returns from parallel transport is
superimposable onto the initial vector we can conclude for global
parallelism.
In fact it is not so, at least for large enough circuits: just take for
example the transport A-B-C-A along the meridians and the equator in

93
the picture:

maik@

Sata

The mismatch between the initial vector and the one that returns after
the parallel transport can give a measure of the degree of curvature of
the space (this measure is fully accessible to the two-dimensional
observer @p).
To do so we must give first a more precise mathematical definition of
parallel transport of a vector along a line.

5.2 Derivative of a scalar or vector along a line

Given a scalar or a vector defined (at least at the points of a parametric
line) within the manifold, let us express the derivatives of the scalar or
vector along the line as the incremental ratio of the scalar or vector
with respect to the parameter.
The line @ is defined by n parametric equations x"(t). The parameter
t can be (or not) the arc length. At any point of the line let be defined a
tangent vector (a unit vector only if t is the arc):

va — 5.1
dx" 2 _ comp dx"
= U'=— ic. U- in a coordinate basis.
dt

® derivative of a scalar f along a line

0
From the total differential of f : df = ah dx” we immediately
x
deduce the definition of derivative along a line:

94
 Of MOT
ny
oa eax cot
but, since for a scalar f partial and covariant derivatives identify, in a
coordinate base is:
d art >
a OE a Ve SV £0) 5.3

Roughly speaking: the derivative of f along the line can be seen as a

“projection” or “component” of the gradient in direction of the
tangent vector. It is a scalar.
« The derivative of a scalar along a line is a generalization of the
partial ©, (or covariant V, ) derivative and reduces to it along
coordinated lines.

= Indeed: along a coordinate line x" it is U// é, = U" is the

only nonzero component; * the summation on pu implicit in
U* V.,f (eq.5.3) thus collapses to the single {i-th term.
Moreover, if t is the arc, then dt=dx" = U"= ce =A
For these reasons, eg.5.3 reduces to:

L — uPV, f{n0 sum) = Vif ** 5.4

q.e.d.

« Because of its relationship with the covariant derivative and the

gradient, the derivative of a scalar along a line is also denoted with:

Bae
aes Vif 5.5

« Eq.5.3 and eg.5.5 enable us to write symbolically:

d ~

i= Ny 5.6
rag!

* Note that along the coordinate line x’, provided + is the arc:
= ; ¢€a ear >
a = = =e = i [no sum] i

** The indication [no sum] offs the summation convention for repeated indexes in
the case.

95
® derivative of a vector along a line
In analogy with the result just found for the scalar f (eq.5.3) we define
the derivative of a vector V along a line @ with tangent vector U as
the “projection” or “component” of the gradient on the tangent
vector:
>

aA 5.7
dt
The derivative of a vector along a line is a vector, since V V isa ()
tensor. Expanding on the bases:

ay Wig = Vl Berl eK eee

Or
y= DY =>
= UV = We Coe Si8
Dye
Tks

Eq.5.8
can be written: = _ — 5.9

after set: Lar Uae) = Vas 5.10

ane
DV* : ek dV
is the v-component of the derivative of vector ra and is
referred to as covariant derivative along line, expanded:
Vane ae = Lal
Sea ae ey en
ee esae ee
oe
dt Vi AC an nV’) Ox” dt BS
dx"
dt

=a
dVv~
5.11
A new derivative symbol has been introduced since the components of
— are not simply a , but have the more complex form eg.5./1.

« Another notation, the most widely used in practice, for the derivative
of a vector along a line is the following:
dV = Vil
>
Sxl)
dt

96
(that recalls the definition “projection of the gradient VV on U ”).

= Let us recapitulate the various notations for the derivative of a vector

along a line. Beside the definition eg.5.7 aad ca (V V,U) were
appended eq.5.12, eg.5.9, eg.5.10, summarized in:

dV. uve Ze IDIy

oe re =
ee
i V
513
or, symbolically:

Ma i aot ee i
ta ie| Yea hie oN: Be
* The relationship between the derivative of a vector along a line and
the covariant derivative arises when the line @ is a coordinate line x’.

° In this case UY =1 provided 1 is the arc and the summation

on HL collapses, as already seen (eq.5.4) for the derivative of a
scalar; then the chain eg.5.8 changes into:
dV rv vo vo
rag Oy CoN ey 5.15

BY comp y
namely: We =) VV

The derivative of a vector along a coordinate line x" has as compon-

ents the 7 covariant derivatives corresponding to the blocked index .

« Comparing the two cases of derivative along a line for a scalar and a
vector we see (eg.5.6, eg.5.14) that in both cases the derivative is
designated by = = Vz , but the operator Vi has a different
meaning in the two cases:

V; = UV, for a scalar

- V, 7 UV, for a vector.

: The derivative along a line of scalars and vectors are sometimes

called “absolute derivatives” or (more properly) “directional
covariant derivatives’.

97
5.3 T-mosaic representation of derivatives along a line
® Derivative along a line of a scalar:

(scalar)

® Derivative along a line of a vector:

Vi?
—-+—-

(vector)

98
 Mnemo
Derivative along a line of a vector: the previous block diagram can
help recalling the right formulas.
In particular, writing VV recalls the
disposition of the symbols in the block: iM v

Also note that: a

:
dV _wee
lie
os
(VV,U)= Ve V_ contain the sign > and are vectors

(2)Ce eat, y
: Ce U Was are scalar components
( without sign
~)

If a single thing is to keep in mind choose this:

« directional covariant derivative =U" Ae : applies to both a scalar
and vector components

5.4 Parallel transport along a line of a vector

Let V a vector defined in each point ofaparametric line x(t).

Moving from the point P(t) to the point P(t+At) the vector
undergoes an increase:

Viren ety ey nar + O(AtY * 5:16

In case the first degree term is missing, namely:

V(x+At) =V(t) + O(AtY © =0 5.17

we say that the vector V is parallel transported.
Roughly: transporting its origin along the line for an amount At the
vector undergoes only a variation of the 2"¢ order (and thus keeps
itself almost unchanged).
The parallel transport of a vector V is defined locally, in its own flat
local system: over a finite length the parallelism between initial and
transported vector is no longer maintained .
Pad,
>

« In each point of the line let a tangent vector U = oes be defined.

* We denote by O(x) a quantity of the same order of x. In this case it is matter of a

quantity of the same order of (4 1)?, i.e. of the second order with respect to Ar.

99
The parallel transport condition of V along U can be expressed by
one of the following forms:
Vea 0" (VU)= Oem, aeaye1) peas 18
all equivalent to the early definition because (eq. 5.7, eg.5.13):

Val = ae — (VV,U) = OO Nile :

at
The vector V to be transported can have any orientation with respect
to U. Given aregular line x"(t) andavector V defined in one of
its points, it is always possible to parallel transport the vector along
the line.

5.5 Geodesics
When it happens that the tangent vector U is transported parallel to
itself along a line, the line is a geodesic.
Geodesic condition for a line is then:
dU
——
Ae = () along the line :
S19

Equivalent to eqg.5.19 are the following statements:

V0) en Oe 0 5.20
or componentwise: S21
U"V,U" =0 ; dius
bakery is)po Ur = 0 GiMiahenip
+ d MU hese
aayieae
dt ‘a dv. ee Cate a &
which come respectively from eq.5.12, eg.5.7, eg.5.10, eg.5.11 (and
eq.5.1). All the eg.5.19, eg.5.20, eg.5.2] are equivalent and represent
the equations of the geodesic.
Some properties of geodesics are the following:
« Along a geodesic the tangent vector is constant in magnitude.*

= Indeed: (g,,U°U*)=U"V,(g.gU°U")=
= U"(g.,3U°V,U'+29,,3U° V,U°+U°U'
V 2,5) =0
because U"V,,U* = U*V_U“= 0 is the parallel transport

* The converse is not true: the constancy in magnitude of the tangent vector is not
a sufficient condition for a line to be a geodesic.

100
 condition of U along the geodesic and V Sap 0 (e9.4.67).
Hence: g,,U"U*=const = g(U,U) # \UP = const Sq.e.d.
* A geodesic parameterized by a parameter T is still a geodesic when
re-parameterized * with an “affine” parameter s like s=at+bt (two
parameters are called affine if linked by a linear relationship).

" The geodesics are the “straightest possible lines” in a curved space,
and can be thought of as inertial trajectories of particles not subject to
external forces. Under these conditions a particle transports its
velocity vector parallel to itself (constant in magnitude and tangent to
the path). A curve must have precise characteristics to be a geodesic: it
must be a path that requires no acceleration. For example on a 2D
spherical surface the geodesics are the greatest circles, like the
meridians and the equator; not so the parallels: they can be traveled
only if a constant acceleration directed along the meridian is in action.

¢ We add some comments to clarify a situation that is not

immediately intuitive.
An aircraft flying along a parallel with speed ¥ tangent to the
parallel itself does not parallel-transport this vector along its
path. A question arises about how would evolve a vector E at
first coincident with v , but for which we require to be parallel
transported all along the trip.
For this purpose let's imagine to cut from the spherical surface a
thin ribbon containing the path, in this case the whole Earth's
parallel. This ribbon can be flattened and layed down on a plane;
on this plane the path is an arc of a circumference (whose radius
is the generatrix of the cone whose axis coincides with the
Earth's axis and is tangent to the spherical surface on the
parallel); the length of the arc will be that of the Earth's parallel.
Let's now parallel-transport on the plane the vector E 9 initially
tangent to the arc of circumference until the end of the flattened
arc (working on a plan, there is no ambiguity about the meaning
of parallel transport). Let E jn be the vector at the end of the
transport. Now we imagine bringing back to its original place on

* A line may be parametrized in oot than aye way. aioe example, a parabola can
be parametrizedby x =f; y= or x=fsy=t’.

101
 the spherical surface the ribbon with the various subsequent
positions taken by the vector E drawn on. In that way we
achieve a graphical representation of the evolution of the vector
E_ parallel transported along the Earth's parallel.
The steps of the procedure are explained in the figure below.
After having traveled a full circle of parallel transport on the
Earth's parallel of latitude « the vector E has undergone a
clockwise rotation by an angle = eT GO. =2tsine , from
r/tgn
og
Only for x= 0 (along the equator) we get = 0 after a turn.

2Trcosa/ 7 hg
——_—_—_—__—_»;

The trick to flatten on the plane the tape containing the trajectory
works whatever is the initial orientation of the vector you want
to parallel transport (along the “flattened” path the vector may
be moved parallel to itself even if it is out of the plane).

5.6 Positive and negative curvature

We have so far considered the case of a 2D space “spherical surface”
with constant curvature only. There are, however, other possible types
of curved spaces and other types of curvature. In fact, the curvature

102
can be positive (e.g. a spherical space) or negative (hyperbolic space).
In a space with positive curvature the sum of the internal angles of a
triangle is >180 °, the ratio of circumference to diameter is < a and
two parallel lines end up with meeting each other; in a space with
negative curvature the sum of the internal angles of a triangle is
<180°, the ratio of circumference to diameter is > 2 and two parallel
lines end up to diverge.
« A space with negative curvature or hyperbolic curvature is less easily
representable than a space with positive curvature or spherical.
An intuitive approach is to imagine a thin flat metallic plate (a) that is
unevenly heated. The thermal dilatation will be greater in the points
where the higher is the temperature.

SSor

a) flat space

CLL

b) space with
positive curvature

c) space with
negative curvature

If the plate is heated more in the central part the termal dilating will be
greater at the center and the foil will sag dome-shaped (6).

103
If the plate is more heated in the periphery, the termal dilation will be
greater in the outer band and the plate will “embark” assuming a wavy
shape (c).
The simplest case of negative curvature (c) is shown, in which the
curved surface has the shape of a hyperbolic paraboloid (the form
often taken by fried potato chips!).

5.7 Flat and curved manifold

The metric tensor g completely characterizes the geometry of the
manifold, in particular its being flat or curved.* Now, either g is
constant all over the manifold (i.e. unvarying) or varies with the point
P. By definition:
g=g(P) = curved manifold 522
and conversely:
g constant «= flat manifold SW)
Since g is a tensor, it is independent of the coordinate system, even if
its representation by components g,, depends upon. Then g may be
constant all over the manifold despite in some system its components
8, are P-dependent;** only if 8, are P-dependent in al/ systems
we are sure that g is not constant. Only in that case we can say that g
is P-dependent, or g = 9(P).
According to what said above, componentwise translations of eq.522,
eq.523, are respectively:
*if some 8, is P-dependent in al/ coordinate systems, then the
manifold is curved (and viceversa)
-if all &,,, are constant in some coordinate system, then the
manifold is flat (and viceversa)
What is discriminating is the existence of a reference system where
all 8, are independent of the point P, that is to say that all
elements of the matrix [Suv] are numerical constants. If that
system exists, the manifold is flat, otherwise it is curved.

* Tt will be seen later on apropos of Riemann's tensor.

Here and below we consider only positive definite metrics (for indefinite metrics
eq.5.22 applies only to the left <= and eg.5.23 only to the right =).
** Tt is useful to keep in mind as a good example the polar coordinates (p, 8), where
Zoo = 1/p despite the flatness ofthe plane.

104
In practice, givena &,, P-dependent, it is not easy to determine if the
manifold is flat or curved: you should find a coordinate system where
all g,y= numerical constants, or exclude the possibility to find one.
* Note that in a flat manifold VI =0 due to eq.4.73.
* Due to a theorem of matrix calculus, any symmetric matrix * (such
as [Suv with constant coefficients) can be put into the canonical
form diag (+1) by means of an other appropriate matrix A .
Remind that the matrix A is related to a certain coordinate
transformation (it is not the transformation, but it comes down!). In
fact, to reduce the metric to canonical form, we have to apply a
coordinate transformation to the manifold so that (the transposed
inverse of) its Jacobian matrix A‘, makes the metric canonical:
ANGS = Sarpn= diag (+1) 5.24
For a flat space, being the metric independent of the point, the matrix
A holds globally, for the manifold as a whole. Hence, a flat
manifold admits a coordinate system in which the metric tensor at
each point has the canonical form
|Suv] = diag (+1) 5.25
which can be achieved by a proper matrix A valid for the whole
manifold.
This property can be taken as a definition of flatness:
Is flat a manifold that admits a coordinate system where 8, can
| be everywhere expressed in canonical form diag (+1)
In particular, if |Suv =diag(+1) the manifold is the Euclidean
space; if |g,,]=diag(+1) with a single -1 the manifold is a
Minkowski space. The occurrences of +1 and —1 in the main diagonal,
or their sum called “signature”, is a characteristic of the given space:
transforming the coordinates the various +1 and —1 can interchange
their places on the diagonal but do not change in number (Sylvester's
theorem).
Hereafter by 1,, we will refer to the canonical metric diag(+1),
regardless of the number of +1 and —1 in the main diagonal.
Conversely, for curved manifolds there is no coordinate system in

* We main here numeric matrices.

105
which the metric tensor has the canonical form diag (+1) on the whole
manifold. Only punctually we can do this: given any point P , we can
turn the metric to the canonical form in this point by means of a
certain matrix A , but that works only for that point (as well as the
coordinate transformation from which it comes). The coordinate
transformation that has led to the matrix A good for P does not work
for all other points of the manifold: to put the metric into canonical
form here too, you have to use other transformations and other
matrices.

5.8 Flat local system

Indeed, for each point of a curved manifold, we can do better: not only
putting the metric punctually in canonical form, but also making its
first derivatives to vanish at that point. ‘
In that way the (canonical) metric is stationary * in the point; that is, it
is valid, except for infinitesimals of higher order, also /ocally in the
neighborhood of the point. This ensures that the metric is flat in the
neighborhood of the point (a metric that is the canonical N,, in a
single point is not enough to guarantee the flatness: it is necessary that
this metric remains stationary in the neighborhood. In other words, the
flatness is a concept that cannot be defined punctually, but locally in a
neighborhood).
All that is formalized in the following important theorem.

5.9 Local flatness theorem

Given a differentiable manifold and any point P in it, it is possible to

find a coordinate system that reduces the metric to the form:
Bu(P') =nyy(P) + Ol(x*= x6)'| 5.26
where P'(x") is any point of the neighborhood of P(x). ** The
term O[...] 1s for an infinitesimal of the second order with respect to
the displacement from P(x) to P'(x‘), that we have improperly
denoted for simplicity by (x"“— x5).

* The metric is in any case stationary in each point: Vg=0,eq.4.67. Analogy

with a function f(x) that is stationary in a maximum or minimum. In those
points f'=0 and for small shifts to the right or left f(x) varies only for
infinitesimals of the second order with respect to the shift.
** See note on eqg.5.16.

106
The above equation is merely a Taylor series expansion around the
point P , missing of the first order term (x* — xf) ae: (P) because
Che

x
the first derivative is supposed to be null in P.
We explicitly observe that the neighborhood of P containing P’
belongs to the manifold, not to the tangent space. On the other hand
Nuy 1s the (global) flat metric of the tangent space in P .
Roughly, the theorem means that the space is locally flat in the
neighborhood of each point and there it can be confused with the
tangent space to less than a second-order infinitesimal.
The analogy is with the Earth's surface, that can be considered locally
flat in the neighborhood of every point.
« The proof of the theorem is a semi-constructive one: it can be shown
that there is a coordinate transformation whose related matrix makes
the metric canonical in P with all its first derivatives null; then we'll
try to rebuild the coordinate transformation and its related matrix (or
at least the initial terms of the series expansions of its inverse).
We report here a scheme of proof.
= Given a manifold with a coordinate system x° and a point P in it
we transform to new coordinates x“’ to take the metric into canonical
form in P with zero first derivatives.
At any point P’ of the P-neighborhood it is:

Cetra Ne Ce? Dail

(denoted At’ the transformation matrix A (see eg.3.7, eq.3.8), to

transform £3 we have to use twice its transposed inverse).
In the latter both g and A are meant to be calculated in P’.
In a differentiable manifold, what happens in P’ can be approximated
by what happens in P and a Taylor series. We expand in Taylor series
around P both members of eg.5.27, first the left: *

(P) a xh ey (P) +
Syrvi(P’) sm Bur
1 cy’
+(x" ry hrvaesnst ke wate eter ere) Tee 5.8

and then the right one:

* Henceforth we will often use the comma , to denote partial derivatives.

107
 0
ASA®,g9(P'!) = ASAP gag(P) +(x”
—20") (AS
AL 245)(P) +
; |
x”

+ Ghar ee
Ne
EG
OxXe se
olan
Now let's equal order by order the right terms of eg.5.28 and eq.5.29:

Dee SN A eo) 5.30

DW). Syryey(P)= 5 Cure

(Aw As Bap)PI sil

Cc. rE
III) Dinpaiey ONT Ee) Na (AD AY Zag) (P) Dow
ox’ Ox
Hereafter all terms are calculated in P and for that we omit this
specification below.
« _ 0 une
Recalling that A, = aHL and carrying out the derivatives of product
x
we get:
ox* ox?
I ‘Sip = Se oya3
) &u Ox Ox eh

ox eee oo 4 Ox ex.
[pots Ox Ox 0K: oa Ox Po ae ox" ee
‘en 5.34
= Ce Ox
IIT) SE RO apres S35
ox” oxox" Ox”
The right side members of these equations contain terms suchas Sx¢,y°

that can be rewritten, using the chain rule, as &xg,y1= Sag,o — yr

The typology of the right side member terms thus reduces to:
- known terms: the 8, and their derivatives with respect to the old
coordinates, such as 8ag,¢
« unknowns to be determined: the derivatives of the old coordinates
with respect to the new ones.

108
(We'll see that just the derivatives of various order of old coordinates
with respect to new ones allow us to rebuild the matrix A related to
the transformation and the transformation itself.)
* Now let's perform the counting of equations and unknowns for the
case n = 4, the most interesting for General Relativity.
The equations are counted by the left side members of I, Il, III ; the
unknowns by the right side members of them.

I) There are 10 equations, as many as the independent elements of the

4x4 symmetric tensor 8,/,, . The 24g are known.
To get Sy =Nyyw: > we have to put = 0 or + 1 each of the 10
independent elements of g,,,,, (in the right side member).
Consequently, among the 16 unknown elements of matrix A, 6 can
be arbitrarily assigned, while the other 10 are determined by
equations I (eg.5.33). (The presence of six degrees of freedom means
that there is a multiplicity of transformations and hence of matrices
A able to make canonical the metric). So have been assigned or
calculated values for all 16 first derivatives.
Il) There are 40 equations ( 8,,, has 10 independent elements, y' can
Cae
take 4 values). The independent second derivatives like
ox? Ox"
are 40 (4 values for a at numerator; 10 different pairs * of y', u' at
denominator).
All the 2, and first derivatives are already known. Hence, we can
set = 0 all the 40 g,,,,,,,, at first member and deterinine all the 40
second derivatives as a consequence.
Ill) There are 100 equations (10 independent elements 8,,,, to derive
with respect to the 10 different pairs * generated by 4 numbers).
oe
Known the other factors, 80 third derivatives like are
ox Ox” ox"
to be determined (the 3 indexes at denominator give 20 combina-
tions, * the index at numerator 4 other). Now, we cannot find a set of
values for the 80 third derivatives such that all the 100 Syy) yn:
vanish; 20 among them remain nonzero.

* It is a matter of combinations (in the case of 4 items) with repeats, different for at
least one element.

109
We have thus shown that, for a generic point P , by assigning
appropriate values to the derivatives of various order, it is possible to
get (more than) a metric 8,-,, such that in this point:
° Say =Ny , the metric of flat manifold
* all its first derivatives are null: V g,.\.,y,=0
* some second derivatives are nonzero: 4 some g,,,,, 1,4 9
* This metric 1... with zero first derivatives and second derivatives
not all zero characterizes the flat local system in P (but the manifold
itself is curved because of the nonzero second derivatives).
The metric 1... with zero first and second derivatives is instead that
of the tangent space in P (which is a space everywhere flat). The flat
local metric of the manifold and that of the tangent space coincide in
P and (the metric being stationary) even in its neighborhood except for
a difference of infinitesimals of higher order.
* Finally, we note that, having calculated or assigned appropriate
values to the derivatives of various order of old coordinates with
respect to the new ones, we can reconstruct the series expansions of
the (inverse) transformation of coordinates x*(x"') and the elements
of the matrix Aj, (transposed inverse of A). Indeed, in their series
expansions in terms of new coordinates x" around P

X ! (ey « we "0 ik
3% (och) =i ee LP ae, (P) +(x? =x) (P)
iY

ee ce (er
2 : tS Bina

Nealeee> AS (P= Ay (P) +(x" x9 Je?)

X x ’ ' COUN
Xx

Set SSSoA,
PAT Ko
DS es ee 2 ee SIRS, =

Ox vise ne boo
UE ss en 34 ; an
ox" ( : Pe ox

ee
2 i
ee© ee
ax” oxox"
only derivatives of old coordinates with respect to the new ones
appear as coefficients. —

110
Once known its inverse, the direct transformation x(x") and the
related matrix A =| A? | that induce the canonical metric in P are in
principle implicitly determined, q.e.d.

* It is worth noting that also in the flat local system the strategy
“comma goes to semicolon” is applicable. Indeed, eg.4.73 ensures that
even in the flat local system is VI =0 and therefore covariant
derivatives V,, and ordinary derivatives 6, coincide.

© That enables us to get some results in a straightforward way.

For example, as in the flat local system (like in all flat manifolds)
Sop n=9 and Sapu= Sap ,it follows Suyu= Vusa=0 ,
which is the well-known result V g =0 , true in general.
In the following we will use again this strategy.

5.10 Riemann tensor

Parallel transporting a vector along a closed line in a curved manifold,
the final vector differs from the initial by an amount AV due to the
curvature. This amount AV depends on the path, but it can be used
as a measure of the curvature in a point if calculated along a closed
infinitesimal path around the point.
Given a point A of the n-dimensional manifold we build a “parallelo-
gram loop” ABCD relying on the coordinate lines of two generic
coordinates x“,x’ picked among n

and we parallel-transport the vector V along the circuit ABCDAfin*

* The loop ABCDA/in always closes: in fact it lies on the surface or “hypersurface”
in which the n-2 not involved coordinates are constant.

111
(of course, the construction could be repeated using all possible
couples of coordinates with «,B = 1,2,...7 ).
Tangent to the coordinates are the basis-vectors @.,@ 3 , coordinated
(0. xx
= dV _
The parallel transport of V requires that ina 0 or, component-
wise U°V,.V*=0 (eg.5.13), which along a segment of coordinate
line x* reduces to V,V" =0 (eg.5.15). But:

Va StS = — = Tl, a 36
Xx x

and a similar relation is obtained for the transport along x’.

Because of the transport along the line segment AB, the components of
the vector V undergo an increase:
OV’
V’(B)=V"(A)+ ee TEA
ae ie ewes
Ox
(4B) ie 5.37
where (4B) means “calculated in an intermediate point between 4 and
B”. Along each of the four segments of the path there the changes are:

AB: V*(B) = ae ee Ax
BC: V*(c) =V(B)-(TaV*| ac) Ax
CD: VD) = Vile)+ ae Weekes
Are AMC Na Aue) ela A esyypee
(in the last two segments Ax“, Ax° are negative in sign). Summing:

VS CONT Veen Noe aI ereAte

RU Nara, ES SNUBe ee ae
=[(TaY pa bei ite| oe +
ie[ales 2 [Pag ee Aa

112
 Sereda os allel (ied ave

(in the last step we have used once again the theorem of the
finite increase; now we mean the two terms in |..) be calculated
in an intermediate point between (BC) and (DA) and in an
intermediate point between (4B) and (CD) respectively, dropping
to indicate it)

male
= (Tae? +I,eeeax Ax? + fear: AxPAx*
he
A
: OV
and reusing the result oo Be V eg 536):
x
Sly ah ne a At ae ey EY ny Ax Ax
Using as dummy index instead of ) in the 18‘ and 3"¢ term:
Se
Buse
Dl ® Nx Aineaay1Dgen Se
xu,
We al Nt aoc
=ViAx*Ax(-Ty +P rh +ry, .-Te.T
a)
Weconclude:
BENGE
A edeBU,get
om
earl eal leas.
Re
5.38
BBO

RR’...HBox must be a tensor because the other factors are tensors as well as
AV~. Its rank is (3) for the rank balancing: GI)
Set:
A
Rees lp v gl atl v ed epee lela 5.39
v de v v

we can write:
MAVEN okay 5.40
that is:
AV(P)=R(P,V Ax, A x) 5.41

being P =any covector, or even (multiplying eq.5.40 by eon

113
 INURE AETING ST
Naa Tien 5.42
It is tacitly supposed a passage to the limit for Ax*,Ax’>0: R
and its components are related to the point P at which the infinitesimal
loop degenerates.
R=Ripeee é°e* | the Riemann tensor, expresses the “propor-
tionality constant” Beracen the change undergone by a parallel
transported vector along an (infinitesimal) loop and the area of the
loop, and contains the whole information about the curvature. In
general it depends upon the point: R = R(P) .
If R=0 from eq.5.4/ it follows AV =0 = the vector V overlaps
itself after the parallel transport along the infinitesimal loop around
the point P = the manifold is flat at that point. Hence:
R(P)=0 = manifold flatin P
If that applies globally the manifold is everywhere flat.
If R # 0 in P ,the manifold is curved in that point, although it is
possible to define a local flat system in P .
* R is a function of IF and its first derivatives (eq.5.39), namely of g
and its first and second derivatives (see eq.4.73).
* In the flat local coordinate system where g assumes the canonical
form with zero first derivatives, R depends only on the second
derivatives of g. Let us clarify now this dependence.
Because in each point of the manifold in its flat local system is
VI =0 , the definition eg.5.39 given for Ris,HBO reduces to:

Re aa eaee ee 5.43
* That is equivalent to R applied to an incomplete list. Completing the list gives
eq. 5.41.
Eq.5.40 is eq.5.42 componentwise.
From eq.4.73 that gives the I’ as functions of g and their derivatives
Wh A ae ‘ Oy
P= 78 (= Spuo+Sue,e+80,u) and since 38 [=0me
v Spat Vora
Rise 53§ ( SETS NR A ea
1 vp
TZ 8 ee ee ee,

aaah VIO
= ine eater ee Sew oak

and multiplying both members by 8,, we get (recall that g,,g¢°°=8°

and hence p> «):
nm 4
Rees a Ae See eee

To write, as usual, of as first pair and uv as second we have to make

the index exchanges k>0,u—-6,B—>u, XV; rearranging the
terms and by the symmetry of 8.3 we get:
ad il
ea See era Sane oma 5.44

that is true in each point of the manifold in its respective flat local
system (but vot in general).
© Jt is worth noting that the eg.5.44 is no longer valid in a generic
system because it is not a tensor equation: outside the flat local
system we need to retrieve the last two terms in I'I from
eq.5.39. Therefore in a generic coordinate system it is:
Balt! nee h
| ee Ae Peo ae ce ee AUR Tle

5.45
Mnemo
To write down i enone in the local flat system (eg.5.44) the “Pascal
snail” can be used as a mnemonic aid to suggest the pairs of the
indexes before the comma:

~ —_ sing age
4ie
a p Uv

IF Eee xi Sey,

Use the remaining indexes for pairs after the comma.

115
"In R,s,, it is usual to identify two pairs of indexes: R eB py
TM
pair pair

« Bringing order also in the indexes of eg.5.39 we rewrite it as:

Rel ap elBu,v ole ee 5.46
« The Riemann tensor R provides a flatness criterion more general
than that one stated by eg.5.22 e eg.5.23 and also valid for indefinite
metrics (that can be flat even if P-dependent).

5.11 Symmetries of tensor R

The symmetries of A,,,, can be studied in the flat local system by
interchanging indexes in eq.5.44.
For example, exchanging the indexes a8 eahin the first pair gives:
eel
LSF cares at 5 Davee oa om Cnet ha

whose right side member is the same as in the starting equation

changed in sign and thus > Rgauy =— Ragu .
It turns out from eq.5.44 that R is: i) skew-symmetric with respect to
the exchange of indexes within a pair; ii) symmetric with respect to
the exchange of a pair with the other; it also enjoys a property such
that: ii7) the sum with cyclicity in the last 3 indexes is null:

i) RASS Ra Riss= Ree 5.47

Wetasap = Lakae 5.48

“CIN UNeopai SA nealdeere ed 5.49
The four previous relations, although deduced in the flat local system
(eq.5.44 applies there only) are tensor equations and thus valid in any
reference frame.
From i) it follows that the components with repeated indexes within
the pair are null (for example Ry, = Rga33 = Rony = Ri; =9 ).
Indeed, from i): Reouy = Reavy © Reayy=9 ; and so on.
« In the end, due to symmetries, among the n* components of Ry,
only n’°(n°—1)/12 are independent and # 0 (namely 1 for n=2; 6 for
n= 3,20 forn=4;...). -

116
5.12 Bianchi identity
It 's another relation linking the covariant first derivatives of R aBUY :

R ABUV SA
ale aBVAsH Pe aBApsyv = 0 5.50

(the first two indexes a B are fixed; the others u v A rotate),

° To get this result we place again in the flat local system of a

point P and calculate the derivatives of Ry s,, from eg.5.44:
eh eal
ron ae eg See ever Bagley Say au!

ReaCe weet ee oath toa Se

and simplarly for Rigsa CLRie xy

Summing member to member these three equations and taking
into account that in Sxs.y5, the indexes can be exchanged at
will within the two groups a8, y6 *, the right member vanishes
so that:
R aBUV,A meee aBVvA,p sage aBAL,V =0
Since in the flat local system there is no difference between
derivative and covariant derivative, namely:

Ryguy;a= Peach > ee a SN oe 5 Ropes Ree

we can write Ryo... +R aan +R enuney = 0 which is a tensor

relationship and applies in any coordinate system, q.e.d.

5.12 Ricci tensor and Ricci scalar

Rygyy may be contracted ** on indexes of the same pair or on
indexes of different pairs. In the first case the result is 0, in the second
it is significant.
The following schemes illustrate some possible contractions and their
results:

* Z. is symmetric and the derivation order doesn't matter.

** In fact, itis Rg,, to undergo a contraction.

117
 B
Benes Rayy ees

% > R,,=0
o
rs ae amt pets
Soll!
eau 6
rv
R ypu Rouy Ry,
pS = > => R=,
aX
Rivas Roag = Ry.

There are other similar cases and they still give as result 0 or Rg,
different in sign. +R, is then the only significant result of the
various possible contractions.
We define Ricci tensor the (3) tensor with components:
R,.,= contraction of R aBuv with respect to 1“ and 3“index 5.52
« Caution should be exercised when contracting Riemann tensor. After
defined Ricci tensor Rg, (taken of course with a positive sign) as
contraction of Ry», on indexes 1 and 3, to all other possible
contractions a sign is assigned as a consequence.
By the symmetries of ,3,, and using schemes like eg.5.5/ we see:
* have sign + the results of contraction on indexes 1-3 or 1-4
* have sign — the results of contraction on indexers 1-4 or 2-3
(while contractions on indexes 1-2 or 3-4 have 0 as result)
«The tensor Rs, is symmetric (see eg.5.5/).
« By further contraction of the Ricci tensor we get the Ricci scalar R :
*gZBy e

Rie Seek eee ee tracenaten ya 3:53

5.13 Einstein tensor

From Bianchi identity eg.5.49, raising and contracting twice the in-
dexes to reduce Riemann to Ricci tensors and using the commutation
property between index raising and covariant derivative:
* Remind that the trace is defined only for a mixed tensor 7% as the sum ry of
elements of the main diagonal of its matrix. Instead, the trace of Tor T’’ is by
definition the trace of g*"7,,, or, rispectively, of g,,7"”.

118
 Ss (Ree Reeve aes =0
By u A
& LK ares BvAsu PR oS 0

contracting R",.,., on indexes 1-3 (sign +)

and R",,,,,, on indexes 1-4 (sign —):
By L
i (Regt sy Real O

using symmetry RY, ..=—Rei 1, to allow

the hooking and rising of index 8 :
By
& (Keo he hey 0
ony vu va
R Veh R Vasu Paley = 0)

contracting R“",,., on indexes 1-3 (sign +)

Roe = i i Ree, = 0

The first term contracts again; the 2" and 3" term differ for a dummy
index and are in fact the same:
Ra —2Ri,, =0 5.54
that, thanks to the identity (2R,—6,R),, =2Ry,,-R,, , may be
written as:
(2 RX 8° R),, = 0 5.55
This expression or its equivalent eg.5.54 are sometimes called twice
contracted Bianchi identities.
Operating a further rising of the indexes:

g™(2R,—8, R),, = 0
then Oe en=0
that, since 6°" = g’" (eq.2.46), gives:
(OR eR) 0
[Rete] ail 5.56
We define Einstein tensor the (3) tensor G whose components are: *

* Nothing to do, of course, with the “dual switch” earlier denoted by the same
symbol!

119
 Gu def R= ag" R

The eg.5.56 can then be written:

Gus
su DOF

which shows that the tensor G has null divergence.

Since both R*“ and g’“ are symmetric under indexes exchange, G
is symmetric too: G“*=G"” .
The tensor G has an important role in General Relativity because it is
the only divergence-free double-tensor that can be derived from R and
as such contains the information about the curvature of the manifold.

G is our last stop. What's all that for? Blending physics and mathematics
with an overdose of intuition, one day of a hundred years ago Einstein
wrote:
Gran
anticipating, according to some, a theory of the Third Millennium to the
twentieth century. This equation expresses a direct proportionality
between the content of matter-energy represented by the “stress-energy-
momentum” tensor T — a generalization in the Minkowski space-time of
the stress tensor — and the curvature of space expressed by G (it was to
ensure the conservation of energy and momentum that Einstein needed a
zero divergence tensor like G). In a sense, T belongs to the realm of
physics, while G is matter of mathematics: that maths we have toyed with
so far. Compatibility with the Newton's gravitation law allows to give a
value to the constant « and write down the ‘undamental equation of
General Relativity in the usual form:
Gr = ke jie

c
May be curious to note in the margin as, in this equation defining the fate
of the Universe, beside fundamental constants such as the gravitational
constant G and the light speed c, peeps out the ineffable z, which seems
to claim in that manner its key role in the architecture of the world,
although no one seems to make a great account of that (those who think
of this observation as trivial try to imagine a Universe in which 7 is, yes, a
constant, but different from 3.14 ....).

120
Appendix
1 - Transformation of 1 under coordinate change
We explicit T, from eq.4.30 lee, =0,é, by (scalar) multiplying
both members by é*:
A ~K >
te (ey, € ) a (Oe), e")
—————

5
Diy =(t,€,0€
Now let us operate a coordinate change x*—>x° (and coordinate
bases, too) and express the right member in the new frame:

Diy = (Cun)
es |
Ox 6 ia
e.) , Ne ) (chain rule on x“ )
-|ai ap
O

a! 0 Bl = K ~y!
= —(A; e,,), Ave

=AS AS AR (EB FATAL oA Op

ae ’ K fe) ' '
a! f Oey;

Ox " Ox
De
ie
Milas ae) APCee Te
Oe Pu m ABraye’ v

Ox" Ox" dx*

=A ASNG
og
tials Ox (0x)
05 s0x,
K Yi oe

aNee\a GN, Pap toma

ag (chain ruleon x*’)
yi Biaanyon Ons Ony ° a!

The first term would describe a tensor transform, but the additional
term leads to a different law and confirms that I’, is not a tensor.

121
2 - Transformation of covariant derivative under coordinate change
To Sar
let's apply a coordinate change x°—x* and express the right
member in the new coordinate frame:
ae a
= etAS .V’')+(transformation of T)A‘,V°
ox"

=A) 1 EEN .V*')+(transformation of T)A‘,V?

Xe

+ 0% AX —(A‘,)+
al, Kk oVY a0
y
Bn a

+( AX AS ae,apr+ ox" ort Neen

q*
ox? ox" ox”

ls
k
oeuw eal= (Ne
y’)

B! OX ORS Ew cee
+A, ve ANS Ter ke Va ee 0 hea
Ox ox" Ox

a’ kK y* Daye () Oat
— aN A ' A (PS eer
ee one Pie Ox
Oa lee
tAS ALDVE +S
OF ON ACK
kK
eeSe os a

OX. .0x7 Ox

a aeox Ext ye’

pe 3x? ox" Ox”

Or, ebaeee some dummy indexes:

eu
K er Ose Ont:
Ox" Ox" Ox”
K 9? a! ;

SONSE No TeitViton eees

Ox Ox Ox”

A ue Ox 6 ox"
* Recaliian Ape oe 82. = =88;
Ox” Ox” Ox

122
 =At Ay VitAY AL T2.,.V* +terms in 0
SN ed V*’)+ terms in 0°

The two terms in 9° cancel each other because opposite in sign. To

show that let's compute:

cons Orcx ON eles wel ox. ox 0 Ox”

ax” Ox" Ox” Loxt ox” iz ax" Ox” Ox" Ox" Ox7 Ox"

Ox ex" Ox Ox
= -
i ox" Ox Ox™ Ox™ Ox" Ox"

ee eee
On the other hand: —> - = 0,,=0 _,,hence:
@ae Ose Ox

ONE nth a Rok Oe o

ox" Ox" Ox” ax” Ox" ox" etal

The transformation for V!, is then:

VRtia OEP
K K Vi
ASAE
AOU AK yt
eTy’ Se
YEREEl AS,
Ny Ii y!
=
= JV, transforms as a (component of a) () tensor.
comp
That allows us to define a tensor V V ae

123
124
 PROBLEMS

Warnings

* Following a common use in GR we have used Greek letters as

indexes (superscript or subscript) for the components of a tensor. They
are current indexes that assume the values 1, 2, ... nm even if not
specified; in the case of repeated “dummy” indexes the summation
convention is assumed always active. Some Greek letters, namely p, 0,
©, are also used as indexes, but in a different sense, to indicate the
coordinates in polar, cylindrical, spherical reference systems: these
indexes are not subject to the rules of the current indexes and, if
repeated, do not submit to the summation convention.
« The numerical indexes 1, 2, ... 7, when used as upper indexes, should
not be confused with power exponents. To make simpler the writing of
the equations, we often entrusted to the context that allows to
understand without ambiguity if e.g. x? is to be understood as a
coordinate or as the square of x. About exponents of power, we often
use a notation like dx* instead of the more correct (d x)’.
« For systems of cylindrical and spherical coordinates, coordinates
have been kept consistent with the plane polar coordinates (p, 8). So,
in cylindrical we use the tern (p, 9, z) by simply adding the third
coordinate z , while in spherical use the tern (p, o, 6) adding 9 as a
second coordinate. In this way p keeps the meaning of radius, > takes
that of zenithal angle, while ® maintains the usual meaning of
azimuthal angle. It should be borne in mind that this is not the only
possible option (and not even the most practiced), and use caution,
especially in comparison with other texts. See the following figures.
[ee etl a ee te i ee ee ee re |

125
 xXx=0 sing cosO
y=p sing sin®O
Z=P cos>

Too=—P sin 9
Re ress
a= =P
6 6
Lol o=p

8 6
Papa ea coré
® :
=— sing cos >

126
Problem 1
In 2D Cartesian plane show that, after arbitrarily chosen any two
(non-aligned) vectors as basis of vectors, you can express any other
vector as a linear combination on this basis.
Let's choose as basis of vectors @,=(2,1) , &,=(-1,3) *
and express e.g. on that basis the vector V =(3,—2):
V= Ee yi+ é, ya

(3,-2)=V'(2,1)+V7(-1,3) that means:

[3 ery 1)
ie 2=V'-1+V?3
a linear system whose solutions are: V'=1 , V?=-1.
The vector V is thus written on basis {é,, é,} as:
V=é,—@,, or bythe equivalent writing VY =(1,-1) .

Problem 2
Given the basis of plane vectors é,=(2,1) , te i,
ie find the dual
basis of covectors.

Calling @'=(a,b) , &=(c,d) the dual covector, the duality condition

(é", €,)=85 , where (a,B=1, 2), results in:
[(2!, @)=8,=1 [(a,b)+(2,1)=1 20+ b=1
OS New eM ie di\21)= 0 Fee =O
| (2, &) =8,=0 (a,b)-(—1,3)=0 ~a+3b=0
(ee,Z 6,41
2
(c,d)*(-1,3)=1 —c+3d=1
The solutions of the linear system are sono
eee Om
Be ire ae d ee7 , and then

pleat oy go(-l 2
Ha(F.5) , Bala 9)
As a verification we see that the duality condition is satisfied:

* We will use a notation such as a “n-tuple” (a,b,...) for both vectors and covectors,
without any reference to the matrix representation by rows and column that is sometimes
used, We mean as product of two n-tuples the sum of the products of the ordered pairs, 1.e.:
(a,b,...)*(m,n,...)=am+bn+.., The mark * stands for scalar or inner product (not to
be confused with the usual multiplication mark °).

127
Problem 3
Is it coherent taking in 3D space:
e2900 tore =e 0 meme (0 iO, 1) as basis-covectors and

2,=(5,0,0) ;&=(0,1,0); @; (0,0,1) as basis-vectors?

Let's verify that the duality condition (@°,@)= 85 is satisfied:

(2, =(2,0,0)-(5,0,0) =1
O76,=o: ONO) = (010)— 0
\=(2,0, oy 0,1)=0
=,0,0 J=0
(2,2) =(0 1,0)-(5,
(@, é,) =(0,1,0)-( le Oi =

(@ é,)= 0,0,1)+(0,0,1) =1
The two given basis are thus dual (though other choices would be allowed).
In any case, the more obvious choice would be to take:
= (1 Oa eees | Onl O)eeee = (On0n1)
2, = 1 0n0nrcr—= (Opie Oe 2. (OP0ah

Problem 4
Given the vectors A, B find the components of AoB .

To find the components of a vector or tensor we have to apply it to the

respective dual basis; in the present instance we get, from the definition of
outer product: *
AeB = Pa Se ed re
*
v2)Q B 5 Qu S= ost® & = ES nt Re bo! = oz Ss = ° B
BS NI a Qo +QSs SF jo)
Comal nN S

128
 A“B® are thus the components of A@B_ which can be written as:
AeB= 4B €,@, or =A® Bee Kee
In T-mosaic metaphor the result is forthwith displayed.

Problem 5

Given the vectors A=(2,1) and B=(-1,3) represent componentwise

the tensor A@B. How will be represented the tensor BoA ?

Since Ae B= A°B'é,é, , the components of the tensor are the various

A“ B®, that can be calculated giving to a, all possible values:
a=1; Bp=1:~ 4’ B’ =2(-1)=-2
a=1, B=2: A'B’=2-3=6
o=2, p=? 4° B*=1(-1)=-1
o=2, P=2: A’ B= 1333
The tensor is then represented by the matrix:
43 |=2 6
A® B= be :

built by line and column arranging the components according to indexes.

A'B. AR? a3 AB AB AB
In general: A@B = Ueptin epe|, SO in3D: A@B =| 4B! AB? A?B?
AL Ba boa ACRE

It's easy to realize that the tensor BeA= BA°é,é, is the transposed of
A®B. Inthis particular instance:
_|BA BA |_[-1-2--1-1]_[-2 -1
Oy Ea de a Ne ae li eS

referring to T-mosaic pattern too.

129
a) From the definition of ® we can write:
AeB(M,N)=A(M) B(N)=A°M,-B°N,=
=(A'M,+4’M,)(B'N,+
B’N,) =[2-1+1(—4)][-1-0+3(-3)]=
=[-2][-9]=18

- In T-mosaic the 1“ member Ae B( M,N) can be worked as:

~ ~
while the 2°? member A( M) B( N) can be drawn as:

Both ways lead to the same end result (as obvious: the rules imposed to
T-mosaic are functional to this algebra).
The diagrams show how 4B differs from Bed: exchanging
A with B has the effect of exchanging the connections with 17, N.

130
 >

b) BeA(M,N)=B(M) 4(N)=B°M, AN,=

=(B'M,+ BM, )(A'N,+A'N,) = [(-1)1+3(—4)][2-04
1(-3)] =
=(-13][-3]=39
Using in place of A@B its transposed Be@A leads to a completely
different result: the product ® is not commutative.

c) A@B(N,M)=A(N) B(M)=4°N, BN by
+ A’N,)(B'M,+ B’M,) =[2-0+ 1(—3)][-1-1+3(—4)]=

d) AeM(N,B)=A(N) M(B)=A°N, MB? =

=(A'N,+4'N,)(M,B'+M,B’) =(2-041(-3)][1(-1)+(-4)3]=
Sys 13139
Note how in the latter case, unlike the previous ones, it is not even possible
to exchange the operands N,B: the order is obliged.
Remarks:
« The coincidence of the results b), cy dq)is
i not casual; suffice it to note that
in all three cases A applies to N and B applies to @. There are therefore
symmetries with respect to certain multiple exchanges between operator
vectors and operand vector; on the contrary, a single exchange like
A®B—>BeA isnot allowed because of diversity of results a) and b).
« As a consequence of non-commutativity, we must always keep the right
sequence of the indexes, e.g. T = T°’ &,é, or P = P,, &%8"; separate
sequences for upper and lower indexes may be kept as long as we do not
“raise” or “lower” indexes. If this happens, we need to “keep the place” of
the raised or lowered index, and this can only be done by managing an
unique sequence including both up and down indexes, like 7%,” .

Problem 7 _
Clarify the meanings of the scriptures:
a) &*(V)
eas
a) =(0,0,..1,..)*(V', V7,... V%,...) = V" = a-component of V.
2Te aS
(0,0,..1,..) is astring of 0s, with a single 1 in the place a).
ay

131
b) Writing 5°(V) is improper; to apply the Kronecker 6 to the vector
V the correct writing is:
SI 8 Vs On Vato ay
no sum

(only when a =f 8° =1 follows, while in all other cases 5° =0). We

find the same V° we started from, having just changed name to the index
that describes the same components.

Problem 8
Given in a 3D space the tensor: T= ip &,&3e°& with pee =atBtutv
a) find its contraction on indexes B ,u and the further contraction of the
oO
result T,
b) study the symmetries of these two tensors

In 3D each index a.f.u.v can take the values 1, 2, 3.

Some components 7 t of the tensor T are:
T,=ltititi=4, Ty=tr2+i+1=5, | 7 =1F3+1+1=6,
T= 2+1+2+1=6,... Ty=3+34+3+3=12
a) The contraction of T a for B =u gives:
Re Gee ee cthatis:
T,=T,,tTyitT,,=4t6+8=18, T,=T,+T,+T,,=5+7+9=21,
T, = Ty tT 3+T,=6+8+10=24, TL=T,,+T,,
+7, =5+7+9=21,
Toe tO) Set De
aT eh =8 0230
A further contraction of JT? gives the scalar:
T\=T+T,+T,=T thatis: T=18+24+30=72 (traceof T°)
beg “ is symmetric with respect to exchanges between upper indexes as
well as between lower indexes: swapping a with B and yp with v nothing
changes. Due to the construction of this particular tensor, also exchanges
between upper and lower indexes would leave it unchanged: a+B+u+v
does not depend on the position of the indexes. However, it would be
improper to speak about a symmetry with respect to all four indexes: sym-
metry is defined only for interchanges between indexes all upper or lower
(e.g., it is senseless speaking about symmetry with respect of a and 11). So, it
is meaningless to ask whether 7; is symmetric.

132
Problem9

Given in a 3D space the tensor (LT:

a .p> Ail ais Bos: os Ones.
Tae Go ese + 28 xe 6.26 é,-2°8,5x° and the vector
V=V*E =E,+6,4+8,2x , Compute the tensor inner products:

The inner products between vectors or tensors represented as developments

on its own basis must be performed in a way algebraically similar to the
product of two polynomials; here, however, only terms containing products
. b : A ee aye a3 > > al ie
in pairs like @°€,, @+@,, @°é, or é,°é, €,°&, etc. (elementary products
ou oie 1 2 3 : : : ~l => > wo
giving 5;=6;=6;=1) are significant. Terms in @°€,, @+é,, 2 é, etc.
are null since 8;=8;=65...=0 and will even be omitted
in the following. *

ay ee Pe ese ec, xi se, + 6,4te,2%)=

=e ~2> ~2—> ~2—> 2 > > >

SNS = Riss ees =

€°(2,+2,4+€,2x) +é &3x-(2+84+e,2x)+
+ 6°, 2+(E,+6,4+8,2x)—2'6,-(E,+8,4+8,2x) —
~2=> 2/(-> > =s
—@°@,5x°+(é,+€,4+é,2x)=
wylo> => ~lo> > ~2> > ~ = ~
— CC Ce Cp) MCR Me Bet eC 4c Ct
Ae CLC Oy 8G, Aa
4 ig (es eet * 4 tt pee A Sy
8 8 8: °: ©:

= > > => ~l=> ~l=> a2> 2

~2=> ~ 2—- -)
by Vel=(e,1¢,4te,24)\2 242 €,310 6 ole ee 6.5%
(2, a é'é,3 x) +@,4° (6722-2 é,-26,5x°)=

Remark:
These two results are identical: the tensor inner product vector-tensor is
thus commutative (as well as commutative are scalar or dot products
vector vector , vector*covector and covector+covector).

* Tt is worth noting that this is the same logic for which the (heterogeneous) scalar product
between covectors and vectors reduces to a sequence of products between the various @
and @ with the same index, inasmuch products between @ and @ with different index
are null.

133
Note that both equivalent products T- V and V-T have the same, common
representation in T-mosaic that corresponds to the single existing connection
mode and that the result is univocal and can be “read” in only one way:
>
ay) a

= Ill
4
®R

Ny Ill

Problem 10
Given the tensors A=2é,2'—é,2—5x@,2'+x°2,6°+72,e° ,
BH=xe'e'+2yP e+ Or+408
and the covector P=3é'—22+2xé@ , compute:
a) P-A
b) B-A
c) discuss the execution of the products in matrix form.
As in the previous problem we will carry out internal products as products of
polynomials:
a) pee eee a &-5xé,8' +x 2,8 +72,e°)=
= 3é'+(22,2'-€, 2-5 x é,é'+x°6,8 +726") —
— 26° +(22,2'-2,2’-5x
68! +x°E,6°+728,e°)+
+2xé°+(2e\2'-€.6°_-5x &6'+x°6,87+72,6°)=
and we go on writing non-zero products only, i.e. those
containing pairs like é'+é,, or é+é, , or &’+é, , whose
value is 5; = 5; = 53=
~1 > + >a ~2 > > ~ ~ >
= 3é'-(2é é'-€ 2°)—2é +(—5xé,6'+x°,é")+2xé**(72,e°)=
~ +6 wl > 3 ~2 > ~ ~~ ~ +n
= 36'26 é'-32'-€ 2 +26 5x E,6'—2670x72,0°+2 xe 72,0°=
= 66'—3é°+ 10xé'—2x°6? +148" =
=(6+10x)é'-2x°é?-(3-14xJe’

134
b) B-A is a case of ambiguous writing, as is immediately clear in the
T-mosaic representation: is inner product (= connection) on &* or on 85?

Both cases will be carried on, in order to

realize how they lead to different results.
As usual, expanding the product, only
terms # 0 will be written down; here we
must take into account in each case which
one of the two “slot” @ of B takes part in
the internal product with @. (written in
bold the connectors coupling to form the
various Kronecker 5 =1).

® Product on a-u (involved the first slot é of B):

B-A=(x2'e'+2 yO 2 +06 +48°S") (26, 2'-F 5x86! +x°E,2"+ 78,6") =
=xe'e'.(2e,2'-2
2 )+2yb'e**(—Sx ee! +x 2,2")+
+8°@'+(—Sx ,é'+x°,27)+
48 8°.(782°) =
BO —2y Oe 5 x 8,6! +2 yO7O 9x7 E,e- PS x8,6'+
+87070x°
C2 +408 78,0 =
=2x2'@'—xé'& 10x yee +2x ye e-Sx Bel +x° e+ 2827S
® Product on B-u (involved the second slot @ of B):
>~
BeA=(xe'e'+2 yee +278 +42°@*) (26 e'- 2 & —5x Gye! +x° 2,2 + 78,2 |=
=x6'8'.(2e,6'-2,
2 )+2y&b+(—5x be +x°e,e")+
+8°8°.(78,8 )+4 2°e*-(72,e°)=
— x08
EP —2y OOS xe,2'+2
yee sxe, e°+
+2°@7-76,6°+40°@ Tee=
=2x2'2'—x6'
8-10 xyes t2x yO +722 +282°e°
It is clear that performing the inner product on an index rather than on the
other (i.e. by a connector rather than the other) yelds different results.

c) Inner products like P+A or B-A can be performed in the form of

matrices, according to the usual rules for the matrix product row x column.
Let A=[A",] e B=[B.,] be the matrices representing A and B *

* As arule, in the matrix M/“; the 1* index (a) is the row index; the 2" (f) is the column
index (1% and 2" are counted from left to right, regardless of the position up/down).

135
In the case @ the product [B,,]-[A",] on B-p requires to be executed to
insert a “dummy” Y in place of B and y; rewritten as [B,,]:|4”,] it can be
indeed executed as matrix product and results in:
x 0 Sue Mreesl 2x O85
0 2y 1 |:|-—5x x? 0 |=|—10xy 2x*?y 7
0 0 4x Oc On, 0 QO 28x

B A
In the case & a complication arises: the inner product on a-u, rewritten with
the dummy Y in place of a and u takes the form |By,|:[4”,] , which is not
a suitable form for matrix product. Instead, a proper form would be
[Bs,][A”,]. that presents the dummy indexes Y properly faced in a
median position; we get this form by transposing the matrix of B (i.e. swap-
ping rows and columns). Then, in the product it will take place, instead of B,
its transposed B? : i:
a () 2 0-1 DEX OQ -x
0 2y 0 }}=5x x? 0 |=|-10xy 2x7y 0
OW ahs YO @ 4 GC So
B? 4
« With regard to the product P+A, its form rewritten with the dummy
y: P,-[A”,] is suited to matrix product provided Py is a row vector: *

2 0-1
[3 -2 2x]-|-Sx x? 0 |=[6+10x -2x? -3+14x]
Pp: Oy Gr
A

These are some examples of small complications which the matrix calculus,
although often most quick, introduces. If you are not careful about how the
indexes face it is easy to incur in blunders.

Problem 11
Is tensor inner product commutative? Discuss the case of the products
between tensors A and B where: A=, A,=-2, A,=3, Aj==1
1 12
B'=2, B’=4, B'=—-5, B’=-3
* This doesn't depend upon Pa being a covector: as a counterexample we note that the op-
eration A+P (ie. [A",]P.. rewritten [A”,|P,, then transposed to [A,”]-P,),
which leads to the same result, requires to consider Pa acolumn vector.

136
Tensors are of the type: A =A &.é° and B=B"Y &, &, , whose T-mosaic
blocks are:

The writing A-B is ambiguous and may stand for 2 different products,
performed on indexes (= connectors) B-u rather than B-v. Similarly B-A
may be 2 different products, depending upon which indexes are involved.
Let's look to the two different products as well as their commutated:
® products A+B and B-A by indexes f-n,
® products A+B and B-A by indexes B-v.

@® A-B and B-A by indexes f-u:

As usual the pair B-u must be made dummy to form the link enabling the
product; we can use as a dummy index 8 itself.

(read AB )

“| (read BA)

The T-mosaic representation is unique for A°-B and B-A (the distinction
between the two cases is entrusted to the order of reading the result)

«In algebraic terms A+B _ is written as:

As Heh ee = A,B, ee 2,.€,=-A, B €,,,ey=
> ~ >_> > w ib a uv B=

—
B
bi,

Be
cley a e,c, Seah aC
Instead of writing tensors as polynomials and multiply them term by term as
in previous problems, let us compute directly the components by means of
the expression for C“’ written above:
C= 4° B*” namely C*’= AB + ASB’. that gives:

137
 C'= A,B +A,Bo =1-2+(-
C= 4B? + Alp” =1-44(-

C=A BY +A,B =3-2+(-1

C= AB’ + A,B? =3:44(=1
in other words: C=2,é,12+é,é,10+é,2,11+2,¢,15
« On the contrary the “commuted” B-A_ gives:
= = oft
BY
6. é,+As egé Rd once ca8 5 Oe
> Poe
Ag 0,Cy eq
tee
ae
u

= BR. se
Bev e=g = OC éce Be
AAO eA Cas
rahe Bred. namely C’*=B'* eee Bs leads to:

|C'=B"
A,+ BY A,=2-1+(-5)(—2
JCP=B" Ait BY A,=2:3+(—5 Ie
C"=BY A\+ BA, =4-1+(-3 iy
C”°=BY A+B” 45=43+(-3 Ne
which is to say: Cae ioe. Mee ee eels
® A-B and B-A byindexes -v:
(here too, the T-mosaic representation is unique, no matter the order of the
factors that however must be recovered in the order we read the result)

a (read B—A)

“| (read AB)

*Inthis case A+B _ is algebraically:

Aa a’.~B BY S
a =Ay Be ee se ear ap
é."ee, =A Be e.0) oe
eee es
8)
ubBoos
=A, BV é,é,=C
“hh ous =
é,é, = ASB =C"'s
Ct= Arey namely C*“= A; BY'+ A; BY gives:

138
 [CM Sh pele? a2 4+(—2)
45 46
ie Bee 1(—5)+(-2)(-3)=1
i = A,B + A,B =3-2+(-1)4=2
(GSA Beer BS 3(- 5) =1)(=3) 10
as to say: C=é,é,(-6)+ 22,+é,é,2 + &2,(-12)
« With regard to its “commuted” B-A :
BY 6,é,°Ag 2 = BY Ape, 6,+6,2° = BY’ ASE OE, =
>

a 4 2

8
=x uB ya> — & uas> => up ya ViKow
wa Bb A,erew=C ee BA, =C. 3
Q

C"“=B" A, namely CB ABA gives:

(ail 11 yi
|
C =B A,+B A,=2:1+4(-2)=-6
2
C°=B" A+B" 45=2:3+4(-1)=2
a 22

(C°=B" A+B” A,=(-5)-1+(-3)(-2)=1

[C” = B" A\+B” A, =(—5):3+(—3)(—1)=-12

astosay : C=2,é,(—6)+
22,2 + 2, + é,2,(-12)
The tensor inner product between the given tensors turn out to be not com-
mutative, but it is except for a transposition. In general, except the cases of
symmetric tensors, any possible inner product between tensors of rank r=2
is not commutative, although it is commutative apart from a transposition.
Remark:
It has been seen that, against a single T-mosaic representation for the two
“commuted” products A-B and B-A (case of “tensor ¢ tensor” inner
products that give two results different by a transposition), the algebraic
transcription of the result depends on the order how you read the T-mosaic
sketch. The distinction between the two cases is kept reading and Jisting the
survivor free connectors always starting from the first operand.

Problem 12
Given a 2D symmetrical tensor ranked (7) A= Aue: é, with
A=] A’ =2 A'=2 Wraa3

a) compute its inverse

b) what is the rank of the inverse?

139
a) Named B the inverse tensor, to have A*B=I with | identity tensor,
it must be in terms of components: *
A“°B,,=8) namely 4° B,+A™ B,,=8°, expanded
to:
Av B,,+A"B,,=6, 1B, +2-B,,=1
A Boel B=, 1-B,,+2-B,,=0
HieBilge Dics
1 SLE TE — Oh rs 2-B,,+(—3)B,,=0
7 =

[A By, +A” By=0;, 2B) Ba!

3
By=7,
2
Bo=7,
2
Bu=7, i=; 1 ;
whence:
Therefore B, the inverse tensor, is symmetrical too (in general: when a
tensor is symmetrical, its inverse is symmetrical).

b) the rank of B is () (in general: inverse of a tensor a is a tensor (°);

and vice versa).

Problem 13

Find out the inverses of the tensors (*) represented by the matrices:

atte Oil.
a) a-|! 1 b) A=iz
Och ries pias
1 A @: A-| ali’ A=! 1
As in the previous problem the condition “B inverse of A” leads to the
system of equations 4°°B,,=8% , ie: **
(A Bg A Bo=8,=1
A BAB i=
AGB. tA Be 1
\A" B, +A” B,,=d,=1
2

whence, after substituted the components A“* in their respective cases:

a) By, =1, By,=0, By, =0, By ,=1 = 0 is the inverse of itself.

* There are three other possibilities in addition to AB. =o), namely AY B= 0! ;

Pa ee =s ; Ae B= 8 (which correspond to the 4 possible interconnections between
tensors 4*° and B,, i T-mosaic). The result does not change using one writing or the
other inasmuch the tensor 4“ is symmetrical (and then the inverse is unique).
** At least as a matrix. Actually A is a (7) tensor, while B is (5) :

140
b) By,=0, By,=1,By,=1, B,=0 = i
1
i is self-inverse too.
c) B,,=0 > B,,=1 ’ By, =1 ’ aa a7 Ulan of | ; s i 2
d) for 4'=4"=4"=4”"=] the system becomes:

(By + B,=1
| B+ B,,=0
| But Bz,=0
(By
+By=1
This system has no solution (the 1* equation contradicts the 2"! and the 3"
: el ee: :
contradicts the 4") => i i does not admit inverse. Remind that the
inverse matrix [B,,]=B does not exist when, as now, det[A*’]=0 .

Problem 14
iQ) BD
Using as “dual switch” the symmetrical tensor G = O =2 Il
ee sh 8
a) find the dual switched covector of the vector V =(2,-3,-1 )
b) after setabasis of vectors {é,,é@,,@,| with @,=(1,1,0), ¢@,=(1,0,2),
2,=(0 AO) 1), find out the dual basis of covectors and...
c) compare it with the “dual switched” of the basis vectors
d) determine the dual switch G that transforms the basis |é ip ey, €5, Paro
its dual {é ,é°, &}.
> wl w~2 3

a) GVH=G,,e°8 V°E,=G,, Ve" e+8,=G,, Ve = G, Vi aV SE

. P Ves . i 2 3a
or, componentwise: GV =V, that is Gal Gey RG aval.
This latter expression is for the three:
G4V'+G,V+G,V =V, V = 1:2+0(-3)+2(-1)=0
GV +G,.V +G,,V =V, — 4V,=0-2+(-2)(-3)+1(-1)=5
LG Yer Vi LG, y=, UV 22 £1 (o-3) 3 (S12

The covector dual-switched of V =(2,-3,-1) isthus V =(0, 5,—2).

It is understood that the components of the vectors are expressed on
basis 7,7, and the components of covectors on the respective dual
basis i,j,k.

141
b) Let's denote the basis covectors dual of €,=(1, 1,0), ea ORo Ne
é,=(0,0,1) by:
B=(a,b,c), ’=(d,e,f), &=(1,m,n)
and impose the duality condition to get their components:
ee =l 11,0) *aeboc\=1 Gip=
| E82=0 1,1,0)+(d,e, as d+e=0
2-2 =0 1,1,0)*(7,m,n)= 1+m=0
é,-2 =0 1.022) (a,b. e)\= at2c=0
ee = = (1,0,2)-(d,e, j= > Jdt2f=
é,+2 =0 1,0,2)+(7, m,n) = 1+2n=0
é,-2'=0 0,0,1)*(a,b,c)= c=0
é,-2 =0 0,0,1)+(d,e ip f=0
é,-e=1 0,0,1)*(2,m,n) =1 n=1
Solution of the system are:
a=0, b=1,c=0, d=1, e=—-1, f=0 ,J=-2 , m=2 , n=1 ,thus:
= Os Ce ON ee NY
c) The switching operated on the eee of vectors by G does not lead in
general to the basis of covectors {é',é°,2°| ; applying G to basis vectors:
es sav ~U Ses u
G-2,=G,,22)+
uv
@,=G,,2"5,=G,,2
yelds:
[Sea
> ~ ml
+G,,@+G,,@=12
m2 ~3 ~l
+0-8+2-2
wie ~3
= mw 1 +2éme)
ex Es <u Sen Ae Plena ay: Py. eB se naes
G22 Go = Gut iG,,e + Gye =0°e t(—2)-e vs €=-22 +é
' > po wll we ~3
\G-é,=G,,2"=G,,8+G,,8 + G,,8=2-841-243-2=228'+ +32
mel Ps ee)
and using for @ ,@ ,@ the respective components from point (b):
(G-é,
=2'+22 =(0,1,0)+2(-2,
2,1) =(—4,5, 2)
1G-é,=-28
+@ =—-2(1,-1,0)+(-2,2,1)
=(-4, 4,1)
\G-é, =28'+2°+32 =2(0,1,0)+(1,-1,0)+3(—2,2, 1)=(—5,7,3)
So, the “dual switched” of basis vector @,,@,,@, achieved through G are
in general covectors different from the basis covectors achieved by applying
the duality condition....

d) ... unless taking on a certain G ad hoc, which can be determined by

requesting that:

142
 sing the expansions for G-+é, , etc. from the previous point:

a system to be resolved with respect to the various G,, , G,, , ete.

It is clear that the only possible solution is:
G,,=G,,=G,,=1;V otherG,,=0 = to have a transformation of the
G
kind [@,, €,é;} {é',é°,&} it must be G =diag(+1) .

Problem 15
Considering tensors ranked (°)
2 and (*)
a) determine whether you can raise / lower indexes in pairs in such a way
that is T°? =T ap © Dy which metrics, for which classes of tensors?”
b) is it correct to say that T° and Tg are a couple of inverse?

Let's a assume for simplicity a 2D space, except generalizing the results.

a) The double lowering of indexes for a tensor (5) requires a double applic-
ation of gy; :
Tea ard =

See ele ese

0 pig 72 + py pes
= ui 8 v1 Sui §v2 § 2 Syi §u2 §y2

= 1: ae eae vee Hon Geel epee) to. + By cole

22
bea ,P= 811 Esl + By cide t 812 821 ie tue oieng ts
w=2,V=1; NS am 55 dia + Bo ee + 809 ule T+ 8» ie
22
W=25Va2. (lg = oii oar + 891 ee 822 821 Ke + 85 Sul

From the above system of equations (” equations in n* unknown g,,,) it is

clear that it is always possible to find a metric able to transform a given
* We denote by 7,, and T the components of tensor co/contravariant represented by the
same matrix. Both tensors have numerically the same components.

143
tensor T°? into Ty,=T° (Gust imposing 7,,=T"', Ty»=T', etc. in the
system and solving with respect to g,,, 2), etc.), but it only works for
that tensor. However, there are chances that a particular class of metrics
transforms a certain class of tensors so that is T.,=T “® for all tensors of
that class.
For instance, if the metrics is diagonal (g,.=g,,=0) the system reduces to:
ee Cap Sah
Ty =8y8nT

Tie Me

(Ty = 8n Sn ies

ARG SOE Lona T°” can occur, for example:

i) for any tensor when g,,=g,,=+1
ii) for T diagonal when g,,=+1 and g,.=+1 without being 2),=8,
In the first case it is included the Euclidean-Cartesian metric diag (+1); in the
second is included the Minkowski metric of Special Relativity diag (+1) with
only one diagonal —1 element ).

b) There is another way to transform a tensor (7) T° into a tensor () : to

make the inverse. The tensor T“' which results is represented by an inverse
matrix, which is entirely different than that of 7, as defined in point (a).
However, it is quite natural referring to 7,, as the inverse of T a (using
the same symbol 7 to emphasize the link of “parentage”, leaving to the
different position of the indexes the task to highlight that this is not the same
tensor). This notation, however, comes into collision with that set out in (a)
above.
The issue is more of semantics, but to avoid confusion we had better
reserving the notation 7,,,7 “P to the couple of tensors that are obtained
from each other by raising / lowering the indexes by means of the metric as
in step (a), and use different names for the two inverses.

Problem 16

As a result of the transformation of the Cartesian plane if

x (Sle ty.
et arteSage
a) where does the point P({1,2) go?
b) how does the vector V.=(1,2) defined in (0,0) transform?

144
The transformation is linear (the equation of new coordinates as a function
of old ones are of 1* degree); the system takes the form:
Bt
x
B ne)
=a, xX

where a’ are the numerical coefficients that appear in the two equations.
For the given transformation they are:
G21 = .
4, =)
1 oe

a, ales a; =
The origins of both new and old coordinates coincide: for
(x, y)=(0,0) we have (x’, y’)=(0,0). New axes x’, y’ are rotated with
respect to the old ones, are no longer orthogonal to each other and change
their “graduation”. ©

The new abscissa axis x’ is obtained from the second equation by setting
y'=0 = x—y=0,ie. x=y; the new ordinate axis y’ is obtained from
the first for x'=0 > 2x+y=0,1e. y=—-2x.
The drawing displays the new and old axes; numbers written near to the
intersections of the grid of the old coordinates are the new coordinates of
some points of the plan; for example, (0, 3) are the new coordinates of the
point whose old coordinates were (1, —2).
a) The point P (1,2) does not move but takes the new coordinates:
kN a Pia =|)

y'=1-2

b) The vector V does not transform: what transforms are its components
that take different values in the new reference (x’, y’).

145
Let's write the transformation VN Vas = a‘‘V" where a’
are the same coefficients of the transformation of coordinates.* We get:
he =a, V't+a,V
c
ill el 1?s,2
2:1+1-2=4
V
Die
=a,
Qe 1
74a,
Be 2
1-1+(-1)-2 =-1
The vector V is thus expressed in the new coordinates as V=(4,—1).
As can be seen from the drawing, 4 and —1 are the projections of the vector
on new axes x’, y’ (that is, its components).
It is important to note that, under coordinate transformation, neither the
points of space, nor the vectors (or tensor) change: the elements of the “land-
scape” remain fixed and only the componentwise description changes; what
changes is the superimposed coordinate lattice that is a new one and, accord-
ing to it, the numbers that express the position of the points. Accordingly
change the components of the vectors.

Problem 17
A plane coordinate transformation having matrix A operates the following
transformation on the basis of covectors:
At) Beil eeeee:
CSC aie
4 4
Bo [eet vores
é =--@+—é
4 4

a) How does the vector V= a 5) transform?

b) How do the basis-vectors @,,€, transform?
c) Verify that (&", é,)= AX

a) The transformation of the covector basis carried out is é° = A, ae )

Ca"_|V¥3/4
ena1/4]. is the matrix A (a’ row index,
where [A* ]=| ‘
:
r8column ;
.
index).

The transformation does not act on vectors, but transforms the components
in the same way of the bases of covectors, ie with the same matrix:

yan’ye =. Cy cat ylaal yn 88

Th Ld
he ae
B Peco Pesan see fee 1_9
3 a A a
j : Biman
* Fora linear transformation .x° =a,cn
x"Orme is Na=
B" ox
3,54 B

146
b) The basis of vectors transforms by inverse matrix, which is:
ae =| 4 see eeerayareWA WdaBa—t lela.
: i V3 =1/4 7/3/44 1 AZ|) 10st
after made a transposition of the matrix itself.
In fact, the transformation of the basis-vectors is:
2
1! @,=(V3)é,+1-2,=V36,+é,
2
2" @,=(-1)é,+(V3)é,=-é, +V3é,
Note that the two above equations are equivalent to the matrix form:

é,)_|Aw Ap
é,} [Al A2,
where the transposed of the inverse matrix (Aq ae is effective:

Ay. A (9 \
AoA
2! weak

« The effects of the transformation of coordinates are so shown:

The transformation A (a roto-homothety) has the effect of applying a

counterclockwise rotation of 30° to new basis vectors @,,, ,, with respect
to old ones, doubling their length and saving the orthogonality. The drawing
also shows the vector V (which of course remains unchanged). Since its
inclination with respect to the x axis is 30°, V coincides in direction with
é,, so that the component of the vector along @,, vanishes.

c) Let's verify for example that (2', 2,)=A):

Piet is AO es ol es Wea
(é 8) = (a's te), é,)= Bea 48-8
Problem 18
After applied a transformation from Cartesian coordinates (x,y) to plane
polar coordinates (p,®) , define:
a) the basis vectors in the new coordinates
b) the basis covectors
c) express the vector V(P)=(3,3) defined in P(1,V3) on the new basis.

; ; ’ x=pcos 0
The (inverse) transformation p,@ — x,y is defined by y=psin®
We'll use as equivalent the notations:
vex y=x p=x 4e=x i=é, “j=é,
The transformation x? > x" expressed by the matrix A
Ox ur sox:

Ao, =
0x ; nd
ox 6x
P a Oxy Ox
Ci hae ae
in this particular case takes the form:

je
oe
op
or
06] _ |cos® —p sin®O
Br oy oy sin8 pcos0
0p 0

a) é,.=Agé, = [f.=A, 244) 2; = ee

|e= A, 2+ Ay, é,,=— €:p sind+é,p cos
or, going back to the more usual notations:
[&,=icose+j sin
ae 0 sin6+ jp cosé
The new basis vectors, unlike the old, have direction variable with the point;
é, varies from point to point in length, too.

b) To compute the basis covectors we need the inverse matrix. This can be
calculated by inverting the matrix ee or directly from the (inverse)
transformation of coordinates x,y — p,0:
[ p=Vx?+ y? xV=y(x' P+(x?)

y that is es x?
| 8=arcig x = arcig~T

whose related A matrix is:.

148
 B' 1 2 ar

as hac Jey
es
ae Ox
ES i Ox
ie Ox 08 06
on ON. Ox Oy

y
a \e+y ay a ak iy
= Sie) eos
eae x 1) 0
ye ey

Finally:
z : male asl ee
oh je =e e'+A, a ies coe cos 0+ € sin®
a ee De ii AY pp) a ad GHD) 4 AB COS)
le =A, € +A, é ala’ Daeg re 0

c) The point P is located on the straight line from the origin inclined of 60°,
where cos@=1/2 and sin@=V3/2; in P(1,V3) itis p=V17+(v3)=2.
«In P, for what is already known from step (a), the basis of vectors is:
> =2 || =3
a Pe ip
ye

= The vector V(P)=(3,3) is expressed in polar coordinates as:

, 1
ey ee
( ; ;

PL ys (EER VARY Ss
: V=n V'+A,V? [y= 34 3
and in P(1,V3) , where cos0=1/2, sin= V3 /2 i=! veihis:

} DD 2

V rhea ri V3)

where V' (that is V°,V°) are expressed in unities of the respective

basis vectors @,,@, (roughly V''~4,1 ; V’'~—0,54) as in figure:

149
Problem 19
Given in the plane x,y the vector field V =(—x,-y), examine how it
transform by applying the following transformation of coordinates:
ee a) fae : oo) et
yl=xty 0=arctg(y/x) yl=ytl
d) what can we deduce about the fact that the “radius vector” or position
vector F is a tensor or not?
y & (x,y)
The given vector field is the set of
vectors defined in any generic point
of the plane P(x,y) ranging from
P to the origin of axes O (0,0).

For each of the three transformation xox let's transform the components
of V=(V4,7?) by VPaAL yea Ds
Oty’, taking Vi=—x , Py.
a) The transformation is linear.

entvendt!y-
' '

Ox
a

(meaning x°=x,y and x= x',y’)

r
Vr'= ey ey ee
ox oy

18 2x yDoy yre (x) +1(-y)2-x-ysay’

In conclusion: the components of the given vector V*=—x , V’=—y have
been transformed into V*=—x', V"=—y’.
b) It is a transformation into polar coordinates.

vrea=AP yrs Ox*

V° =>
: Oxo
(meaning here x*=x,y and x°'=0,6)
We
(
eek ee ee ee Chere,
Ox oy ory: Vx7+¥
06 OM) ee tind Bs
V°= — p*+— VP=——, (- x) + (- y=
Ox Oy. a z Sa he
In conclusion: the components of the given vector V*=—x ,V=-y
transform into V°=—p , V°=0.

c) year yeu ya
t ' B'

Ox
(neaning a°=xjyre x" =x", vy")
a » a : fa) 7 =

Va Hyr4 yrag (—x)+0(—y)=—-e*-x=—x'-Inx'#x'

Ox Oy
joe Oy! oy.
V9 = —--y*+_y=0(—x)4+1(-y)=-y=1—-y'#y!
sae ss (—x)+1(-y)=-y=l-y'#y
In conclusion: the components of the given vector V*=—x , V?=— y this
time transform into V* #-x', V#-y’.

d) Notice that the vector V( —x,—y) coincides, except for the sign, with the
position vector 7(x,y) * In fact, the behavior of 7 under coordinate
transformation is indicative of the behavior (tensorial or not) of the position
vector 7.
We observe here that, while in all three cases the components of 7 (really
of V) were (intentionally) transformed like a tensor, it remains to under-
stand whether what has been produced can be still considered the position
vector 7. It will be so in the cases where we will have found to be still
V*'=—x' V"=—y"', and only then we can say that 7 behaves as a tensor
in these cases. Using this criterion means to request that the components of
7 transform as the coordinates.
« In the case of linear transformation (a) the criterion is met. The matrix A
which transforms the vector components (among which 7) is the same that
transforms the coordinates (See note to problem 17). Since 7 behaves as a
tensor under linear transformation it is by definition a Cartesian tensor.
« In the transformation (b) into polar, while the coordinates of P transform
(x, y)(p,0), components of 7 transform (x, y)(p,0), that is unlike
the coordinates. While in Cartesian ix+jy gives the position of P,
polar ee o+é,-0 does not identify the position of P (but rather a Acie .
radius p). The criterion is not satisfied: the vector 7 does not transform as a
tensor, then it is not.
« The transformation (c) does not match the criterion: the components of 7

* Notice that 7(x,y) outgoing from O(0,0) can't be defined a vector field; on the
contrary, itis 7 (—x,—y) outgoing from P(x,y).

151
and the coordinates transform in a different way and in the new coordinates
does not preserve its meaning of position vector. Notice that coordinate y U
moves its 0 and that a 0 no more exist for coordinate x’, so that an origin
(0,0) from which the vector 7 comes out does not exist.

In the end the position vector 7 does not transform as a tensor except under
linear transformation: then it is not a tensor, but a Cartesian tensor only.

Problem 20
Consider a transformation of coordinates from a Cartesian system x, y, Z, ...
into another generic system of coordinates x“ with a'=1,2,3,...
Show that basis vectors can be expressed at each point of the new reference
ido is
as = ye =e, where Yr is the position vector of the point in the Cartesian
4¢ oa

reference.

Moving from the old system x? to the new x“ the basis vectors transform
. > B -—
according to the usual: é@,,= ING ee -
For example, for a’=1:
ad l= hg oy es
Cin Ey IN negated
NytEy Fa —
REOXr 0 eC ae
i oa

=r (ixtjytkz+..) =

and for #=ixtjytkzt...

> >
or ee elle
=a ol. general: “e.1——— ged.
ox Ox
(notice that the Cartesian basis vectors Tj jk have been brought into
derivative; this means to consider them independent of the coordinates, that
happens only in Cartesian a reference).
Similarly, for any other @,,, .

152
Problem 21
ae 2 2
In a 3D Cartesian system the equation sae + x He a =1 represents an
Ce cee
ellipsoid with semiaxes a, b, c lying on the axes x, y, z. Show that operating
a rotation of the axes the equation of the ellipsoid can be written in the new
BH ag Peps 5
coordinates X inthe form ajy4/X" x*'=1, where the double index para-
meter Ay: is a Cartesian tensor.

Let's denote x” the old coordinates. Consider the transformation (inverse)

of coordinates x= AY, x“ from new coordinates x“ to old ones x”
(v = 1, 2, 3 scans x, y, z). Since the rotations of axes are part of linear trans-
formations, matrix.elements A‘, are numerical coefficients; we denote
them by /.,, and write the transformation in the form x°=h*, x“ , that is:
1 ' 7 LS, ie
Mahe ViAON og: RU eX
In the new variables the equation of the ellipsoid becomes:
1 NZ 2 ND 3 2
owe mnee
(Hoax) Fs(ha oe = ]

a’ b c
or, performing the summations for repeated indexes:
Ve [
ae "
ek SANZ| +
Uke
pee
tik,
Depo!
hak
ey OW

2
a b
i i SF SHIN!
(hee ope aes ps
4 oe aa]
€
Developing the squares:
' ' ' ' t ' ' ' git

1
i Pal 2 x? P+ (Al?
3 P+2h)
1 x" hyx?
2 +2h)
ale x! hyx? +2h,x°
2 hyx
3 G
2
a

ar uv
eh M
Pt ND.
thxPES AWx
ole aghs
tlh,x hyx + 2hIIS
pia d y!
xAehee
er a 5

Sa aa re eae aa fy eae. as Ore

Te a hxSa
SED+2h,x
ae Re ed
xLe hyx
Ch
yxaaee +2h
ee
xlego:
eh
ieee! f {
PUG x?
PEOSTEEN P+(hi
nL HiTeF+(hix
iN.
2 EE +2h
Se
id le Se el eh
2

or (going by “columns”’):

x
virXxX (AL) i? (AP ae a {Aa? ea)? ,(ae
a b c a b eee
c
ee eed SS

Sq! SCAB

153
 Wee
Biro
6
Siar mlPw
2
priory Ca
are 3 2 2 2
FL lcs
===D 2
a b Cc b
BSes ey Sie Le od 2 eee ek Se
= 3131 =A 19

PD et ye hh Nh de, a 5 snl|
as1 reves1 He, iene
3 73 OT Be? By eps)
(a
b E b G
2S a a rn wees ele aero) Le see cl
=Gy131 = p13
The various terms in parentheses contain only constants whose value
depends on the coordinates of arrival; they have been referred to as
A141 Gy and so on, taking into account the coordinates of arrival which
they are related to (for example a,,,, is only related to coordinates
x ex” ). The various terms can be collected in the matrix:

ine Gyn Quist

[ae |= Agnyr Agnr Ayr
A31 Agi» Az13)

Matrix elements that do not appear in the calculation above can be obtained
by symmetry: the symmetry of terms of the last 3 parentheses with respect to
their indexes (e.g. @,,;,=4@,1., because exchanging 1’ with 2’ in the second
parenthesis above the result is the same) and the presence of coefficients 2 in
the development allow to “split in half’ the non-diagonal terms giving to
each an unit coefficient in order to symmetrise them with respect to the
diagonal itself (e.g. term 2a,,,,.x'
x* can be split into two symmetrical
(emu onxae andaa,,., 7 x: ).
« The equation of the ellipsoid can then be written in the new coordinates in
simplified form as Bae ee = In general, in any coordinate system
obtained by linear transformation of the Cartesian system the form:
Aaupxx =1
represents an ellipsoid.
« Let's verify that the various a,, are components of a tensor. To decide on
this we apply to the general equation of the ellipsoid a linear transformation
of coordinates x*—x" replacing x° =k; x" :
Ta Xo —Uye hax ke Sta, k ik, ks ene
To find in the new coordinates the same equation of the ellipsoid as stated
above, it has been necessary to identify a,, kage with a,,, and this
means that 4, transforms as a Cartesian tensor, and so it is.

154
Problem 22
Switch from the Cartesian plane (x,y) to a reference (®,,0) that locates
each point P of the plane by the angles formed by two rays coming out from
two fixed points H, K of the x-axis as shown:

Sy

Je

8, O 8; es
Fos ee ee EET
a

Determine:
a) the transformation of coordinates from (x,y) to (@), 62)
b) the basis vectors in the new coordinates
c) the Euclidean metric tensor in the new coordinates

a) Instead of (8;, 82) we will use the respective tangents, that is the angular
coefficients of the straight lines from Hand K: m,=tg0, , m,=tg0,. *
The coordinate transformation ensues by expressing the coordinates x,y of
the cross point of the rays as a function of m,,m, (in place of 8;, 82).
To do that intersect the two bundles of straight lines outgoing from H and K:
« bundle of straight lines from H:
y=mxtq for (5,0) = 0=m,>+9 = q=-m> = y=m,x—m, Nw|s

« bundle of straight lines from K :

y= sx+q for (40) = O=m,(-5)+4 = q=m,5 => y=m,xt+m,5

* intersection point:
requiring
q g m,x—m,2=m,x+m,~
mM, ta 2 29 we get.
get: pee)
2 m,—m,

; ‘ ; : mM)
that, inserted into the equation of y gives: eae
1 2

Those equations describe the inverse transformation, from new coordinates

a
cs =m,,m, tothe oldones x =X, y).
Points of x-axis, for which m,=m,=0, are not represented.
The related matrix of the above transformation (m,,m,)—>(x,y) is:
* The transformation is not defined for the points of x-axis, not localizable by 0), 02.

155
 (| ee Aes whose elements are:
m,,M, Oy Oy
om, om,

Se
Coe Gh iG ay
5 =-q
My,
om 2 (m,—m,) (m,—m,)
Ox a M—M,+M
TM, _ m
om, 2 m,— My)” (m,—m,)
OV a m,(m,—m,)— mm, tae (m;)
om 2 (m,—m,) (m,—m,)
Oy _ a m,(m,—m,)+ mm, _ (m,)
om, 2 (m,—m,) (mm, —m,)’

. a =I, ath Ay,elAg,

that is: Ag.= =
: (m,—m,) |(m,) Ae NG INR

b) basis vectors:
é&, =A}, é,+A3,
&= —4*— (-im,-j
mj) =é,, ;
(Oh (m,—m,)

« For instance, in the point (x, y)=(0,2) = §,=135° = m,=-l

yay > m=1

as shown:

—a/2 ta/2

Notice that aes lies on the coordinate line m,=const (i.e. 8,=const),
while em, lies on the coordinate line m,=const (i.e. 8,=const).

156
c) the metric tensor in the new coordinates can be computed applying the
transformation A to the Euclidean metric £ag= diag (+1)

Co Seal A hep N Ate A Aen AS A,

where 2),=28y=1, 2,.=8,=0. Therefore:

2
ac iL avi ND
Zi = SuApAyet go Aj Ay, = (m)+m,') 4
(m,—m,)
- il yi De ee a3 a2
B12 = Bu Ay Ag t+Bx AVA: = (—m,m,—m/) m; }——
(m,—m,)
2
ex ih ol Oe oe ee, a
Born = Bi AgAyet
gy Ay Ay = (—m,m,—m, mM; )-————>
. (m,—m,)
2
= 1 1 2 in pees 2 4 a
B12 = Bi Ay Ant gy Az Ag, = (mi t+m)) m
(m,—m,)
2 2 4 2 J
; a m, +m =, M>—nt it
that is: g,.,,.=——— SOR, ae ll
. (m,—m,) |—m,m,—m, m; my +m

which is the “translation” of the Euclidean metric ; ; of Cartesian

coordinates into coordinates (m, , m,).
« Another way to calculate g , once known the basis vectors, is given by
the relation g,y=@,°é, . So, for example we can get:
2
as = i S65 fas one eae
8 112°
m ° Em, = z|(—im,—jm;)-(im,+jm, )=
: 2 (m,—m,)

and similarly for the others.

Problem 23
Let two vectors V,W be defined at a point P of a 3D Euclidean space.
Verify that the definition of oe product between vectors given via the
metric tensor V+W= Sap Vw? is equivalent to the definition usually given
in Vector Analysis V+W=|V\\W| cos, 0 being the angle between vectors.
Two vectors outgoing from a point identify a plane in space (3D or n-
dimensional). Without loss of generality we can set in this plane a Cartesian
reference oriented in such a way that an axis (for example x’) coincides in
direction with one of the vectors:

157
The general definition of scalar product (homogeneous) between vectors
VW=2,0 Wag,V W+e VW +e.V W tevWV
in a Euclidean-Cartesian reference where 2.,= ; reduces to:

VW=V'Witvew
But, having oriented the axes as in figure, it turn out to be:
V'=|V| , V?=0 and z
W'=|W\cosp (W' isthe projectionof W on V) ,
andthen: V+W=|V||W|coso ,q.e.d.

Problem 24
In a 2D Cartesian reference the vectors U=(0,1) and V =(3,4) are
defined in a point P(2, 2).
a) determine the angle between the two vectors
b) verify that the measure of the angle does not depend upon the location of
the vectors, whatever reference is used.

We are proposed to verify in a broader context the validity of the relation

cosh = sues that comes from the basic definition of scalar product of
IOI |
vectors that is given in Vector Analysis.
a) In Cartesian coordinates we write the vectors:
U=j , V=3i+4j
Under Euclidean-Cartesian metric g = diag(+1) we can use the traditional
methods of calculation of Vector Analysis:
UV = ]-(37+47)=4
7l=l71=1
PY anise as

158
 eareee. A
and finally: cos =

Notice we
eRe are iia ee

have not used the coordinates

=> 237°

of the point P , reflecting the fact

that vectors are freely movable.
b) Let us recalculate the angle in another coordinate system. We choose to
use polar coordinates (in which vectors are functions of the basis-point).
Parallel translating the vectors in this new reference, their components vary
from point to point and so does the metric g,,. It is therefore not quite
obvious how the calculation of cos@ can lead to the same result (as of course
for geometrical coherence requires).

Let's use the transformation from Cartesian to polar ie .

pavxty"y to get the
arctg ~
new components of vectors:
() C) 0
eNO Ox oy x
Oe
Vxety x+y?

fo ht eg
Ox
ate
Ox
fe‘ Re
Oy
1
Ness eyi
eee
bu

ahi = op fosop + aes x y Oi 3x+4y

Ox Ox hae ee. y~ \x24+y

=A°V*= 88 ya _ 08 px , 08 ieee ie ao.

= Ox ae Se fac Le eee(fos ey

where x , y are the coordinates of the point P (2,2), that we don't substitute
now hoping they will elide before reaching the final result (that we would
just show to be independent of the point P).
: ; int ib @
Recalling that in polar coordinates it is Zag = i J , we calculate:

U+V = gagU°V® = goU°V"+ gop V? =

y ey ee ee
=]. (remind: p?=x°+y")
Vety vxtty? © vty? x’ty
_x y3xt4y)+x(4x—3y)
x+y? =4

|| =V OT =V gqgQU*U*= V8, 9UPUP+ Bog U'=

2 2 2 2
= : y +0? es == y ar EB =
es p =| x+y? x?+ y

IB,
 ——"

FHV OV =V gap VV HV 8 09V° V+ Bo VV? =

/

—_——;
wy Pa)eeeoal meee op meme ney PC EA es 5
Vxe+y? p x+y? \ ty? x+y?

Finally: coso = aa = a.=3 , as before, q.e.d.

Note that passing from Cartesian to polar coordinates all values of coso
and U+V ,|U|, || remain unchanged, regardless of the point P in which
vectors are defined (here too the coordinates of P have not been requested).
The invariance of the vectors under translation is indeed a characteristic of
Euclidean space, and does not depend on the coordinate system.

Problem 25 |
For a transformation from Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z) to spherical
coordinates (p,o,0) ina 3D space compute:
a) the matrix of transformation A ed express in the new reference system:
b) the basis vectors
c) the connection coefficients (or Christoffel symbols)
d) the line element
e) the metric tensor and its conjugate

a) For spherical coordinates we'll assume the geometry that defines: *

o = zenithal angle respect to z-axis
8 = azimuthal angle on the plane x, y
The inverse transformation (from
spherical to Cartesian) is:
ee
x= sing cosO
< y=p sing sin®
\Z=p cos

Let's compute first the matrix of transformation A which transforms the

basis vectors. Since basis vectors transform according to é€,,=A‘°,é
B pa ,» we
: ; Ore :
just need the matrix Aj, = Pa of the inverse transformation:

(we'll use as synonymous: x°=x,y,z ; x®=p,,6)

* See for that the conventions as declared in the warnings and the scheme relative to the
spherical coordinates.

160
 Cee oh ox ox Ox
Ox EP Ox ap
0p 06 00
Oe g Ox Ox 2
Ox I lty ey 0 y'|_
ax Ox. Hx": 1 ox” ep o> 30]
Oe te tx | |ez @2 bz
Ox 0x Ox p o> 00

singdcos® pcospcos® —p sing sinO

sing sin® pcosgdsin® psindcos®
cos —osin® 0

bis ees
6 a
=
Ses en Sesbe ets yee ees
= bias 5,OIE Obie
SU IIS DSS a NT RIS alg On od ag) Sm

= sing cos i+sing sind j+cosok

Brees ACL 25 3 SK yor Bex Cotes OI =a OKs

€=Aye tA, et A,e;=Aye, + Aye, ea &
= pcos cosbi+pcososin® j—psingk
> _al-= 2=> 3am ara yo Zo = Ot Oya 027
€p=Age, tAge, t+Ay é,=Age, + Aye, t+Aye,
00 0
=—p sing sin i +psing cos@ j
Note that é,,€,,€, vary as function of the point through p,o,8.

c) This variation is described by the partial derivatives of each basis vector

with respect to one of the three coordinates p,@,98. We have the 9 partial
derivatives Ga a eel ily Cae ee
3p’ oo.’ 00’ op’ oo’ 00” dp’ om ’ 00
We compute each derivative, trying then to express it as a function of the

Oe > =4 =>
= cos cos0i + cos sin®j— sindk= xe

° = 5 ae ils
82, =- sino
— .
sin®8i + sing cos) j= pee

0g, + ~ ee BINS
* = cos cos0 i +cosg sin® j—singk = Fé,

>
= —psing cos 01—psino sin’ j—pcosok = =e,

161
 |06
Q Las}
load
=—pcosdo sindit pcos cos 0 j =cotgo @&

Oe, . . a a oo i as
Fis =—sino sin8i+singcos0j = pe

Oe, as ae os
ae: =—pcoso sinBi+pcosg cos 0 j = cotg @,

Mo =-psino cos 8i-psing sin®j =—0 sin o &,— SiN cos> &,

All partial derivatives of é- ee ,é, can be written as linear combination on

the basis of vectors @,,@,,@, themselves (the first 8 cases are easy to see at
a glance; not so for the 9", that can be verified a posteriori). They can then
be put in the general form:
Oe ee Ee a Bes Vi ot ea es Oe 6 =
536 = Le Po) a re, a Aes Dopey tL ap & at Dope

where the various I“ are the coefficients of linear combinations. Compar-

ing this form with the 9 derivatives written above we can identify the 27
“coefficients of connection” or “Christoffel symbols” (e.g. for a=p=@ the
: 5 Oe,6 _ o> o> e=> 5 5
form written above is 397 Ppe2ot Vee@o+ Veeee > Which, compared with
Gee De 5
nO > : ) » 8
x, =—psin >é,—sinocosoé, , gives the 3 results for T,,, Tag, a, )-

In that way we get the 27 coefficients [ (among them 9 nonzero):"

Tho= T5p=0 Tip
oS oy dl 8
D9=0 are D9 =0
= o atl
[\e= T9=0 Doe=p

ae eae | ae
Tp=0 eae ee
ye. cast Ope Oe
Dye p Dye 0 ee
De 0" OLecon
]
Poo= Too= leo=p

PaO 1,=0) ) Ty.—core@

ays :
Tyo=—P sin o Tye=— sing cos 0

d) By increasing the coordinates p, », 8 of the point P by the respective

amounts dp, do, d0, the point moves radially by dp , by pd@ along the
* For other strategies to get thecoefficients I see the next two problems.

162
meridian and by p sin dé along the parallel. The three displacements are
perpendicular and thus the Euclidean definition of the line element ds leads
to:
ds’ =(dp)
+(p do) +(p sino dey
e) The expression of the Euclidean metric tensor in spherical coordinates can
be obtained by applying (twice) to the Cartesian metric tensor diag (+1) the
transformation matrix A, but can also be immediately obtained from the line
element ds. The bilinear form of ds? written above corresponds in fact to:

1 @ 0
g =[g.8]= 0 p° 0

Oo 0’sin’
Since the matrix is diagonal, the conjugate metric tensor is:

, : 1 0 0
gr=[g |=|0° 1/p 0
0 0 1/p' sin’

Problem 26
Deduce from the metric the connection coefficients for polar coordinates of
the plane (p,@) .
The connection coefficients or Christoffel symbols I are expressed in term
of metric tensor and its derivatives by the relation (eg. 4.73):
K 1 «xa
Pup= 58 Peta eae Sar)

Since the I are n? in number (m = number of dimensions of the space) it's

usually convenient using some strategy to reduce the calculation. First of all,
we have to observe how the metric tensor Sy is.
In plane polar coordinates the line element is ds°=dp'+(pd®@), a
bilinear form that is equivalent to the metric:
eo) 0
x'=(2"1=|(0 1/¢
9=[e)=| 0 4 ant to its conjugate
p
With regard to derivatives it is noted that:
811,., areallnullsince 8),
constant
Zn,.. can be # 0. In fact, only 8,; is #0 since 8, is function of
the variable p only, and only with respect to it the derivative is
nonzero

163
 8.s,.. With a #B are all zero since all non diagonal 8,, are zero.
ian) nab : op
The conclusion is that the only derivative #9 is: g5. = a = 2p

Let's compute now the I from the relation mentioned at the beginning:
K 1 KQ@
Pip= 58 ee ee ere

limiting to cases ufo =221, Bau=221, aup=221, in each of them only

one derivative of g among the 3 in parenthesis is 7 0:
i
Kl
/TL= § 2
—8y,)=>'1(-2p)=—p
2)
ngs (2455) ames oy
| Pn=5 8 —8n1)= 9

1
ie he Ths 8+ 8n)=0 |
Ip 7§ (+9001) as 1 1 ~t 1
| [2 —— 22 37hee =—-—_ 20 =—
12 2 22,1 2 ae ie)

Ti=5 8
K Kee (+gn,) = (|38 aboveby the symmetry ) r=r,=1
B)

_of T respect lower indexes | p

In the end, among the 8 coefficients T only T},,T7,, 13, that is

Deanepe? eDope ater.0.

Problem 27
For the plane in polar coordinates:
a) compute the gradient of the basis vectors
b) deduce the Christoffel coefficients of connection
a) In plane polar coordinates (p,0) the basis vectors are (see Problem 18):
=i cos0+j sin
&,=—i p sind+jp cos®
Since the gradient has the n partial derivatives of the vector (eg.4.5/) as
vector components, we compute first these derivatives:

cae
op
0 es roa 9 + = ‘ i=
59 = 1 SING +jcos® =Feg

164
 = —i sin6+ jcos 6 - 6,

—* =~ipcos—jp sine = =pe,

Applying the definition of gradient V=é" 0, to basis vectors (and

switching to the notation 0,=0/dx") we get, respectively :
7 a) ye) > ~0
Ve,=e° 0,(2,) =e 0,(2)+2 0,(e) = e0+8 7
=
ee= mee
~ Ollie. (|) Aires

SP es > st) —_ ~@ —_ ~ LS ~6 > We yo. ~0—>

Ve =e 0, 2) ae 0, (&) re Ol &) = Oe: (—p = me ope 0
whose representation by matrix is:
SAL OoO : 5 2
V eo = 0 al p) V 4 = p
p mi
Elements of the matrices are the covariant derivatives.

b) The generic expression for the gradient of basis vector: V 2,=6°0,(&) ,

since 0,(é,) £1, & , becomes:
>

— = ~a> Ha
Vée=eeaT uy;
whence, summing on dummies a,A and giving to v one after the other the
values 9,0. we get:
aes
Vé,=e22,1h,t+ &é.,,+ &&,15,t+ € 14, which, compared with
as ~p=> ~p > 6 ~8= 6 . .

7 a0 => . .
Vie e lt en jute! 2, ans as ete et already known, implies:

r=0
ene 1-0
oe 1-0
Bs r=4
6 _1 and similarly:y

V = 22, Teot oT ogt & €yTegt & gl 9q which, compared with

as ~p=> ~0—> ~6 => ~6 = 6 . .

Ve= +86, 5 -8F 9: ‘+ + + already known, implies:

l
Tee=0 Tye=p Toe=-p Toe=0

Problem28
Verify that for the plane in polar coordinates (9,8) the gradient of the
metric is null: Vg=0 (property of “covariant constancy”, eg.4.67).
Remind that this property is quite general and holds for all Riemann spaces.
Let's verify it directly in the particular case proposed.

165
 : bd item)
In polar coordinates of the plane it is: (ga)=|4 z and the only

connection coefficients I # 0 are: Be = Le = 4 . iba =—0.

In order to be Vg=0 it is requested that the 7? = 8 covariant derivatives

V,,2, which are its components are all null. The covariant derivatives of
8, > inasmuch|) tensor, result to be:
va liu Sev aySux » from which we obtain:
K K : Doel

V,2 uv a & u

Dy .Sox= 0-0-0 =0
Vo Epp Sop,p Loic

Wie tin eee ee a ee

Vo So0= Vp Sg =0 (as above, by the symmetry T°,=T, )

V > Se0=800,0— Loom Tie Sox = 2p Oe 2p--24 ‘p =0

Vo Soo= So0,07 VepSxo7 Vag S ox = 9-20 5,Sep=0

Vo Sp0= S000 opSo Poop =0 — lop S00 bo S9p=—G P—(—P)-1=0
Vo Sep= Vo S9=9 (as above)

Vo Soe S00,0~ Deere 7Ueeoaee Os les S06 alee. st)

(see various g , [ =0 from time to time).
For brevity, in the above calculations the summations over repeated index
« have not been immediately developed in extenso but, as a first step, we
limited to transcribe the terms containing a non-zero I (for example, in the
2 relationship: the term Ij,8.9 would have been developed as
8,2 o0+T%, 899. but in its place it has been simply written 0, since all
[45 are null; instead, in place of term I%yg,,, to be developed as
P8680 + UoeZe> it has been written only the nonzero term in Tf, , al-
beit later zeroing everything due to the factor g,,=0 ).

Remark:
The equation Vg=0_ that has proven to be true in polar coordinates, as a
tensor equation holds in any other coordinate system of the same space too;
that the same is true in any Riemann space depends instead on the fact that it
expresses a general property of these spaces.

166
Problem29 _
Given a plane vector field V=wru (with w tangential unit vector, normal
to radius ¥ from the origin O), determine for the vector ¥:
a) the derivatives of components, the gradient and the covariant derivatives
b) the divergence of vector V
c) give a kinematic interpretation for velocity and acceleration
d) verify that the gradient of vector grad V is a tensor.

Inasmuch ¥ is a velocity vector, the given vector field represents the

rotational speed of a rigid body with angular velocity o :

In polar coordinates (p ,0) the vector field is expressed by:

#=0 , =p thatis B= op
being @,=w the unit vector along the tangential @ direction and ? the
related “physical” components.
We remark that @)# @): the unit vector @) does not coincide with the
basis-vector of polar coordinates, which is not a unit vector (as it is not in
general, except for Cartesian coordinates). In other words @@ does not
belong to the coordinate basis.
>
pe Od : :
Keeping in mind that @.= 5 x8 * where x” are the coordinates in the
x
actual reference and 7 the position vector in a Cartesian reference, we can
CU (for the 8 direction, the only one of interest):
i peeps epee para
é,= ait jy)
56

ee =p

* See problem 20.

167
 >
£6
Since , Sel we can express V in terms of the basis-vectors: *
8

= op— = op = Weg
lee]
Notice that, having changed the basis-vectors, the components, in particular
v®, change: the correct expression of the field ¥ in coordinate bases is:
> => 5 ) 8
V=@Mé, thatis v=0, v=o

a) * Partial derivatives of components:

ov =0 ‘ Oy = : ev =O 5 %v =0

= Covariant derivatives:
Remind =) Vvere oy—lcy iy vec, (eq.4.44, 4.45)

where V is the gradient operator and V,,v" the covariant derivative.

V,v = ony+ Tay y= ony + be gael Os v’=0+0+0=0

V,v= av +Pe v= ov't Pe vP+re,

vy?=0 +0+ x =2
Vevr= d—v'+Ta, v= d—vo+ Te, v +l ov = 0+0-p- 0=—pw
Vov= tevtle, v= dv +Tey
tlog ¥ =0+0+0=0
(all terms containing v° and all partial derivatives are = 0; remind that the
only #0are: Ty,=T,,(els) =5, Too=—P )-
8

The only covariant derivatives # 0 are then :

* The factors |é,,| relating @, and @, are sometimes called “scale factors”; they also
relate the tensorial components V“ with the “physical” components of the vector
(which are always referred to unit vectors).

168
 which can be written in matrix form:

Wane vo] 0 |
—po 0

Notice that this is the gradient of the vector, not the gradient of the scalar
v =wp. (The latter, from an elementary point of view, can here be
dv°
understood as rive In a more formal way one arrives to the same

result by calculating the gradient of the scalar v°=«¥x?+y’ by the usual

modes of Vector Analysis in rectangular coordinates:
= Be Aya 43)
Vyv=i CE caper = -OV 8 5 =iw =
+7o
== 1wcos@ + jo sin®
Ox oy Vx?+ y? x+y
wae fe ps DEED
whence |Vv"|=Vw cos’O+w sin’® = « ).

« Derivatives of the vector ) (eg.4.49):

if ay os o,-> 6 a6)
=
0,¥ =é,
- viv « } Oo
= ey Mal ei CoVo¥ = —
aa)

| O,¥=é, Vey +2, Vay = —2,pH

( Vous Vev =0 : see above); they are the components * of VX.

b) Divergence
deve Voi = Vio =Viv Vey =040=0
a result that implies the absence of sources of the field ¥ (whose lines of
force are in fact closed lines, in this case circles).
Remark:
In turn, the vector field ¥ = wp & can be derived as the gradient of a scalar
field. A similar case will be treated in the problem 35.

c) Each point of the rotating rigid body describes a circumference with

velocity ¥ directed along the tangent and constant in magnitude.
>

As vector tangent to the path U -o we can take the velocity V itself

: ; 3 ate!
>,

provided the parameter is the time tf: V= oe :

* We are speaking about the vectorial components (the rows of the matrix Vi ); the
scalar components are the covariant derivatives (the elements of the matrix).

169
 >
; » ay
The acceleration defined by - has as components the covariant
derivatives along the line: *

a’= ot =v'Vv (eq.5.11)

that is:
p
pe =v V ve=veV
ve+9 Vey =0-0+0(—pw)=—pw’
dt

a= as =y Viw=)" VeVi Vav = 08 pro 0=0

whence the centripetal acceleration of the uniform circular motion:

=>
a=—w pe,

d) The tensor character of V¥ can be acknowledged if under a change of

coordinates it transforms itself according to the tensor transformation law for
( ) tensors; therefore we'll calculate it in Cartesian to go then back to polar.
*Recalculating V7 in Cartesian coordinates x, y :
The circular motion of each point of the rotating body at a distance p from
the rotation axis is the composition of two harmonic motions:
xX=pcoswt , y=psinot
These two equations are the parametric equations of the circumference.
Let's calculate the derivative of the vector x :

TZ
" a APCS
d(ipcoswt+
OFFjp sinwt
JPSNOT) +
- _F56 é
sinont + >,Fp cost
whence v* =—pw sinot=-Wy , v= pwcoswt=wx

and the covariant derivatives, scalar components of tensor grad (VI =0):

Ox

Vee ov =
2 ==) ve=|-w °|
0
y oy

7 OW
ee)
Vv, oy J

* tis the line to which ¥ is‘tangent, that is the circumference whose parametric equations
are p=cost ;9=wt in polar coordinates.

170
It is straightforwardto get the acceleration a # o BS = (eq.5.10)
t t

erp ae Vive
2a Dvy* fie!) x iG
Vv x +vV x v=
x
0+ = 2
pwcosut

a= = =vtV wav Vw +wV w= —v’wt0 =—pw*coswt

JD) y u x ) )

; ayn. : » Dye dv™

(notice that, since in Cartesian VT=0 , then aig sai and the acceler-
; : ey
ation can be simply obtained as a’ = oF )

In conclusion @=ia*+ ja’ and a= y(a*)’+(a’)’=w’p , as expected.

« Let's check that the two forms of the gradient of vector V¥% found in polar
and in Cartesian transform tensor-like one in the other: we'll do it starting
from polar form of V,.v° and transforming it into the Cartesian Wie
VP = Viv AGN
(let «,B denote the polar p,6 , while w’,v’ stand for Cartesian x’, y’)

Viv =Vav ALA =Vpv AAS + VeVi AL AS =

NesyA FV ay Aa, + Vevey, KS enous Mi
es
ae =2 ean 0
, Sin6:
_@ 0p Ox Spee = © cos0(—psin8)— wp )cos8=0
Brox! 001, ox Cth © p
Vor =Vy ALA =v, vPAS AX + VevrAS,A2'=
=Viv AA Vay ALA, VWs Ke,GAs he
—— =e" Sean

w Op Oy! OO Oy a se iilal Ne s
—wp— — = = cos80 pcos8-w sind=
Daneel peiete. | Pt cara!
=cos’0+wsin
0=0
Vv"
= Vv AS, Ag =VivPAP As + VeavPAy Ag =
=V>vVAC AS EY pv Agi AG Eaveu NN edie AS .AS=
mr ote = =p

a Gee oe RR aes = ® sind (—psind)— wp cos 0 =

Pooii Oy’ Op
= w(— sin’ 8— cos*8)=—

17H
 oo=V BAX
Vy vw VASAy =ViviAl
AZ — BAP AgAy’ + Ver BAO
Ay RAR
ADta=

=V,v Ab, Az’ + ViviAS. Ag +V eve Al Ay + Vere AS, AS =

_————) —————— N= Regent yee
=0 =o =—wp =0

ee ORE ONE =) MER = 2sino Hecke She 00

Poy’ 00 Cy =cp p
By applying the tensor transformation law to grad Vv we have thus came
back to the already known grad Vv in Cartesian form:

thereby confirming its tensor character.

« The elements of the matrices A used in the calculation are the following:*
Epa he ala
Ah
Ox 0x!
} y

(pea
|
oP =e FY" «sing
Ab =
Oy’ Oy!
Ke cos8 sinO
y") \
a(
AS comp qe
pa
a
u tuk oe
A® Seton SO yrs eSsin®
; roe
F eked Ox!

3 de
| WO (Aa cos8
em Oe Na ene p
2
( 0x dlpcose
Ay =A = =cos0
op op
6
=p sind
i 0 u to) co.

Bo m =
| :
, comp
. [Ay] ms co wed
Ag >
sind pcos0
[e e
oa dp +4 ys ES
UL = sin

y'_ Oy’ _ OlpsinO

Ay = 80 = 230 = peosU. 7J |
\ ®

The matrices AS| and [Ap] are (as expected) inverse to each other.

* In matrix terms we should compute: Vor ey TIV v8] [Ay’ that is:
0 w]_|cos@ —sin6/p 0 w/p|| cosd sinO
-o 0 sind cos6/p||-pw 0 —psind pcosé

172
Problem 30
Find, provided they exist, the transformations of coordinates that transform
the metric from g,,, into Sq1g: inthe two cases:
“l= 0 1 0
y 2..| 0 / fi er=|q a
10) 1 0

Notice that in (a) the signature remains unchanged = 0, while in (b) it

changes 0-2 ; the metric of arrival in case (b) is Euclidean, while all
others are metrics of Minkowski.
For 8, applies the transformation: g,..,,= Aj: A, at
In particular (limiting to diagonal elements #0 g,,,, and g,,,,):

S111 Sieh, Si

SN ae eS aakt NN eB AT AY 821+ At, Mi 82 =

which give, in the two cases under consideration:

a) fOr) 25 — hs has
ax! } |e }
i ne = lS | or Il
814 (2 Ox!
Ox! 2 Ox? 2

K Ox Ox

To satisfy the two equations just put:

1 0x ;

rd. ; ave 2) (cv the 1>)

x x
1 Zz

ae
x a
x ee)
equations that, after integrated, give the respective solutions:

173
 xi=x' +f(x’ )t+a > x =V2x' +¢9(x)+b
x=V2x7 t+h(x')te 3; x =x +1(x')t+d *
which can be summarized in the following two:
[xt=x''t \2x’ +a
se V2 x?
(putting h(x')=x" , f(x?)=V2 x’, a=c it is possible to identify the
two expressions for x!; putting g(x’ )=x" , I(x')=V2 x’, b=d can be
identified the two for x?)
They are valid (linear) transformation that, once inverted, give the desired
transformation x" x" able to transform the metric: 8,7 Sarg: .

Note that, omitting the constants, is: det| At. |=

b) For g,,=—1l ., g,,=1 the same procedure leads to (note the different
sign in the second equation):

which are respectively satisfied for per:

ox. 2 iz
ox Ud
os1 of ce2 =a=
Ox" Oxe

whose integrals are respectively:

x=x + f(x. \ta 3 x4 S20 telx7 lee *

x=x’ +h(x')+e 3 x? =V2x7 +¢(x")+d
summarized, as in the previous case, into the system of the two:
(x'=x' + x +a
4 2 Pel ae
Lx oNAS a a oem leg a 6
which however is not a valid transformation because it is not invertible (it is
not possible to derive expressions for x’, x’ as functions of x! and x?!).

* a, b, c,d are constants of integration; if 4 0 they imply translations of coordinates.

174
 sh
Notice that in this case det] A‘,,]= =
42 V2
Recall that (Sylvester theorem) there are no coordinate transformations able
to change the signature of the metric, for example, to switch from an
Euclidean space into a Minkowski space. Only transformations that leave the
signature unchanged as in the case (a) are possible.

Problem 31

Assess whether the two 2D metrics defined by the following arc lengths are
Euclidean:
l
a ds*=
os i
b) dst = ple!) +(e?)
x

a) The metric defined by the given ds? is, in matrix form:

[Zap]= (x?

Suppose this is an Euclidean metric, so that a transformation of coordinates

whose A leads from Cartesian g,,,,=diag(+1) tothe given &,, exists:

se) fare).
peas,
Suv’
A l

Ore
Sap
0

at

schematically denoted by g,.,,— %,, or full written as:

my U ' VvUy le u f vt

Bag= Ny Ag Syryr = Ag Ag
(g,,,. is the unit matrix and can be unmentioned).
Noticing that the two matrices denoted by A are actually the same matrix it
can be guessed that A is the “square root” of 8,, » so that:

7]
x

ial

(the argument is intuitive, but it's easy to verify that

fe really A-A = g)
Since the elements of the matrix A are A‘, = ae Pune identify:

Ilyfe
 Cece
Aye sy ul
soe x 1! = logx 1 si fie)
yt 2 + a
ia
5 =0 Ve Reoae
whose respective

alae
5
2 solutions are:
2 =h(x2)+e
;

oe =1 Reece eos ed
ae

(a, b, c, d are constants of integration and f g, h, / functions to be

determined).
First two equations for x' are compatible and satisfied by putting:
fix )=0,..2(x \=loex.,. a=b-,sothat x =logx' ta

The second two equation for x” are compatibles and satisfied if:
hix\=x"7, I(x )=0, e=d jsothat x =x*te..
Hence the required transformation of coordinates is:

=
lite loge a
|\ x?’ =x’+e
able to carry the metric g,,,,= diag(+1) into the given form 2,,, which
is thus Euclidean, according to our initial hypothesis.

1
0
b) It correspond to: [g.,]=| (x?)
OF

As in the previous case we assume that §., is an Euclidean metric and

hence exists a coordinate transformation that carries from the Cartesian
metric diag (+1) to the given Sy, :

1
; ; ey wp
01 s
erie 5 See

SOR dni meget NnNc ee

Reasoning as above leads to the system:

176
 CEs l i’ x 2;
Ox! x? x = + f(x) ta

Ox!
ee aw yay es +b
Ox" whose respective g(x!)
xe solutions are:
al =() x* =h(x?)+c
ox" ' 5
ae N= l (x ea

This time the system is impossible because the first two equations are
mutually incompatible and can not be reduced to the same form (in
x'' = g(x')+b there is no place for x2, as the first equation requires).
There is then no coordinate transformation x*—>x" such that its Jacobian
matrix J=A transform the Euclidean-Cartesian diag (+1) into the given
Sas », Which is therefore a non-Euclidean metric. *

Problem 32
For a 3D space in cylindrical coordinates (p,9,z) :
a) compute the coefficients of connection T
b) compute the Riemann curvature tensor
c) argue the intrinsic / extrinsic curvature of the cylindrical surface.
The (inverse) transformation of coordinates from Cartesian to cylindrical is:
Z

x=pcos0
y=psin6
jen
x p

The line element and the metric in the news coordinates are:
il O @
ds’=(dp)’+(pd0)+(adz) > gy=|0 p’ 0
ORO

a) Since the coefficients IT are in number of 7° (in this case 27), most of
them null, we need an appropriate strategy to calculate the significant ones.

* Do not confuse the coordinate transformation with the matrix of its partial derivatives A, or
Jacobian matrix of the transformation (which operates the transformation on the vectors,
not on the coordinates!). Only a linear transformation coincides with its Jacobian matrix A.

177
The coefficients T are related to the derivatives of the metric by the relation:
K 1 xa
Die 8 fae Sen Seu (eq.4.73)
It is clear that for the given metric the only derivative # 0 is 8, » that is
Zo0o=2P ; there are 3 cases:
¢ if 66,9=up,a the 1“ derivative is=2p and the other two are =0; it must be
k=a to get g**40, and since a=p, then g*“=g® that means «=p; thus:

Tio =48"(-20)=-p
1

*if€0,p=Ba,u the 2™ derivative is =2p and the others = 0; then it must be

k=a toget g**¥0, and since a=0, then g**=g*® that means x=0; thus:
Oh 1 500 a Lie
ae = =1
Toe= 58 (2p) = 5 Babee

°if60,p=au,p 3% derivative =2p, the others=0; a=0, g=g%,K=8:

Fe = as above by simmetry.
In the end, are# 0 only: I%,=-p , Ley = Ts =5l

b) The Riemann tensor is identically zero since the space in question is

Euclidean ( @ there is a transformation leading from Cartesian to
cylindrical coordinates). We can verify it by calculating R,,,, from its
definition based on the coefficients I’ and their derivatives (eq.5.46 ):
oo (or a Oo iN (or Xr
Rew =Vevu7 Veyvt Pal pv— Pavlpy
There are n*=81 components of which n’(n’—1)/12=6 independents, most
of them zero. Here, once more, we have to go looking for the significant.
For convenience we use 1, 2, 3 to indicate the coordinates p,0,z .
Because of the symmetries of R.,,, , in 3D may be # 0 only those com-
ponents whose 4 indexes are composed of two pairs chosen among any of
12; 13521523, 31,32,,forexample:
Ri212 ’ Ria3 ’ Rio221 ) Ri23 ’ Ri231 ) R232 5 Ry312 ’ Ry313 pie oO

(pairs with equal indexes, e.g. 11 or 22, correspond to null components).

Notice however that 3 is for z and z never appears as index in the [7 0
valued above. So, it's enough taking in count the R composed by pairs 12
and 21 only, that is Ri22, Rien, Ron2, Roz. Only one among these is inde-
pendent; * it is enough to know, for example R212 to deduce the others by

* This situation, which here occurs in a particular 3D case, is typical of any 2D space, where
the indexes 1, 2 can build only four non-zero R, only one of which independent: in 2D it

178
symmetry:
Ron2=— Riaz =— Raa = Ri (all others are certainly null).
In order to find R,,,.=Rgoo9 » let's compute first:
8 8
Rosa P89 = Bis et Dy yo— Ae lee
=-1/p

Se l
=
Ot a
6
lg8 eral glee hea
p eae
=| om

=-4-0+0+4-0-0=0
p p
to get then Ro,o9 - For that we must lower the first index:
Raguy= SayRpuv= ek eek Bad oie = in this case:
S|
Reise Bay Bane = ikei Bes PRS ERS aeacy,

= Sep rat See wet See Bice =O

8
((B0632 Beso Beare null)

As aresult, also R 96p8 ah, 2 = R=

8p 8p p68p
0 . like all the others.

c) The space is hence extrinsically flat, devoid of “extrinsic curvature”;

which is obvious because it is not the space “cylindrical surface” but the
Euclidean 3D space in which the surface is “embedded”, as it appears to an
external observer (3p (note that all calculations made above generically
apply to the 3D space described by cylindrical coordinates, without refer-
ence to any particular cylindrical surface p = const).
On the other hand, “intrinsic” curvature is the one that appears to an
observer (2p which is confined on the surface and has no notion of a space
of higher dimension. Which curvature will 02» see?
* For ©2p p is not a coordinate, but a fixed parameter which characterize its
space. For (2p the line element and the metric are:

ds?=(pd0)+
2 2 (dz)?
2 > al o 04
The only coordinates are now (6, z) : respect to them all derivatives
&..6 © 8..,, arenull = all TYga0 = all Rey =O >
the space is flat, devoid of eects curvature”. *

will be enough to compute one, for example only R212.

* It's clear that the meaning of “curvature” is not that of common language: a surface simply

179
Therefore the cylindrical surface has null intrinsic curvature: notice that in
fact triangles drawn on the cylindrical surface have the sum of the interior
angles = 180° (and that the Gauss curvature of a cylindrical surface is zero).

Problem 33 _
Given a spherical surface with radius p=a compute and discuss both from
a point of view extrinsic (O03) and intrinsic (Ox):
a) the metric tensor
b) the basis vectors
c) the representation of vectors defined at points of the spherical surface
d) the Christoffel coefficients
e) the Riemann tensor
J) the Ricci tensor and scalar

The transformation from spherical to Cartesian is: ‘

(x =a sino cos 8
|
see sing sin®
Z=a cos

a) An observer 3p sees the spherical surface immersed in 3D space; he can

describe it both in Cartesian and spherical coordinates assuming
0 =az=constant. In the latter case he will possibly draw on the surface a
grid of meridians and parallels that measure the latitude o and longitude 0.
He will take as metric that one of Euclidean space, expressing it either in 3D
Cartesian or in spherical.
As an alternative, (3p can describe the spherical surface intrinsically, without
setting it in its 3D space, and express the line element ds as:
ds’=(a do) +(asino de)’
refusing to consider p as a coordinate and downgrading it to a parameter.

From this ds sp deduces a “reduced” metric g.,,=a° ; iY |

0 sin’o
This intrinsic vision, which is an option for (3p, is the only possible for the
observer (2p native of the spherical surface.

“rolled” as that of a cylinder is not curved, unlike a “domed” surface that is non-
developable in a plane. In facts, the distinction between curvature of space and curvature
of a surface vanishes only when the surface itself is the space (intrinsic point of view), but
is critical when considering surfaces “embedded” in a space (extrinsic point view).

180
An observer (2p will be able to deduce the same “reduced” metric after
realizing that its 2D Space is a spherical surface. In detail he will operate as
follows: he will discover that always moving in the same direction, whatever
it is, he is back to the starting point; measuring the distance traveled he will
be able to determine a ; he could then fix a stake in a point that he will take
as “North Pole”, and draw a network of meridians and parallels to express
the coordinates 0, 0.
b) 3p can define at any point of the spherical surface vectors directed in any
direction and, forexample, describe its components in terms of the Cartesian
vectors-based 7, ye k .
Even limiting to tangent vectors to the surface, @3p will describe them in
terms of 7,7, k © Or else @p can define a suitable system of basis vectors
é, , €, which describe the vectors tangent to the surface. For this class of
tangent vectors, by coordinate transformation from Cartesian to spherical, he
will write down the basis vectors as:
&=Ale= AZ UN gros Opt 10 ey jae zk=
= a(cos cos@i+coso sin® j—sing k)

B= ACE = A I+AZ J+A k= %xit%y jtozk=

= a(—sing sini
+ sing cos6j)
(As a check we can see that
€,-€,—a. 5 €,*e,—¢,°e, 0, e522, Sin @
=e oe > 7 —2 we —0 Pte ae ee

and get once again the components of the spherical metric reduced in 2D,
“amputated” of the coordinate p).

Oxy will be able to define on his spherical surface only vectors tangent
to the surface itself, describing its components by a system of basis
vectors SINS to the surface.
For @p both 7 ; ie k and the expressions for e, ; e, have no meaning. O2
may instead define in every point basis vectors eC , @, tangent respectively
to the meridian and to the parallel, namely a coordinate basis defined as:
me def Meee ed =
dx2dx é.=d é,tdd e,
Since dx is the vector infinitesimal displacement on spherical surface, it's:
dx=é,ado
+ é,a sin6d6
(é,,@, are unit vectors in direction of &,, &, but, unlike these, have unit
length). Comparing the two expressions for dx ©2p will be able to define
his basis of vectors:

181]
 On spherical surface:
é, wherever constant
*y é, depending on @

Cet V bea vector defined in a point of the spherical surface and tangent
to it; for example let V=2e,+3@,, defined on the surface at a point P
whose coordinates are 6=7/3 (=60°) , 9=72/4 (=45°). Both Oxy and @3p can
agree about this definition. *
(sp can express V in3D onbasis {7,7,4} or in 2D on basis (ese an
the latter case he must compute @ ae é, in P and then the components able
to piece together on this basis the vector V whose “physical” components
are 2 and 3. Starting from the already known @, , @, the steps are:
2, = a(coso cos8i+cossin® j—sing k)
& = a(—sing sin®
i+ sing cos0/)

for (> =60° => sino=V3/2, cosp=1/2 they are worth

ae Ie ie A. A
ly

° OTe “GID, 2 4 4 5
é,= V3. N23, v3V2 ay Gee ae
mo) De 4 4
whose lengths are (remind here that 2.4, = @,° @):
ee, = 2, 1Pl a > lé,|= a
2

lé,| = Ey*Eg= Ba9(P) =a sin o(P)=a sel =5 |= Ba

* On the definition of a unit length both @25 and (sp can agree giving a common measure to
a; that allows a concordance also on unit vectors @, , @,.

182
In that way ©3p will come to write the vector V as:
>

V(p)=28,+38,=2
2 +3 2 =2%043_%
le a
On the other hand @y will feature the same vector V on his own basis
LORCA & knowing that é,=ae, , €g=asing é, , as follows:

ee e é en Ray are
(P) = 224
ViP\= 2é,+ 3é, 3e.—=2
. 43 Fern
=] —= —(2 oT
+=. é,)

=/3/2

In conclusion both (2p and @3p agree in representing V.

d) For sp the coefficients T are null as long as he uses a Cartesian system

(in spherical coordinates they result as in problem 25).
Op will deduce I from his “reduced” metric 8. by means of :

hp =e
K 1 KGa

Bhat eee ee) (eq.4.73)

We see that, among all the derivatives, only 8¢,,%9 ; this one can occur
in the above formula as g,,, (in this case pB,a =00,) or as g,.,, (with
Ba, u=09,) or at lastas gu, (ap,B=00,); however, in any case it must
be «=a. in order to be g*°#0 . The cases to be treated are then:
" £.8,0- 800, > thatis puB,a=00,6 =>K=a=9 >
it :
saline. Bho +0 +0)=37-4(-2 a’ sing coso)=
=2a’ sin cos ;
ee =—singd cos@

Spa,u 800,0 ° that is Ba, u=80,0 iki On

1 1]
=> Pease" (0+ Con +0Q)== 2a’ sindcosh =cotgo
2 a’sin’o
=2a’sind cosh

an
a Sadak thatis au,B=80,0 => k=a=0 =
= f= 1 = cos}

e) Riemann tensor: we can use the definition in terms of coefficients I’ :

|
Pye’ Bae VE cdRie
rN
a A
(eq.5.46)
that for 035 means R=0 (since all [ = 0).
©sy will use the same equation, exploiting the symmetries of R,.,, .
according to which the only possible 2D components # 0 are:

183
 Rio = Roi =~ Ryn = ~ Raia (1=0 ,2=6) .

However, the symmetries of soa are not the same of Ree smtO: take
advantage from these latter we go on by steps as follows:
© we compute only one Race , for instance:
o 6 % @ pa oka arya
Rego =(—Tp0,0 + Veag ~ Po, Dee Vaal oo) =
ae)
A?) 2
=sin ~—cos
a 2 > yo > We % no
Ser sin = Como tat Wel oa— lig laa Leg® lga
pO
=
——

_=singcos
igo
me 2 ee
=0 + (sin —cos’) +0 +0—-0+cos >= sin o

® from TR we deduce R 9999 lowering the index as usually by the:

y 1 2 . gn 9 SAS,
Ae Say hay = Fe ek eR See with a=u=o and p=v=6@:
as 0) (9) SEZ ah 2
Ry eco = Soo Raa + Soo Rove =a sin’
CL eS Ee)
=q° =sin’o =

© apply now the symmetries:

Py area?
Roose= ‘ogee > moooes = eone = 4% SIF OD

® and go back to calculate the three missing Ree as follows

y ey a yl y2
Me oa ee eae &§ Le tee es
6 _ 66 06 2 =
Roop = Rogapt 8 Regog =O71=1
=1/a’ sin =a’ sin’
Ce O® 98 a
Roog = S| Koo ek “Sees 8)ripe =‘A ed)

=1/a’ =-a’ sin’ >

6 _ 66 an ey ea
Rog=8 Rogget 8 Roggg =O-1=—1
=1/a’ sin’ =—a’ sin’

Not all components of R are zero, so the space “spherical surface 2D” is not
flat, from the intrinsic point of view of Oz , but curved.
The relationship between R and the curvature « of the space is in general
complex, but in the 2D case simplifies to:
Dien),
2
= Aun = hee eee sin
ge OE Baet
det(gue) det{ gag] a*-a’sin’o a?
Hence 2p finds a positive curvature for his space.

* This value is the same as for the Gauss curvature of a spherical surface of radius a.

184
f) = Ricci tensor
We get it by contraction of Riemann tensor Re , on 1* and 3" index:
ar uw Ae:' 1 ?)
Key = Rei = BeiytReoy >
aT). OMe
Ryo =a Root Rooe ae
———

=i
— pd Oz
Ryo = Ryoot Ro oe = 9
— pe Gh) tes
Reo a Roget Roo =0
_ poe splay eae
Reg = Reoe + Roge
= Sin’
=sin’

* Ricci scalar

Byak = Fane we compute the R* to be contracted to R:

o _ OB _ 200 0 ag
Bote She Or Ke ae, Cha, ee
6 _ 66 00 ]
he —2 kos hot ge : Roo as cit fe
=1/a*sin? =sin? g

and then we make the contraction:

R= R=R°+ P=—+- 1 ==2

y ) 8 oe eae e

In the view of Gp it is V eee a7) Rie =R=0 (his space is flat).

Remark:
In the “extrinsic” vision of O3p ,at each point P the basis vectors tangents to
the meridian and to the parallel @, ,@, lie in a plane tangent to the sphere in
P . Oxy does not “see” this plan that extends outside his space, but finds that
his (curved) space is locally flat at the point P (because vectors @, ,@, are
>

stationary, i.e. vary in the neighborhood of P only for infinitesimal of the

second order). At each point (2p is then able to define a local flat system,
without reference to any tangent plane.

Problem 34

Given the function defined in the plane f(x, y)axt+y?

a) verify that the gradient grad f under change of coordinates behaves like a
covariant tensor (9)
b) compute the directional derivative in direction of the vector V =it+ 2j

185
defined at the point P (3,4)
; aeek (=f
c) compute the absolute derivative along the parametric line es (t-1)
at point P and discuss its analogy with the directional derivative.

Keeping clear that the space into

account is the (x,¥) plane, note
that using for fa z axis orthogonal
to the plane itself, the given func-
tion is represented by a rotational
paraboloid with concavity facing
upwards.

a) Since f is a scalar function, grad f is expressed as V f=e0,f or, in

rectangular coordinates:

Vip 1 OxOL elOy 7 2s $2

Given the function f, the more obvious change of coordinates is toward
polar coordinates, where f is simply written f=’ .
In the new coordinates grad f becomes:

Vf det #20, fah- ai+2s00Fyp _ae0 cl Ne

V pf=2p

Switching from rectangular coordinates x" to polar x“ the components

0 rm :
Q,, of some ) tensor, or covector Q ,transform according to:
O..= Ae bit ox Ox
Ca ih 5 a >
55 Ox

where, in this case, x'=x , x*=y and a’ takes the values p,0 :
2 + oy

SK? Ouo&35
O,=ApQ.= x7 36
oy OF

and since x= cosO , y=osinO:

(i
Q,=cos0-O, + sin6-O,
| Q,= —psin8-O, + pcos8-O,

If Ox, Oy are the Cartesian components of V re(2 x,2y) they are:

186
 Q, = cos0:2x + sin@-2 y= cos8:2pcos0 + sin8-2p sin®@ =2p
QO, =—psin®-2x + pcos8-2y =—psinO:2pcos0 + pcos8:2psin0 =0

and then we get once again as components of Q the same values directly
found in polar coordinates for V ff: indeed V Ff behaves as a covariant
tensor (") under coordinate transformation.

b) The directional derivative, which expresses the variation rate of the

function in a given direction, is given by the projection of the gradient on
the direction unit vector.
The given vector V specifies the direction, whose unit vector is:
amgSS
Y= SS
V
—SSSS SH
v = =
|V | i ee oa v5 V5 V5

The directional derivative in direction ¥ is thus:

ee 5 ~ Sa ees! De Al
Vie = ey | ee —+ oe
f \ : ry v5 i 15 aS

> 44
23 + ——==22
cps in
whic h P (3,4) tak es
the value V+ f*v(P) ===
oy f (7) v5 V5 V5

c) The given parametric line is the straight line y=2x-—2 (as we can see
by eliminating the parameter ¢ from the two parametric equations). This
straight line passes through the point P (3,4) and has the same direction of
the vector V =i+2/7.
The derivative of f along the t-parametrized line is:

PE RSE IgTOd, ZW hgh Mil ON oes, wh

Cie anck wolapieOwi OL bi: 20s

which in P G,4) takes the value £L(p) = 2:344-4=22

The directional derivative and the derivative along the line, calculated in the
same place and in the same direction, should express the same rate of change
and coincide: why two different results?
Indeed the derivative along the line is affected by the ¢ used as a parameter
(the parameter is not unique!) and only if the arc lenght is used as a
parameter the results coincide. In our particular case f was not the arc length;
to realize that let's calculate the arc length ds of the curve as a function of ¢ :
ds’ = dx’+ dy’ =dt’+ (2dt)! =S5dt? = ds=adtV5 = s=tv5

187
The line reparametrized with the arc length s = tV5_ is expressed as:
S 2

—— 5 a ii

: i ; it's easy to note that the derivative along the line <<
ay =2(=-1
(5
parametrized with the arc length s coincides with the directional derivative.

Problem 35
After defined in an Euclidean 3D space a scalar potential function y
“Newton-Coulomb-like” expressed in spherical coordinates by p=—5 ;
determine:
a) the gradient of yw
b) the gradient of the vector grad y

a) the gradient of the scalar y is the covector:

V su OW _ OW
= pli = + 590M
opt ool , x90
4 S80 t —_ ao, BP.pe
1 et
owtFFP
Lexis 20> pea andG dm of
Setting rea, yw is suggested by the “similarity” to the vector “field
strength’; here it is, however, a covector.
The difficulty is easily overcome by recalling that, through application of the
metric tensor qe a covector switches into a vector. The vector “field
strength” is thus obtained as F =g'+F, or F°=¢" F 3; in this case the
only F,#0 is F, , so that the expansion of F“ reduces to the single term
F°=g"°F. (no sum over p!).
The latter expression can be particularized giving to a the values p, 6,6; but
here only for a =p there isa g =g"’=1 while others g° are null. As a
consequence it's simply:
fa Eo 208 F =F (in the case of radial field).

It is thus rightful the (usual) writing: F = ee [thaist Ge =

p p

b) The gradient of F is defined:

Vi=ec (or ak) (eq.4.45)

Let us compute its components, the covariant derivatives VF, giving to

u,v the values p, 0, 8:

188
 Voi Oe eaeTe, FeTiP ston ceppill aidBh®
= oF =e267=—
)2 3
=i) Fi =Fe=() :
(terms in F° and F® are left out in the following since
=0)
Voi? =0,F*+1%,
o_ 7°S=0
=0
Voi? = 0,F+
[:Reese cs)
18,F°=0
8 p=

=0
1, F°=0
V,F°=0,F°+
=0
Visite Op hse Vy FP io)
Lglk3
p
=1/p
V,F Ora=0,F 6 + Ty
6
f== 0
=0
Vor =0,F°t+ Ty, F= 0
=0

V,F" =0,F°?+ TppF?= 0

=0

k
Vere =0,F°+ Ty, Fe= ers
k Oe
= =0°
=1/p
Ope
Assembling the non-null components the grad turn out to be:

Problem 36

Given a line in parametric form x"(t).

: (eae ae
a) show that its tangent vector U = isa () tensor
dt
b) verify this statement in the case the line is a spiral in the plane (p,9)
dx
a) In a generic coordinate system x" the tangent vector U= 7 has

189
 uw ; ,

components U"= ge ; also in a different coordinate systemx” it will

dt

have once again components U’ = a But, by the “chain rule”:

pees dx"
dx" _ dx" dx" _ ALU"
dt Ox" dt m

which is precisely the transformation law that characterizes a () tensor.

b) In coordinates (p,8) the spiral has parametric equations:

|
L
4Zz
=U
s (that is 9 = - 6 = const-® that can be obtained by eliminating
the parameter).
Notice that in this case f is not the arc length (maybe the time).
The vector U tangent to the curve has components:

A yo — 40 —

= “2 that is a
U§ =— =
dt

Switching to Cartesian the parametric equations of the spiral in the new

coordinates (x,y) become:
x=pcosd _, x=kt-coswt
_y=psino y=kt-sinwt
In this new context the tangent vector U_ is expressed as:

ae U*=& = keoswt-ktsinoto
Ur =<. . thatis 4
CF =a =ksinwtt+ktcoswt-w

Now we can see that the same result arises by transforming the components
U®, U® as tensor components:
U™ =AYU" =A" UP + Agus = ae yeu that is:
(u*=<2u? + Su"
AS . it is to say:
C—O
0 Che)

} U* Be
= cos0:k—psinO-w = kcoswt—kt sinwt-o q.e.d.
_U* =sinO-k+pcos8-w=ksinwt+ktcosmt-w

190
Problem 37 _
Given in IR° a surface of equation z= x+ We and on it a line £ whose
projection on the x, y plane is the straight line % passing through the origin
with parametric equations x =at, y=bt . Determine:
a) the tangent vector to the curve £
b) the derivative of the vector V =i(x—y)+j2+k(x’—y’) along the line €
x=at
The complete parametric equations of the line @ are: {/y=br
z=attb?t
(the 3“ obtained by substitution of 1* and 2" into the equation of the surface).
The intersections of the surface with
vertical planes are parabolas with the
concavity upwards, except for y = 0; in
this case, the intersection is a straight
line inclined 45 ° to the plane x, z.
The surface is thus a “gutter” inclined
at 45°, having parabolic sections with
the vertexes of the parabolas aligned
on the bisector of the plane x, z.
a) The tangent vector to the line @ is:

ee ye ee Sg Ne ee
dt dt t dt

thatis:s U=iat jb + k(at+2b°t).

Notice that U has constant length only when the term in ¢ zeroes, for b=0
so that the line @ lies in the plane x, z ; in this case the tangent vector
U=ia+ka lies in the bisector of the plane itself.
b) For what concern grad V, the general formula simplifies since in an
Euclidean space with Cartesian coordinates all the coefficients I are = 0:

Ves Vacs ot I*,V”* becomes: V,V"’=0,V"

among which are#0only: V,V°=0,V'=1
V,V'=0,V%=-1
Vii = 0,V
= 2%
V,Vi=0,Vi =-2y
y

Vat sey
so that:

191
Knowing grad V, the derivative of the vector along the line é can be
calculated directly as:

a Lege, U)= (ii-jit+ik2x- jk2y)*(Fat jb+k(at2bt’))= *

ct >
=(T7-fa—jiejbt+ik2x*la—jk2y+jb)=ia—ib+k2xa-k2yb=
=i(a—b)+k2(a’-b)t
Notice that the derivative of V: i) has always y-component null; ii) is
constant when the term in ¢ is null, i.e. for a=+ 6 (on the bisectors of the
plane x,y); iii) is null for a=b (on the bisector of 1* and 3" quadrant).

Problem 38
A particle describe on the surface of a cylinder with radius p an helical path
xX =pcosot
whose parametric equation are: \ y=psinot
z=ht
(t is the time). Compute and argue about the physical meaning of:
a) the vector tangent to the path
b) the derivative along the line (or “absolute”’) of the tangent vector itself
c) derive a tensorial expression for the acceleration
d) Is the helical path a geodesic?
ax
Uf rF
SS = wpsij nwt=
t= wy

=
a) Calepc
y >
, a
a= Wp cos Ol = 0x ‘ ;
is equivalent
to:

U*=mez,
\ dt sk

U =—iwpsinwt +jopcoswtt+kht whose length is:

\U|=V0-U = Vw"? sin’ wt + w’p2cos?wt +h? = Vw’p? + h?

It is clear that, since the parameter ¢ is time, the vector U tangent to the
path takes the meaning of velocity ( U is already known to be a tensor).

b) the derivative of vector along a parametric line

dV Di eae i
Turron ean ale e (eq. 5.11)

* Inner products like i+? or j+j are = 1. Terms like 7-j(eg.ij+j... or ijck...) are
null and will be not even written.

192
provided V is the tangent vector U itself, is particularized in Cartesian
coordinates as: *
Ce
ea TUTee = dU* ali - oe Ue dU”
dion Wel A a x Uruné, di. ¥

a, 2
di =—w' pcos wt
DU*_ dU’ sats Wire
dt dt - nae =—-w psinwt or:
ave
|dt =a
OU aU ds dU dU ~
ied? weds i +" j +" k=—io pcoswt—jo psinot

dU ae, (|Serer ae
:
and in length: i) = 4 sin wt =’
wp’cos’wt+w'p’

: d Nees
It's easy to realize that a has the meaning of an acceleration; indeed, it is
known from Kinematics that for a motion like that:

X=-w pcoswt ; p=—-w'psinwt ; 2=0 and |a|/=o'p

Summary:
: ; : : du
® in a Cartesian reference has been identified the vectors U, dy Tespect-
ively with velocity and acceleration (since the parameter f is time).
= aU
wien are invariant in form in any other reference since tensors and
their physical meaning is independent of the reference system adopted.
© have thus general validity in any other reference the associations:

| vector tangent to the path U= aa <— velocity

vector derivative along the path a = oe é, <> acceleration *

« We verify the generality of this association rerunning the calculations in a

different reference system, for example in cylindrical coordinates (p, 9, Z):

* Notice that a ale &, hold in an Euclidean-Cartesian context only.

t t

193
 x =pcos0 ; = constant
y=psin@ = parametric equation of the helix: {9 =qr
ie Zab

By the new parametric of the helix we recalculate velocity and acceleration

in cylindrical coordinates (p, 9, z):

Py
= =
7 =—
ap = : OenGU
= Re
— ec = Or =f)
ECE GS ey © i dt
that is U=é,wt+éh and jo|=V0-0 =/g,,U"U =

L078
and since [%,y|=|0 p°0
SOPiet8 |

=VU°U? + UU? + UU = V0 + pw +h =
== Ni N acted
which coincides with velocity found in Cartesian coordinates.

Die aus Yank a)

sp = 2
7 r.
r.,UU =

since are # 0 only Lge De De Delis

f DU® dU® Kru 67780 2
= — aL pl : P=
dt dt he iece rig
=>
oe"
er
DUS ad Cie oh ero gare : 0
a Fem Spt UP +P en UPU =
—— =) =(
=0

[resem (bene
| at dt

a 2 aD Cee Oi os
Le.e, 7
— Fee — oy é, 0+0
+Q+0=—-— pore,

dt\ Nat de Ve" or di Seo dt dt

and a = dU du === | DU" DU" — DU? DUP ==

which coincides with acceleration found in Cartesian.

c) From previous point we get soon the tensor expressions of v , da for the
motion along a trajectory X(t) (t = time):

194
 = comp ¥:
zt GX rey dx
dt dt

3 2x ome Dae) d’x’. pv dx*dx"

dt? dt\dt at? Ws dt «dt
d) In the Euclidean 3D space environment the helical path on the cylindrical
surface is not a geodesic (only straight lines are!).
Unlike the case in which the space (2D) is the cylindrical surface itself. In
this case one can use a system of coordinate (6,2), while p is no longer a
2)

coordinate. The metric of this space is: |g,,]= : :

Once reran the calculations in coordinates (0, z), we find unchanged the
a =
velocities U°=w , U?=h while, taken away —, it is now <— =0 and
the motion has acceleration a@=0.
(Now it is the space itself to be “curved” and for a motion such as that one
considered is no longer required any centripetal acceleration!). The helical
motion of the particle is now a purely “inertial” (not accelerated) motion and
therefore it is presumable that the helix is a geodesic).
« To show that the helix is actually a geodesic, once stated by definition of
a that:
qx daa
a=0 2, SS SS = 0
gee dts dt
we notice that the equation on the right is still valid if the parameter 7 is
replaced with an “affine” parameter s=kt (to s can be attributed the
meaning of arc length ant to k that of velocity, since the motion occurs with
speed |¥|= const); the equation on the right so becomes:

which is the differential equation (or rather, the system of differential equa-
tions) of geodesics.
The cylindrical helix is thus, from a point of view intrinsic to a 2D space
“cylindrical surface”, a geodesic, that is the shortest line * that joins any two
points.
Note the deduction: null acceleration = geodesic path.

* Or the longest one. Let's consider two points near each other on the cylindrical surface: the
short branch of helix joining them is the shortest path, but there is also another helix
joining them “after one tour” along the cylindrical surface. This is the longest path (except
the chance of multiple revolutions!).

195
Problem 39°

For a 2D space with a Cartesian reference (x',x’) and metric 9 = E °|,

determine the geodesic lines.

First of all we need to compute the coefficients [ that appear in the

differential equations of geodesics, what we do now by means of:
K 1 Ka
Fan)
rey caller Raeltyesveat (eq.4.73)

We know that only 21> 82 are #0 and asa consequence only g"', Pacis
; l = 2 :
respectively go =—=e, g’=1. We thus consider only the cases:

g**= g!!, g that is the two cases in which ka= 11,22:

1 hai
Ka=ll —- Dip= 58 Ana veh eons =

up=11 he = Fe" (Heat Sut sun) She as

p= 2 eae? enya) ee tet

up=21 [,, =Tj,=0

uB=22 ee

Fae ae EoD
KOE oes Dig=58 (ao ee eae name =

(uw B=11 Egcae

e e ne 0
|up=12 Vip 58 (-2120t8ia1+ Bn 2) =0
pp=21 ea 0
_ ub = 22 een ne ae FeO

since only g,,,=e is#0.

Using I from above we write the differential equations of geodesics:

Ne pee dx" 5 zu
aed
ds? vO
do
he
as UA ds ds . pee s dares

\ ds? "Ads ds

196
 (in 1* equation it must be uA=11 to
have I’ 0; in the 2" no one is # 0)
Ma ed xia x!
es =2 impun
ds elie.
ds ae =i
on [E+ Wh (eie
pUF=0

(-*=0 =
lds
(marked with a bar above ~ the derivatives whit respect to the arc s).
The system is separable and its solutions are the parametric equations: *
|x'= 2 In|s—k,|+ k,
[x= k,s +k,
or, writing for convenience x=x', y=x*:
rc

|x =2In|s—k,|+k,
| yak s+k,
We eliminate the parameter extracting s from the second to substitute it the
first. After aggregated and renamed the various constants ** we get:
y=ae*l*+b
which is the equation of geodesics. The indeterminate constants ae b are to
be precised as a function of initial and final points.

Problem 40
In an Euclidean 3D space a vector V is parallel transported on a cyl-
0 = cost
indrical surface along a line € having parametric equations 8=or
[z=2 (4)
2 A ; ay ‘ —1 é 3
* To solve the 1* differential equation, it is convenient to set ¥ =Z and rewrite it as
z+ >z2=() which is of the first order with separable variables, thus easy to solve:

a: => ds=—2 22 > paey 2 a 2 We must then solve the

ds 2 z? z SK,
= 2 :
5 ae , whose integral is x'=2 In|s—k,|+k,.
1
The 2 equation has immediate solution: x°=k,s + k,.
** Let k, be the constants. Steps are as follows:
s=(y—k,)/k,= ksy +k, , put inthe 1" gives: x /2=In|s—k |+k,=In|ksyt kel +h, =
=In|k,(y+ks/ks)l+k, = Ink,t Inly + k,|+k, = In| y+kq|+ kyo = x/2-ky)= In\y +k,|

and finally: y+k,= e7)?

kn = @#/2.¢ “= k,,e*/", that is y=a ew?+h .

197
a) Determine how the components of
the vector V°,V®,V* vary
b) Verify the invariance in length of the
vector under parallel transport
c) What does it change when the cyl-
indrical surface itself is a 2D space?

Note that z(t) is unspecified.

a) The vector tangent to the line @ is by definition:
=i Mix , - comp dy" . ; d .
Bas ab ,thatis:s U - te ; in cylindrical coordinates (p,6, z):
dt dt
: LP Su=0
B= 25,3, + Se, = 0% +2'(N)8, i.e. [ee U?=o
t t lu? Se (1)

In this reference:
10 0 eee = 0? » §3= 1
Sag=|0 p O| = #0 are only: gla] ; gual, ei
O20 1 |
| 822 ip
and the only coefficients [ #0 are:
Ty,=—p ? Motes
Keep in mind that the coordinate p is constant on the cylindrical surface.
The condition of parallel transport for a generic vector V_ is (eg.5.8, eg.5.11):

VV =0, that is: oT + TX, U*V*|é,=0 , and it means:

dv' bso
for w=1: ir PP2U i =0.4. with Je0 only itech
= 22"

dV' dV' 2
——
Fe #TU
wn Vv = —-—
ef awV~=0=

dV eee :
for w=2: ae +1, U°V*=0, with T 40 onlyif. «xd = 12,21

dV? ave
peas LGU te ena wV'=0

dv?
for u=3: Pe (no one T° 40 )

198
The third equation states that V*(that is V*) remains unchanged during the
transport regardless of the path (note that for V* it was not necessary to
make any reference to the particular line along which the transport takes
place!). V*=const along any trajectory.
The evolution of the components V', V*(that is V°, V°) under parallel
transport is instead described by the system of differential equations:
i

y)

arr
Solutions of the system are:
[V'=coswt-V) + sinwt-V?
Me SUIT 7 COSI Ts,
hy vas ) Vo

V;.V > are constants depending upon initial conditions: for r=0 it turns
72
V
out to be from the 1%: V'=V} and from 2%: V?= mE ; hence V5, Vi
are, apart from constants, the initial components of V at time =0 (this is
the reason of its names).

Remarks:
« The equations found for Vj} ,V;., in addition to that for V°*, are the
complicated way whereby it is expressed in cylindrical coordinates the
transport of vectors in the ordinary sense, that is the capability to translate
the vectors parallel to themselves without limitations everywhere in 3D
space, which is a property of the Euclidean space*
* the whole calculation is not affected by the trajectory, but only by its
projection on the plane z = 0: the line @ and the z(t) that defines it on the
cylindrical surface can indeed be any.

b) |Vi=VV eV ; we have to prove that 7+ Vis constant:

V V=e VoVe ae. teal

Vit eV ai Vit
p VIVA
* Apart from didactic purposes, the problem could be conveniently treated in Cartesian
coordinates, in which all the I are null and the conditions of parallel transport reduce to
ar =0 that is V*=const and similar ones. We can then switch from V*,V*,V’ to

v°, V°, V?_ by applying a coordinate transformation from Cartesian to cylindrical and by
means of the usual matrix A. What we get are the same expressions found as solutions of
the system of differential equations (try to believe!).

nos
 and substituting the expressions for in yore
unos os
=(coswt-Vj+sinwt-Vi)+p| — Vio y2) HV? =
ll (cosmt-Vj+sinwt-V2)+(—sinwt-V+cos tee +(V?? =
Ca elem eo) ==rcorst e

c) If the space is the 2D cylindrical surface itself, p is constant and no longer

a coordinate, In the remaining coordinates (6, z) it turns out to be:
2
as=p a0 (dz = z.0=|° i = no one 8,5,,~0 = anyl=0
Omey =
= the condition of parallel transport reduces to:
dV! ‘
dtt =! Sg ye= RCI st VN a me MYDe=
ave ae \V~ = const
ere
dt
It is worth noting that no specification was needed about the z(t), that is
about the actual trajectory: the vectors are freely transportable on the
cylindrical surface. This, however, has a different meaning from the trans-
portability all over the 3D Euclidean space of the previous point: there trans-
lating vectors retain their spatial orientation detached from the surface, here
vectors (which are without radial component) are carried tangentially
“crawling” flattened on the surface.
A view from above (“extrinsic”) of the cylindrical surface and of the parallel
transported vectors makes clear the difference between the two cases:

Parallel transport Parallel transport

on a cylindrical surface ina 2D cylindrical
ina 3D environment surface space

* Notice that this is nor the sum of the squares of the components (giving the squared length
in Cartesian): here V; is not the component of V* for r=0 (it is “nearly”, but there is
an hampering factor p ).

200
Problem 41
In the 2D space of a spherical surface of unit radius:
a) find a coordinate transformation leading to a reference which is locally
flat in the point P of coordinates 8=1/4, o=n/4
b) verify that the matrix A related to the transformation leads to a flat metric
nee
c) verify that the metric locally flat in P coincides with the metrics of the
tangent plane.

The point P is located at the center of the first octant of the sphere as shown.
a) On a spherical surface of unit radius the arc element ds is:
ds’=do’+sin
od
thus g,,= : a . Although this is not a flat space, we can define
0 sing
coordinate systems locally flat in each point (and approximately flat in its
surroundings). Moreover, given a point P , the system therein locally flat is
not yet unique, but there are many.
A strategy to define a system locally flat in P (7/4, 2/4) is looking for a
coordinate transformation (starting from the overall metric of the spherical
2D surface) which is suitable for the particular case, deriving it from the
comparison between the two metrics, the global one and that you want
locally flat at the point.
Let x’, x’ the coordinates of the new system flat in P. The flatness
requires first that 2,1) = f |=6,,.,,, which is to say:

ds*=(dx")+(dx’fs.
Comparing the two expressions for ds’, respectively of the spherical
surface and of the flat system, let's impose:

201
 dx'=do , dx’ =sino dé
that gives the transformation in differential form. We should now get the
. il? 2
finished form x =..., xX =....
Comparing the two above expressions with the definition of differential:
Ox
a oe. Ox"
alts, ee aera Ox” de
Gumescus Maks ae
= —dot
Pee Aas
gives:
1! y
a =1 = x'=o+f(0)+c, s =0) > =g(0) rc,
2'
a f

. =0 = x’ =h(0)+c, = sing = x =0-singtl()+c,

(f, g, h, |are functions to be specified; c are integration constants)
Notice that, while the two equations for x’ are compatible (just put
g(o)=o , f(0)=0 ,c,=c,), are not likewise compatible the two
equations for x° , unless assigning a particular numerical value to sing,
a value that implies the choice of a point on the spherical surface.
This confirms that there are no chances to transform to a reference globally
flat but, at the same time, it is possible to do it locally, i.e. with a local
validity, once fixed on a single point.
In this case, to the point P(x/4, 2/4) corresponds v2 .
sing= sin(x/4)=—>

Putting this particular value into the second equation of x° means making
it compatible with the first one (x*= o2 +I(@)+¢e, can be identified with
—

x’ =h(0)+ c, putting h(0)=~6 ,1(@)=0 , c;=c,), but also shrinking

to the small neighborhood of P where sing = sin(x/4). *
For that, the transformation leading to a reference locally flat in P is:
(xV=o +e,

ee
2 V

ES he
To give a value to the constants c the zero of the coordinates must be fixed.
In order to locate the origin of the coordinates x', x* in P(1/4, 2/4) we
impose x'=0 for ¢=1/4, x°=0 for 0=1/4 and get:

* In this case, due to the particular geometry, the neighborhood where sing ~ sin(x/4)
extends to the whole spherical strip of latitude 9 ~ (1/4).

202
 V2,
Cry ~ 65—T oe ts In the end the coordinate transformation is:

ee
ial eels
arr,

BN 2H, a 7
et

It's easy to realize that the coordinates x’, x’ are the arc length * from the
generic point Q to the fixed point P , measured respectively along the
meridian and the parallel (dashed lines in figure).

b) The related transformation matrix A has as elements the partial derivatives

Pi en we
A,,A,,A,,A) » respectively:
Ba gears ae Sp alles SatGr 83iND
(epee fg eG. 7 100)
and hence:
2
# 1 0

ea 0 V2] while its inverse is [a

1 0

= sl=((
ake
*

= The inverse matrix [A] actually operates the transformation of the

metric g,, > g,,,, leading from g..,= } isoy of the spherical surface

to the flat metric 8,1/= 4 : Pe = ALN es 4

For this to happen in the point P, the metric of the spherical surface must be
calculated in that point, and thus we'll take g..= : : , that is
0 sin“o(P)

Sup
era op el ot,
E ol (since sing=-~ im P)..

« Let us verify that actually occurs the transformation 843 7 8,1

SintAya8 gi
Sides Neha EFap — A, est Lie = RNG §28—

=ApAt 8 + AU AT int A Ate Rat AY At) 89 =

Serials aie eT cOentee 0010) 0-0-5 ae]

a, 8 Le 2 4B =
Zia = Ay Ad: Bag = Ay Agr 81g + Ay Ad B28 =

* For a sphere of unit radius, arc and central angle [radiants] have the same measure.

203
 = Aid, Bit ApAgn Bin AG Apa AT AGB y=
= 10-1 + 1420 + 0-0-0 + 0v2-5 =0
ais emINVA autPapua aad Ra 8 CH

SN Atmeig teNone Sap NG dr Rogre oy Nge So

= O11 + 0:00 + V210 + y2-0-5 =0

la 2 {83
§2'2' VN NS Sap — Ay Ay £18 + Ax Ad: 228=

= SN oa 15 ISIS §12 ed Sat GONG £22=

= 0-0-1 + 0-¥2-:0 + 2-0-0 + V2\2-5 =

having found again the flat metric diag(+1) in P , q.e.d.

« It is clear that this reference is not globally flat; it may be considered as

such only in the neighborhood of P , that is for values of 9--1/4 and
o—z/4 small enough, so that sing ~cost ery 2/2,
That the system locally flat in P we built up is not the only one possible is
quite obvious: for example, any reference that takes as “axes” (in place of
the meridian and parallel at P) a couple of great circles of the spherical
surface intersecting in P , any way oriented, should be proper.
Notice that, while deducing the flat local system in P , it has not been neces-
sary to introduce a tangent plane to the surface at that point.
c) The plane tangent to the spherical surface in P intersect the axes at points
A, B,C.

204
The three intercepts of the plane on the axes are equal and worth V3. * The
unit segment from P perpendicular to the plane is the height of the right
triangular pyramid ABCO.
« We want to derive the metric of the tangent plane from its basis vectors.
Let @, 2, be the basis vectors of the spherical surface in P; to express them
in Cartesian coordinates we operate the coordinate transformation from
spherical to Cartesian:
os A an te po LOG Oia OZ. =
B= NG = NEA NEANGE, = Ft SEI+ 5k

= : io ie =p Ox, Oo 02=
Ep=A5& = Age, tAge, +Ajé, =—- i+ = j+ —k
(x=sing cos®
From .y=singsin@ (remind that here p=1) it follows:
_Z=cos

sy7008 0 cos®8 Ea sin® saa sin’

chee
59 sing sin®ae ay _., cos8
58 = sing az
50 _
=0

hence:
@)=i cosh cos8+jcosg sinB—k sin®
€g=— ising sinO+
j sing cosO

Since in P cosh =sino =cos 0=sinO = = we get:

Note that these basis vectors @,,@, of the spherical surface at P can also
serve as basis vectors for the tangential plane, if we assume on it a Cartesian
reference system (v,w) with its origin in P as in figure.
The important fact is that the basis vectors &,,@,, renamed @ and é@
and expressed as above in terms of ian k , hold unchanged for the whole
tangent plane. Thus at each point of the tangent plane will be:

* That can be seen by considerations of elementary geometry on the right triangular pyramid
with unit height ABCO.

205
Recalling that Zus=@.°@s the components of the metric tensor for the
tangent plane follow:
=> > a ae eae: e eo _ > — 1

Siew’ ce el 2 Been aU “) Sia ee b) Eww ew ew 5

: ee lhl AY
oie Fh 0 1/2 for the whole tangent plane, q.e.d.

The locally flat metric in a point of the spherical surface thus coincides with
the (global) metric of the tangent plane in that point.

Problem 42
Given on a spherical surface two points A, B located on the same meridian
and the same parallel, assess whether are geodesic the trajectories AB
a) along the parallel
b) along the meridian ie

Remind that for a 2D

spherical surface:
(0) Ex .
Py, = —sin bcos
Vo
LoS Re cotg >

V other l =0

Let's assume the radius of the sphere to be unit.

a) Path along parallel, for example of latitude » =45°.

Parametric equation of the trajectory: ° Sia

0=of OUs0en
dg
Tangent vector
= _ di
U= —: Sry
dt => :
U=0,
dt jo 49 _
| VU=—=0
\ dt
We may as well take as tangent vector JIE /«=€, and see whether it

is parallel transported, that is if on = 0 along the path:

206
 dA d A* N v
eyo -(44
e ie ee ur)e
E> (where ase since av =())

only
pee en yt Ui
Ere At eu it Ue Ue HT UN +
Peru re er A Ty AL) =
= &,(—sin@coso-1-w + 0-1-0 + 0-0-m + 0-0-0) +
+ &,(0-1-w + cotg-1-0 + cotg-0-w + 0-0-0) =
=-€, wsing cos #0 except at the pole and the equator =>

= the trajectory is not a geodesic.

b) Path along meridian, for example of longitude 8 =0°.

d= a +wt = x <o <
Parametric equation of the trajectory: 4 #la
6=0
13 e: o_ ‘
Tangent vector oe Boe = U=wé,

If B=U/w=é, 0) is parallel transported, then ue=(. Let's check it:

S i
Q By
7, ae |
VY
ae
par -
=
Ja= (where V F
dB = 0)

SWRPA
ae a
UP rel
hy yu > 70
obWes ply Ue
BW ails be sol eRe tele eB)
pela Cries Ul BeOB Ue
i sing cos :0:0 + 0-0-~ + 0-1-0 + 0-1-a) +
ec iow cee 104 0-1-0) =0 =
= the trajectory is a geodesic.
Only great circles, as the meridians, are geodesics. Moving along a parallel
(other than the equator) requires to constantly maintain a “steering” toward
the pole, that is, an acceleration directed along the meridian.
As wellas U is related to a velocity, a is related to the acceleration that
must be applied from outside to force it on a trajectory that is not inertial, i.e.
not geodesic, other than a great circle.

207
Problem 43 |
The surface z= x — y is intrinsically a 2D space with negative curvature.
In it:
a) define a locally flat system in O (0,0)
b) compute in (0, 0) the Riemann tensor, the Ricci tensor, the Ricci scalar
and the Christoffel coefficients
c) compute the length of the path with 8 constant that reach the generic
point P of the surface starting from the origin
d) are there straight geodesics on the surface?

z=x-y has graphical display

as the saddie-shaped surface of a
hyperbolic paraboloid. A short
study about it follows.
Along the bisectors of the four
quadrants y=+x itis z=0 =
intersections of the surface with
the horizontal plane are the two
bisectors themselves.
Trace on the y,z plane: z=—y’
Trace on the x, z plane: z= x
Intersections with vertical planes y=kx = z=(1- k*) x? >

= parabolic trend concavity

: U for [=k 20, =lak—<i
concavity 1 else: k<—1 or k>1
To see how z varies along a circle of radius r centered in (0 ,0) it is better
switching to cylindrical coordinates:
z=r (cos @—sin’8)=r’cos 20
= it is a (co)sinusoid plotted on
the cylindrical surface of radius r
which closes circularly on itself: at
each turn z describes 2 periods of
sinusoid with amplitude r’.
In the origin of axes it is z(0,0)=0 ; in the s-neighborhood, for r= is
ze’ (which is already a symptom of local flatness in (0, 0).

a) The intrinsic metric is of course the Euclidean-Cartesian g,,=54, -

In 2D z is no longer a coordinate and does not longer appear explicitly but

208
 through x,y: dz =2xdx-2ydy =
= dv 2dxtdy td? 2 dx*+dy'+(2xdx-2ydy)? =
= (1+4x?)dx? + (1+4y’)dy’-8xy dx dy =

2 gi See

= xy et => are #0: |Be 4

1~82,1-
812.t
1+4y 4

|82,2=8y

In(0,0)is: g,,(0,0)=,,
(=diag(+1))|
and: 8y,,{0,0)=0 per Va,B,y
= the Cartesian reference (x, y) used to describe the surface 2D is by itself
a system locally flat in (0,0). *

b) = R of Riemann in (0,0)
Since we operate in a reference that makes the space locally flat in (0,0) it is
possible to compute R by the reduced formula devoid of T : **
1
boi = 5 eauae ar EBu 1a aa Sau,Bv iz a ed (eq. 5.44)

£u,1=8
Sef ee
taking count that the only terms # 0 are:
Soa 2an-— 4
£2,» =8

Then, reminding that in 2D only Rizi2 and “derived” can be # 0 , we can

restrict to calculate this single component only:
1 1
Rig = 5 (812,21 Tea Gat ae ict alee at =-4

and, by symmetries, the other components of R # 0 turn out to be:

—4 = Roy = Roy = 7 Rona = 7 Riza
« Since in 2D the curvature k has the simple expression:
R
pa where |g| = det[ g.,9]
lg|
: —4
we see at once that in(0,0): k=—-=-—4
1

* Albeit flat in that point only; outside (0,0) g is globally not reducible to the Euclidean g
5.,g=diag(+ 1) and this already allow us to say that the space is curved.
** AJ] T are =0 in (0,0) since there all the derivatives 2. ,,y are null (eg. 4.73), just as occur
in any system locally flat.

209
 Ricci tensor in (0, 0)
From Rs,,y we get by cotraction Roy eRe = Raat Roos
namely:
Iiia Ea te + Rip,
Reis =R}+ Rae
Rj, SR
= +R,
R=SER st Roos
ne calculated the required Rey, :
Reno Re oak, ators, = 00 = 0
=e Re Ree Ry = OR eA
la ll 12 2
a Se Koes: Ait S Ky O08

& Roe gy Ree shorTO 0

2

11 12
Ry = 440 =—4
Roy = g' * Rao = & Ripe

(in lifting / lowering the indexes we used the metric Zag punctually flat in
(0,0), thatis diag(+1), sothat also g*’=diag(+1)).
Weget:
R,,=0-4=-4
R,,=010=0
R,,=0+0=0
R,,=—4+0=-4
* Ricci scalar in (0,0)
We get itas: R= R°=R, +R,
and it is therefore required the preliminary calculation of:
R =g'°R, = 8 Ry+B R= BR avy]

R= oa Lo g aR yess * Rp = g * Ry = iat
Then: R= R, +R; =—4-4=-8

« Christoffel eco in (0,0)

From Ig =ig" "(~8u5.at+Sau+tSau,e) it follows that vIF'=0 in (0,0)
since all a derivatives of Za, are null
in(0,0).

210
c) We specify at the outset the views extrinsic / intrinsic; the calculation
varies depending on the point of view adopted.
* In the extrinsic 3D vision the surface is embedded in the Euclidean-
Cartesian space IR* and its generic point is P(x,y,z); the path with
constant @ is a line from the origin that climbs on the surface without
changing (azimuthal) direction up to the point P (a curved line of length Z in
3D space). Its projection on the plane (x,y) is a 0-inclined straight line
joining the origin and the projection P(x,y) ofthe point P(x,y,z) .
« In the intrinsic 2D vision the spatial dimension z is abolished and the two-
dimensional surface itself is a space, whose generic point is P(x,y); the
abolition of the z dimension has been achieved — as in (a) — making it
implicit in the other two, paying the price of a g which is no longer
Euclidean-Cartesian. The representation of the surface is not different from
the 2D projection of the 3D surface on the plane, except that the metric is
different and thus the distances are distorted (each point P keeps unchanged
its coordinates (x,y), but the distance between two points will no longer
be the the Pythagorean form). The path with 6 constant takes place along a
straight line of the plane (x,y) from the origin to the point P(x,y) ,
which is the projection on the plane of the 3D path, but the length of the
segment OP is different, equal to the length L of the curved path OP in
the 3D view. This means that, in polar coordinates, the arc lenght Z from the
origin O to the point P is L2p.
« To calculate the path lengths one or the other point of view are equivalent.
We will adopt the intrinsic 2D vision, which sees the surface of the hyper-
bolic paraboloid “flattened” in a two-dimentional reference (x, y or p, 8) at
the price of a metric which is function of the point and distorsive of the dis-
tances. It's better writing the 2D arc lenght in polar coordinates:
ds’= (1+4x?)dx’ + (1+4y’)dy’-8xy dx dy
Since the motion is along a radius p , 8=const and:
x=pcos@, y=psin®, dx=cosO0dp , dy=sinOdp =
ds’=[(1+4p?cos’®)cos’@ +(1+4p’sin*@)sin’® —8p’sin’® cos’6] dp’ =
=[1+4 7(cos’@—sin’0)|dp’ =
[1+ 4 ?cos’20]dp’ , hence:
ds=v1+4p’cos’26 dp
The arc length Z from the origin to the point P is then the integral:

Uh, Se 1+4p’cos’20 dp and, set: u=2p cos20

du=2cos20 dp

211
 = ee + D =
OT a
: E I+u?7+—5in(ur 14) =
~ 2 cos 20 0

=a,
eT pcos26\ 1+4*cos?20 +4 In(2pcos26 +1 +4 p°cos"20 NE

=EV1+4" cos?28 + In(2pcos28+V 1+4’cos?260 )

4cos20

L is the arc length measured along the radial line from the origin O to the
point P of coordinate p=) x*+ y* (intrinsic 2D vision) or, indifferently, the
length of the curve that climbs on the surface up to the point P(x, y,z) keep-
ing rectilinear its projection on the x, y plane (extrinsic 3D vision).
We see that: for p small: L~p (since In{1+e)~e )
forp great: L>p except when cos20=0,
that is: 8 = 45°, 135°, 225°, 315°
L=p on the bisectors of the quadrants, where the surface crosses to the plane
Bagh
« The following figure displays the polar diagram L(p, 8) .

Each quadrilobed curve is related to a value of p taken as a parameter: from

inside to outside are displayed curves for p = 0,2 - 0,4 - 0,6 - 0,8 ... until 2,2.
At constant p , the distance Z from the origin changes with the direction 0.
Hence, only for small p the curves are nearly circumferences.

212
In any direction 0, the value of Z related to p is given by the length of the 0-
oblique segment from the origin up to the curve of parameter p . *
Example: how far from the origin is the point of coordinates 0=30°, p=2 ?
See figure: in the direction 8 =30° draw a segment unto the curve p =2 and
evaluate its length L~2,9 (use asa “ruler” the same graduation of the axes,
made in units of L). This means that in that direction to a p=2 corresponds a
distance equal to L=2,9.
Except on the bisectors of the quadrants, the arc length L diverges rapidly
from the Euclidean p=\x*+y? as p grows; only on the bisectors of the
quadrants it happens that L=p and there is no distortion in the distances.
« It should be noted that the radial lines along which L is measured are not in
general geodesics (only the bisectors of the quadrants, since straight lines
also in the 3D vision, are geodesics), so that Z has not the meaning of a
distance (finite distances between points are measured along geodesics).
Except this particular case, only for small values of p geodetics and the
radial straight lines used in the calculation of LZ can be confused.
(The problem of straight geodesics in general is treated below)

d) Given any two points on the surface, the geodetic path that connects them
is not in general a straight line (this is obvious for the 3D surface, but is also
true for the 2D space, where the straight lines are not in general the shortest
paths, due to the “distortions” effected by the non-Euclidean metric). How-
ever, it may happen that some gedetics are straight lines indeed.
In the following we treat separately the two cases 2D and 3D.

@ Straight geodesics in 2D space

We aim to find, if they exist, straight lines that satisfy the general
equation of the geodesics:
MS! +f",Mme —
= Wekame
—poe =
ds’ Ty ds ds 7
It is now necessary to know in advance all [ (not only in (0,0), but in
general) by means of I'j;, = ii Gina eens) ade betore
that (recall that g is not diagonal!). By steps:

* Calculation of g*“
The inverse of a matrix [A] canbe calculated as:

* Drawing the curves it has been taken as unit length the unit of L; the graduations of the
axes are not those of the Cartesian axes, but are also expressed in units of L.

213
In this case, as [g“*] is the inverse of [2x] :
[ a —3 1 1+4y° 4xy of
= 1
; - 1+4y” 4xy
~ det|g] Axy 1+4x° 1+4y'+4x 4xy 1+4x7

since det|g]= (1+4x°)(1+4y")-16x°y’ = 14+4y°+4x°.

‘ie Sawligsd'y?
144 y+ 4x?
We thus obtain: Hoi oe a
| 1+4y+ 4x
20a 1+ 4x?
144 57+ dx’ 2

* Calculation of [
1 i ei
Ti; =78 Siege See
UWP a ittl 12
5/2 (—8nt Burt 8ua)*8 (=—sieeier so) =
“8x =0 =—Ay oe Ay!

1 4x(1+4y° l6xy 4x
4 i aad le sale)
144 y*+4x° a oe
144y't4x? ets esr aaa)
144(x7+y’)
] hile
l, =58 Sie San Sa) =
l 11 12
=e (= Soap eee (=gingt eats... \= 0
SA any =0 =-4x =o neta

i oe ie a0
1a
ey) met (Sonat ere ee) =

i 11 12
2, lg (on eee ee ae ery ee
=0 =—4x =-4x =8y

—4x
1+4(x°+y7)
(here
=58 alin, (2a oak =
Lael 22
ae (— Sut 8natSunr)*s (Seite ee oan
SSS
=8x =0 =—4y =—4y

214
 =l[g".8x-¢
Vi 221 22 By ee16x° A
Ay(1+4x? a
1+4y+4x° 1+4y +4x 1+4(x +y )
2 12
lr, =58 gest Sais) =
1 21 22
=—18 (So ees ere hae ast tea l= 0
= 4 aay =0 =—Ax =0 =-4x

In=Tp =
2 1 2a
Yr, 58 Sep ue ho) =

« Equations of the geodesics

Given the several zero I the equations reduce to:
ie
ax 4 dx ax dx’ dx’
ee et pa gy telat tie3 Cipla =0)

letdoe dx' dx’ dx* dx’

meron oie reoi oer (Pp =0)

« We first check if radial straight lines from the origin are geodesics, by
examining if they meet the above written equations of geodetics.
The parametric equations of straight lines from (0,0) are: (s=arc lenght)
a 2 Z
1s ateaper so that: ie Bs : GUS 6 ; <= = ay =O
_y =s sin ds ds ds ds
Substituting in the equations of geodesics:

EN [cos*@—sin’®]
1+45?

a ee [—cos*8+sin’6]
1+45?
simultaneously veryfied only for:
[cos’@—-sin’®]=0 => 6 =45° 135°...
We conclude that bisectors of the quadrants of the plain x,y are geodesics.

« This outcome can be easily extended taking straight lines outcoming from a

215
generic point Coca)
xX =x,t+scosO
\y =y,ts sinO
and performing again the calculation, substituting x, y and their derivatives
into geodesics equations. It is straightforward to reach the same conclusion:
only the straight lines inclined at 6 = 45°, 135°,... fulfill.
So, among the geodesics which ty
depart from a point, the only
straight ones are those parallel to
the bisectors of the quadrants
(bisectors themselves included)
Or: if two points P,Q lay on the
same straight line inclined at 45°
or 135° to the x axis, then that
straight line is the geodetic path
connecting them, Otherwise the
geodetic path between two points
is a curved one (for example in
the case of points O, P).*

© Straight geodesics on 3D surface

Since here the metric is Euclidean, geodesics are straight lines in 3D
space; but we would rather see if there are straight lines lying on the
curved surface (that is, such that the whole line is on the surface
2 2
2 i ie

From any point Pi xo¥ oz) of the 3D surface Z)= xe , comes out a
sheaf of straight lines whose parametric equations are:
L= Kat
Y=yotbt
[z=z,tet
3 2 Z
where the last one can be written: 7=X>,—yotct .
Let's impose now that x,y,z satisfies the constraint z=x’—y’; this
means asking that (each point of) the straight line lies on the surface.
The z=x—y can then be written: z=(x,+at)—(y,+bt) .

* To get a qualitative idea about the trend of curvilinear geodesics outgoing from a point we
can resort to a thought experiment (in 3D vision): launching particles from the point in
various directions and leaving they go along inertial trajectories, that is geodesics. The
particles will be laterally diverted toward the valleys by the side slope of the surface.

216
Equaling the two expressions for z we get:

proved =tecerat) Wye bt)" and, through a few steps:

c = 2(x,a-y,b)+t(a°-2’)
In order that this is identically valid for any value of ¢ it must be:
a—-b=0 => a=+b
Then, to ensure that the line lies on the surface of the paraboloid the
constants a,b,c of the line must be tied together by the relations:
a=tb , ©€=2(x,a—y,b)
so that the straight line is:
X=X,tat
Y=, GL
[Z=Z9+2at(x,F yo)
(notice that a can disappear, englobed into parameter)
Actually there are 2 straight lines for each point P(xp,¥o,Z)) , whose
projections on the plane x,y are perpendicular to each other and inclined of
45° and 135° with respect to axes (eliminating the parameter ¢ between the
My : ; :
Vi

first two we get aS i =+1 which represents two such straight lines).
0

For each point of the 3D surface then pass two lines perpendicular to each
other that lie entirely on the surface. The surface of the hyperbolic
paraboloid is a "grooved" surface, which can be built by combining an
infinite number of those straight lines "side by side", changing its orientation
with continuity.
All of these straight lines which groove the 3D curved surface are geodesics
in respect of any pair of points contained in them.
Namely: two points P,Q of the surface whose projections P’, Q’ on the
x,y plane are both on the same line inclined at 45° or 135° to x axis are
connected (in 3D space) by a straight geodesic lying on the curved surface.
The straight geodetics are infinite in number, skew to each other, and their
projections on the plane are straight lines parallel to the bisectors of the
quadrants. The same bisectors of the quadrants are geodesic.

« We also notice here (as in (c) above) the concordance of the results
obtained by adopting the 2D or 3D view: "by squeezing" the 3D surface in a
two-dimensional space, the projections of the straight 3D geodesics coincide
with straight 2D geodesics.

eli
Problem 44
Display the distortive effects on distances operated by the following 2D
metrics with respect to Euclidean metric:

a) (eal=|}°]: » eal=|!9]:0) leael=|! |i @ teadl=[h 9|

1

with k positive integer.

In all four cases spaces are Riemannian spaces (the matrices are invertible,
except for k=0); all the spaces are flat (equal zero are all derivatives
Sap,y » all T° and then the tensor R, too).
The various metrics are also uniform in their respective spaces (do not vary
with the point): in all cases the distorting effects of the metric will be the
same in every point of the space.
In order to show the local effects of the metric we place in a point of space
and move by a predetermined small amount / in all possible @ directions
(i.e. we move steps dx and dy combining them so as to explore all directions
but ensuring that \dx°+dy’=h is constant). For the same / , the distance
ds between the starting and the reached points varies with the direction @ in a
way that depends upon the metric g. The values for ds as a function of the
direction 8 show the distorting effects of g on distances.
a) It's the Euclidean case:
ds’=g,,dx"dk’=1- d+ 0-dedy+0-dydkt+1-dy= ad’+dy=
since dkx=hcos0 , dv=hsin®:
=h’cos’0+h’sin’°@=h and then: ds=h
The polar diagram is obviously a circle: ds=h in all directions.
b) It differs from the Euclidean case for a single —1 in the main diagonal
(Minkowski-like metric). Operating as before, except for taking the absolute
value to be sure that ds* has positive sign: *
ds’= \dx’—dy"|=|h’cos*@—
Frsin*®| = h’|cos’0—
sin’ | = h’|cos20|
and then: ds=hv|cos26| , which gives a polar quatrefoil diagram,
wherever ds<h ; for 8=45°, 135°, 225°, 315° ds correspond to a zero-
shift (all points of the straight lines parallel to the bisectors of the quadrants
are at zero-distance to each other).

* The value ds given by yhe metric as ds’= 24g dx*dx’ has a variable sign when, as in
this case, the metric is not positive definite. In geometric contests in these cases the sign is
“straightened” by resetting ds’=| Zap dx“ dx*| . Not done in Relativity, allowing that it can
be ds?<0 (spacelike intervals).
(A metric g is positive definite if the scalar product g,,V“ V® is >0 for ¥ vector V).

218
c) ds’= |dx’+dxdy+dy"|= 1’ (cos
sin’*0+
0)+h’cos® sin6| = h’|1+cos® sin6|
and then ds=hy|1+cos@ sin@.

d) ds*= (kdx*+dy*)= (kh’cos0+h’ sin’) = h*(kcos*@+sin’@) =

=h’[1+(k-1)cos*@] and then ds = hv 1+(k—-1)cos’®
The polar diagram is drawn for k=2,3,4 (k=1 is not but case (a)).

a) b)

The polar plots are built reporting from any point of the plane a radius-
vector proportional to the ratio ds/h in each direction 9. Its length, readable
on the diagrams, is an index of the "stretching" or "compressing" upon the
distances made by the metric in a certain direction. In each diagram is shown
for comparison the "unit" circle relative to the case (a) for which the
Euclidean ds/h = | (slight stretch).
Example: metric (d) with k=2 gives ds ~ 1,32h in direction 8 =30”.
« We observe that the metric distortion of the distances is not specific of
curved spaces, but also concerns flat spaces, although here geodesics are
straight lines.

ZN,
220
Bibliographic references
* Among texts specifically devoted to Tensor Analysis the following retain a
relatively soft profile:

Bertschinger, E. 1999, Introduction to Tensor Calculus for General Relativity,

Massachusset Institute of Technology — Physics 8.962, pag. 34
Download: http://web.mit.edu/edbert/GR/grl pdf
In just over 30 pages a systematic, well structured and clear though concise
treatment of Tensor Analysis aimed to General Relativity. The approach to tensors is
of the geometric type, the best suited to acquire the basic concepts in a systematic
way. The notation conforms to standard texts of Relativity. No use is made of matrix
calculus. These notes are modeled in part on this text, possibly the best among those
known to the author. Recommended without reserve; it can be at times challenging
at first approach.

Kay, D. C. 1988, Zensor Calculus, McGraw-Hill, pag. 228

This book belongs to the mythical “Schaum Outline Series”, but without having the
qualities. The approach to Tensor Analysis is the most traditional “by components”
(except a final chapter where the broad lines of the geometric approach are piled up
in a very formal and almost incomprehensible summary). The traditional separation
between statements and problems characteristic of Schaum's Outline is here
interpreted in a not very happy way: the theoretical parts are somewhat abstract and
formal, the problems are mostly examples of mechanisms not suitable to clarify the
concepts. In fact, the conceptual part is the great absent in this book (which you can
read almost to the end without having clear the very fundamental invariance
properties of vectors and tensors subject to coordinate transformations!). Extensive
use of matrix calculus (to which a far too insufficient review chapter is devoted).
The second half of the book is dedicated to topics of interest for Differential
Geometry but marginal for General Relativity. The notations used are not always
standard. This text is not recommended as an introduction to the mathematics of
General Relativity, to which it is rather misleading. Self-study risky. On the contrary
it is useful for consultation of certain subjects, when the same are somewhat known.

Lovelock, D., Rund, H. 1989, Zensors, Differential Forms and Variational

Principles, Dover Publication, pag. 366
Text with a somewhat mathematical setting, but still accessible and attentive to the
conceptual propositions. The approach is that traditional “by components” ; are first
introduced affine tensors and then general tensors according to a (questionable)
policy of gradualism. The topics that are preliminary to General Relativity do not
exceed one third of the book. It may be useful as a summary and reference for some
single subjects.

221
Fleisch, D.A. 2012, 4 Student's Guide to Vectors and Tensors, Cambridge University
Press, pag. 133
A very "friendly" introduction to Vector and Tensor Analysis, understandable even
without special prerequisites, neverthless with a good completeness (until the
introduction of the Riemann tensor, but without going into curved spaces). The
approach to tensor is traditional. Beautiful illustrations, many examples from
physics, many calculations carried out in full, together with a speech that gives the
impression of proceeding methodically and safely, without jumps and without
leaving behind dark spots, make this book an excellent autodidactict tool, also
accessible to a good high school student.

« Among the texts of General Relativity (GR), the following contains a

sufficiently practicable introduction to Tensor Analysis carried on by a
geometrical approach:

Schutz, B. F. 1985, A First Course in General Relativity, Cambridge University

Press, pag. 376
Classic introductory text to General Relativity, it contains a quite systematic and
complete discussion, although fragmented, of tensors. At least in the first part of the
book (the one that concerns us here), the discourse is carefully argued, even
meticulous, with all the explanations of the case and only few occasional
disconnection (even if the impression is sometimes that of a bit cumbersome
“machinery”). This is a good introduction to the topic which has the only defect of
“flattening” significantly concepts and results without giving a different emphasis
depending on their importance. For that it would be better dealing with it with some
landmark already acquired. It has been used in various circumstances as a reference
while writing these notes.

Dunsby, P. K. S. 2000 An Introduction to Tensors and Relativity, University of Cape

Town, South Africa, pag. 130
Download: http://www.mth.uct.ac.za/omei/gr/ (PS format)
This is a schematic but well-made summary that follows the text of Schutz. With
few variations, some simplifications and much more incisiveness.

Carroll, S.M. 2004 Spacetime and geometry, Addison-Wesley, pag. 513

Text that has established itself as a leader among those recently published on the
subject GR. It's a fascinating example of scientific prose of conversational style:
reading it sequentially you may have the impression of participating in a course of
lectures. Tensors are introduced and developed closely integrated with the GR. This
text places itself at a level of difficulty somewhat higher than that of Schutz.

Carroll, S. M. 1997 Lecture Notes on General Relativity, University of California

Santa Barbara, pag. 231
Download: http://xxx.lanl.gov/PS_cache/gr-gce/pdf/9712/9712019v1.pdf
These are the original readings, in a even more conversational tone, from which the
text quoted above has been developed. All that is important is located here, too,

222
except for some advanced topics of GR.

Dettmann, C. P. 2007 General Relativity, Universty of Bristol, pag.36

Download: http://www.maths. bris.ac.uk/~macpd/gen_rel/bnotes.pdf
A thorough and original synthesis of the entire GR in few pages, including tensors.
Readable, despite the compression. The structure of the text makes it easy to consult,
even with regard to tensors.

McMahon, D. 2006 Relativity Demystified, Mc Graw-Hill, pag. 344

One of the “Self-teaching Guide”of the “Demystified” Series. It aims to achieve a
“working knowledge” of the subject, without dwelling too much upon theory and
subtilizing concepts. Pragmatic approach, sometimes a little rough, but interesting
for a number of exercises developed in full. Useful, but not sufficient for those not
satisfied by the approximative.

Ta-Pei Cheng 2010 Relativity, Gravitation and Cosmology — A Basic introduction,

Oxford University Press, pag.435
A beautiful volume from the Oxford Master Series that deals exhaustively both GR
that cosmology. The setting is teaching, and various topics are covered thoroughly,
widely, and sometimes in a somewhat insisted way. In short, it is difficult not to
understand, but first there is a lot to read. Tensors are first introduced in outline in
the early chapters, but then, prior to Part IV "Relativity: full tensor formulation", two
chapters are dedicated to them, albeit shrinking to what is interesting for GR.
Appreciable discussion and examples of curved spaces. The book is also worthy of
consideration for the considerable number of problems proposed, and in many cases
solved.

223
224
 Index of Problems by Topic
1 Expansion on basis of vectors
2,3 Dual basis of covectors, duality relation
4 Vector product
b) Components of tensor
6 Non-commutativity of vector product, vector product in T-mosaic
ti Scalar product, Kronecker 5
8 Contraction of tensor, symmetry
9,10 Tensor inner product, product in matrix form
11 Non-commutativity of tensor inner product
12 Inverse tensor
13 _ Inverse tensor in matrix form
14 Dual switch
115) Indexes raising / lowering
16, 17 Coordinates transformation, transformation of basis and components of
vector
18 Transformation into polar coordinates
19 Vector radius or position vector
20 Basis-vectors
Zl Cartesian tensors
22 Coordinates transformation, metric tensor
ws: Vector scalar product
24 ~~ Angle between vectors
ZS Spherical coordinates, metric tensor, Christoffel coefficients
26 Polar coordinates, Christoffel coefficients
a Christoffel coefficients, gradient
28 Gradient, covariant constancy
29 Gradient, covariant derivative, divergence
30-31 Euclidean and non-Euclidean metrics
By) Cylindrical coordinates, Christoffel coefficients, Riemann tensor,
extrinsic/intrinsic curvature
33 Spherical coordinates, Christoffel coefficients, Riemann tensor, Ricci tensor,
Ricci scalar, extrinsic/intrinsic curvature
34 Gradient, directional derivative, derivative along a line
35 Gradient of scalar and vector
36 Tangent vector
37 Tangent vector, derivative along a line
38 Tangent vector, derivative along a line, acceleration, geodesics
39 Geodesics
40 Parallel transport of a vector
4] Locally flat metric, tangent plane
42 Geodesics
43 Spaces with negative curvature
44 Flat metrics and distances

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An informal, simplified
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- with solved problems -

2017 revised edition

ISBN 978=1=326—-297253—9

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