HISTORY OF INTERNET

The Internet started in the 1960s as a way for government researchers to share information.
Computers in the '60s were large and immobile and in order to make use of information stored in
any one computer, one had to either travel to the site of the computer or have magnetic computer
tapes sent through the conventional postal system.
Another catalyst in the formation of the Internet was the heating up of the Cold War. The Soviet
Union's launch of the Sputnik satellite spurred the U.S. Defense Department to consider ways
information could still be disseminated even after a nuclear attack. This eventually led to the
formation of the ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network), the network that
ultimately evolved into what we now know as the Internet. ARPANET was a great success but
membership was limited to certain academic and research organizations who had contracts with the
Defense Department. In response to this, other networks were created to provide information
sharing.
January 1, 1983 is considered the official birthday of the Internet. Prior to this, the various computer
networks did not have a standard way to communicate with each other. A new communications
protocol was established called Transfer Control Protocol/Internetwork Protocol (TCP/IP). This
allowed different kinds of computers on different networks to "talk" to each other. ARPANET and
the Defense Data Network officially changed to the TCP/IP standard on January 1, 1983, hence the
birth of the Internet. All networks could now be connected by a universal language.
In 1985, the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) commissioned the development of a
university network backbone called NSFNET.
The system was replaced by new networks operated by commercial internet service providers in
1995. The internet was brought to the public on a larger scale at around this time.
Since then, the Internet has grown and evolved over time to facilitate services like:
• Email.
• Web-enabled audio/video conferencing services.
• Online movies and gaming.
• Data transfer/file-sharing, often through File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
• Instant messaging.
• Internet forums.
• Social networking.
• Online shopping.
• Financial services.
As a global network responsible for vast amounts of data transfer and process facilitation, the
Internet is constantly evolving. For instance, an initial protocol called IPv4 distributing Internet
Protocol (IP) addresses has largely been replaced by a new IPv6 model that will increase the
number of addresses available for each continent around the globe.
The Internet has also expanded beyond the traditional workstation, as the “Internet of Things,”
(IoT) as it's called, is born. There's still somewhat of a delineation between traditional Internet
nodes, which use a classic web browser, and Internet-connected devices which will more commonly
use reduced instruction set software, but the Internet of Things is blurring the line of where the
Internet stops and the analog world begins.
In addition, there is a key framework that helps people to understand how the Internet is changing,
and where it's likely to go in the future.
This is composed of three versions or iterations of the World Wide Web, as defined above.
• Web 1.0 is the original incarnation of the Internet as a place where most data was read-only.
Web 1.0 is often described by experts as an Internet where the most common kinds of
activity are passive – reading, doing research, or learning about products and services before
making a purchase over traditional media, for example, by telephone.

• Web 2.0: As engineers added things like Javascript applets and modules to the web, Web 2.0
emerged. Web 2.0 is the read/write web or the functional web, where web fields and forms
have allowed users to participate in transactions, upload resources or post their own
suggestions in active conversation.
Web 2.0 is, by most people's assertions, the Internet that we now use. The problem of
“stateless” web-delivered functionality as is Web 2.0, is largely solved by digital “cookies,”
trackers that save individual user data in the browser to enable things like saved passwords.
The trade-off is that user activity is inherently tracked: when a user erases the cookies, that
session data is gone, and the user will have to start over as a new guest in any future
sessions.

• Web 3.0 is the posited future Internet called the "semantic web," where Internet data will
have evolved relationships, and mapping will help automate a lot of what we now do on the
Internet manually. The semantic web, proponents suggest, will be a web that is in many
ways automated by linking individual virtual objects and websites together in a seamless
manner. With that in mind, Web 3.0 may help us to do away with the current model of using
cookies for session data retrieval.

All of these changes show the general purpose nature of the Internet and its broad scope in human
societies. Defining groups like the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C) continue to work on standards and universal approaches.
 USES OF INTERNET
The Internet is a virtual networking medium that can be connected and used on various devices
these days. It enables the users to send, receive, collect, store, update, delete, and many other
operations of the data across the world. Internet usage is expanding its boundaries every day, as the
technological growth is huge. A few of the Internet’s major uses are e-commerce, e-learning,
knowledge sharing, social connectivity, variety of media, file transfer, communication, etc.

Why we use the Internet?

This is the basic uses of the internet which are as follows:
• Seek information on anything across the globe on a real-time basis.
• Communicate, collaborate with others.
• Telecommute to the office or work from home.
• Do transactions with business entities.
• Down load files from a remote.
• Get educated and entertained.
• Carry out social.
• Do group activities.
• Collect operational data from remote equipment (stationary as well as moving).
• Process data while it is streamed to the central server.
• Get real-time data on the surrounding devices, systems, weather to automate activities.
• Design a decision-taking system as against the decision support system.
• Connect people, stakeholders, machines and everything.

Top 9 Uses of Internet

Here are the top uses of the internet, which are explained below in detail:

1. Electronic Mail (email)

The first major use of the internet is Email. People thronged to Email for sharing information, data
files, Photos, Videos, Business communications, and any other files instantaneously with others.
This had enabled faster communication between people and improve business efficiency. An email
has reduced the usage of paper considerably and reduced the load on physical mail systems.
Though other latest collaboration tools provide many rich features, they are not able to de-
popularize Email, and it still rules official and personal communication. There are many free Email
websites offering mail services, and practically every individual has an Email address and
connected by Email. Email concepts paved the way for developing many innovative tools for
improved collaboration.

2. FTP File Transfer

This is the second major use case for the internet in the early days. FTP is the file transfer protocol
that enables data exchange between two stakeholders over internet media in a secure way. The data
exchange may occur between two business entities or customers with business and vice versa.
Normally E-mail restricts the size of a file that can be shared, and also, it is not secured to share
sensitive and confidential data across public networks. FTP concept is still in use even today in
mobile apps for files downloading.
3. Search Engines
These engines locate the information one seeks, available in whichever server across the globe
(world wide web). Google, Yahoo, and MSN are the renowned search engines in use today. One can
search on anything on this site, and the search question can be in any format. In fact, People have
started using the word Google as a generic verb synonymous to search.

4. E-Commerce
The Internet enables the selling of goods and services in online mode. There are many e-commerce
platform vendors like Amazon, Ola who aggregate several products/services available in the market
and sell them through their portal to customers. Products are procured by platform vendors, stored
in their warehouses, packed and distributed by them in their own brand. Customers get a good
discount, and they don’t have to visit physical stores.

5. Online Banking
Called as Net banking, it allows doing banking transactions at ease sitting at home or while on
mobile. Footfalls in the bank branches have come down appreciably with almost all the services are
available in net banking 24×7. Any amount of money can be transferred instantaneously through
this facility. E-Banking supports Electricity bills, Telephone bills, and other services payment.

6. Cashless Transactions
Bill Payment at merchandise outlets through debit cards, credit cards, UPI gateway are on the
increase. Cash circulation gets reduced in the system to the extent of the growth of these
transactions. It’s growing by more than 50% every year, and it is expected to grow by 10 times over
the next 5 years.

7. Education
The Internet offers a wealth of educational material on any subject with structured navigation and
search facilities. One can seek any reading material, and the internet will get it for them from any
server in any part of the world, and people need not have to go to libraries to go through books.
Those who cannot attend physical (face to face) class can take an online course where they get
connected to the teacher, in the other part of the world, in video mode and get taught on the subject
backed up other audiovisual tools.

8. Collaboration
Online chat tools like messenger, Skype, and other video conferencing tools help people to get
connected 24 x7 and have a hassle-free business and personal discussion. This avoids unwanted
travel by people and saves their time for productive use. The Internet has also facilitated work from
home with seamless connectivity to the office and avoid daily commuting.

9. Social Networking
Internet connects people online and enables them to form social groups. Information, Ideas, views,
and opinions on any social/political issues are exchanged. The political and social organization
makes use of this platform in promoting their interest among the public.
 Web Client
The client (or user) side of the Internet. The Web browser on the user’s computer or mobile device
is referred to as a Web client. It could also apply to browser extensions and helper software that
improve the browser’s ability to support specific site services.
Web browser
A web browser is a software program software that searches for, retrieves, and presentations
material which includes Web pages, photos, videos, and different files. The browser sends a request
to the Webserver, which then transmits the statistics returned to the browser, which presentations the
findings at the laptop. Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Google Chrome, and others are examples
of internet browsers.
Webpage
An internet web page (additionally called a web page) is a report that may be regarded in an internet
browser at the World Wide Web. HTML (HyperText Markup Language) and CSS (Cascaded Style
Sheet) are used to generate the primary shape of an internet web page. An internet web page is
generally a segment of an internet site that carries statistics in plenty of formats, which includes
textual content inside the shape of paragraphs, lists, tables, and so on.
The home web page is the beginning or first web page of an internet site. It gives trendy statistics
and connections to all the internet pages which are associated. Every internet web page has its
personal deal with. This may be visible withinside the deal with the bar. As a result, if we need to
get admission to a selected internet web page, the deal needs to be placed inside the browser’s deal
with bar.
Website
An internet site, in trendy, is a group of statistics approximately statistics prepared into many
internet pages. An internet site is probably made for a sure motive, subject matter, or to provide a
service. An internet site (abbreviated as “website” or “site”) is a group of online pages connected
collectively through links and saved on an internet server. By clicking on links, a tourist can pass
from one web page to the next. An internet site’s pages also are connected below one area call and
proportion a not unusual place subject matter and template.
Search Engine
Search engines are websites that search on the internet on behalf of users and show a listing of
results. More than actually written may be discovered on seek engines. You can be capable of
looking for different online content material which includes photographs, video content material,
books, and news, in addition to gadgets and offerings, relying on the seek engine you are the use of.
To make use of the Internet, you do not always want to recognize the deal with an internet site. It is
crucial to recognize the way to do a look for statistics. Using a seek engine is one of the only
methods to seek. A seek engine can help you in finding what you are looking for. You also can
appearance up net maps and instructions to help you to plot your adventure from one factor to some
other. Example: Google, Bing, etc.
Differentiation between Network and Internet
The number one distinction between a network and the internet is that a network is made of
computer systems that are bodily related and may be used as a personal laptop at the same time as
additionally sharing records. The Internet, on the alternative hand, might be an era that connects
those small and massive networks and creates a brand new in-intensity community.
Advantages of the Internet:
• It is the best source of a wide range of information. There is no better place to conduct
research than the internet.
• Online gaming, talking, browsing, music, movies, dramas, and TV series are quickly
becoming the most popular ways to pass the time.
• Because there are hundreds of thousands of newsgroups and services that keep you updated
with every tick of the clock, the Internet is a source of the most recent news.
• Because of virtual shops where you may buy anything you want and need without leaving
your house, internet shopping is becoming increasingly popular. Recently, virtual shops have
been making a lot of money.
Disadvantages of the Internet:
• Spending too much time on the internet is hazardous for the young generation’s health and
leads to obesity.
• Children who use the internet develop an addiction, which is quite dangerous.
• It is now quite easy to decipher someone’s chat or email messages thanks to the hacking
community.
• With the emergence of online businesses, virtual stores, and credit card usage, purchasing
goods without going to the store has never been easier.
 USES OF INTERNET IN COMMUNICATION
Email
Electronic mail or email is one of the key parts of e-revolution which is specially designed for
communication purpose. Once you have an email account, you can start sending electronic
messages to anyone if you have the recipient’s email address. The format of an email address is
"username, @ symbol, domain name (yahoo.com, gmail.com, etc.)". For example:
name@yahoo.com.

Internet Relay Chat (IRC)

IRC is a form of real-time internet chat or synchronous conferencing. It is mainly used for group
communication in discussion forums called channels, also allows one-to-one communication via
private message, and both chats and data transfers via Direct Client-to-Client protocol.
IRC client software is available for every operating system.

Video Conference
A video conference is a telecommunication technology, which permits two or more people in
different locations to interact via mutual video or audio transmission simultaneously. It is also called
visual collaboration and is a type of groupware. Video conferencing uses telecommunication
technology to bring people at different sites together for a meeting/conversation. This can be as
simple as a conversation between two people in private offices, or involves several sites with more
than two people. It can also be used to share documents, computer displayed information,
whiteboards, etc.

Voice Over Telephony (VOIP)

VOIP stands for voice over IP, where IP refers to the Internet Protocol which is a base for all
internet communications. This phenomenon began as an optional mutual voice extension to some of
the instant messaging systems that took off around the year 2000. In recent years, VOIP systems are
easy to use and as convenient as a traditional telephone. Voice quality can still differ from call to
call but is often equal to and can even beat the traditional calls.

Instant Messaging
Instant Messaging (IM) is a process of transferring real-time messages between users. It facilitates
private chat room atmosphere. IM alerts users when some of their peers are online, so the users can
start chatting with them.

Chat
Online conversations in which you are immediately able to send messages back and forth to one
another is called "chat".

Remote access
Internet permits computer users to connect to other computers across the world and to store
information effortlessly. This can be done with or without any security, authentication and
encryption technologies depending on the requirements which encourages work from home culture.

Collaboration
Low cost and rapid sharing of ideas, knowledge and skills has made collaborative work easy. It is a
convenient way to stay in touch with colleagues through group chat or private messaging. Email is
also an easy way to communicate. Collaboration helps voice and video chat between team members
and to work with shared set of documents.

File Sharing
• A file or document can be e-mailed to anyone as an attachment.
• It can be uploaded to a website or FTP server, for users to download content easily.
• It can be put into a shared location or onto a cloud for instant use by colleagues.

Streaming media
Many existing radio and television presenters provide internet "feeds" of their live audio and video
streams. An internet-connected device, such as a computer or something more specific, can be used
to access on-line media in much the same way, as television or radio receiver.

File Transfer Protocol

File Transfer Protocol is a network protocol which is used to transfer data from one computer to
another over any TCP/IP based network. It helps to manipulate files on another computer regardless
of the operating system involved.
Telnet
TELNET means TELecommunication NETwork. It is a network protocol used on the internet or
LAN connections. It helps to provide text oriented mutual communication using virtual terminal
connection.

Newsgroups
A forum on the Usenet service for the discussion of a particular topic. Newsreader software is used
to read newsgroups.
 SEARCH ENGINE
Search Engine is an application that allows you to search for content on the web. It displays
multiple web pages based on the content or a word you have typed.
The most popular search engines are listed below.

Google
Google is the most popular and robust search engine launched in the year 1997 by Google Inc. It
was developed by Larry Page and Sergey Brin. It is written using C, C++ and Python. Beyond
searching content, it also provides weather forecasts, sports score, temperatures, area codes,
language translation, synonyms, etc. Now-a-days the advancement is still more, that it displays
maps in a touch. It is used by 4+ million users across the world.

Bing
Bing is also a popular search engine launched by Microsoft in the year 2009. It is written using ASP
.Net language. It is used to search web content, video, images, maps, etc.

Yahoo
Yahoo is a common search engine launched by Yahoo in the year 1995. It is a multilingual search
engine and written using PHP language.

Ask
Ask is the most popular search engine and application for e-business which was launched by IAO in
the year 1996. It was developed by Garrett Gruener, David Warthen, and Douglas Leeds.

AOL
America Online is a popular search engine launched in the year 1993 by AOL Inc. At first, it was
called as control Video Corporation. The founders of AOL are Marc Seriff, Steve Case, and Jim
Kimsey.
 HOW TO CONNECT TO THE INTERNET

Before connecting to the Internet, you must determine the method you want to use. The methods
are,
Connecting to the Internet with a modem.
Connect to the Internet with broadband.
Connect to the Internet using a smartphone.

Connecting to the Internet with a modem

Connecting to the Internet using dial-up (e.g., a 56k modem) is still viable despite the growing use
of broadband Internet connections. However, a dial-up connection is much slower. If you plan on
doing more than the occasional web surfing or reading and sending e-mail, consider broadband.
Using dial-up to connect to the Internet requires your computer to have an internal or external
modem and a home phone line (landline).
Most new computers don't have a modem. If your computer has a modem, it should have an RJ-11
connection (not to be confused with an RJ-45 connection).
A dial-up modem should not be confused with a broadband or cable modem.

How do I find what computer modem we have?

Once you have verified you have a modem; you need to find an ISP (Internet service provider). In
most areas, you can connect to the Internet using a local ISP. Alternatively, you may want to
consider a large ISP, such as AOL or MSN, which provide Internet service in many areas all over
the world.

Your ISP should provide you with instructions on connecting your modem to their Internet service,
and troubleshooting support for connectivity issues.

Check your local listings for companies that provide you with an Internet connection. Also, talk to
your friends or family to see whom they like to use as an Internet service provider.
Connect to the Internet with broadband
Wireless broadband modem

Connecting to the Internet using broadband is much faster than a standard 56k modem. Having
more bandwidth allows you to do more exciting things on the Internet, such as watch movies, listen
to music, and play games, and better load times for websites.
Most broadband services are provided by a phone or cable company. Contact your local phone or
cable service providers to see if broadband is available in your area.

If broadband service is available in your area, the company can provide you with the hardware (e.g.,
cable modem) required to access their service. This hardware usually connects to a Network card
(RJ-45 connector) on a computer using a Cat 5 network cable. If your provider does not offer a
wireless router, you can purchase a router to share your Internet connection with multiple computers
and devices.
Your ISP should provide you with instructions on connecting your modem to their Internet service,
and troubleshooting support for connectivity issues. Some broadband ISP companies send a
technician to your home and set up Internet service to your computer.
 WEB SERVER
A web server is nothing but software and hardware that uses the Hypertext Transfer Protocol,
commonly known as HTTP, and some other protocols that respond to request from clients made on
the World Wide Web. The main job that the webserver performs is to display the content of the
website, which it does by storing, then processing, and eventually delivering the webpages to the
user who has requested it. The web server also supports Simple Mail Transfer Protocol or SMTP
and File Transfer Protocol or FTP and HTTP. These are used to transfer files for emailing and even
for storage.

WEBSITES COMING FROM WEB SERVER

The web server software gets accessed using the domain name of a website. This then ensures that
the content of the site gets delivered to the user who has requested it.
Here is the answer to how does a web server works? When any web browser, say Firefox or Google
Chrome, requests for a file that is hosted on the web server, the browser will ask for the file using
HTTP. The web server receives the right, and then the HTTP server accepts the request. It finds the
content asked for and sends it using HTTP back to the browser.
Basically, when a browser asks for a page through the web server, then the process goes through
many steps. The person specifies the URL in the address bar of the web browser, and then the web
browser gets the IP address of the domain name. This is done by either translating the URL using
the Domain Name System or DNS, or it is done by searching through the cache. This brings the
browser to the webserver.
The browser then asks for a particular file from a web server, which is done by sending an HTTP
request. The web server then responds and sends the requested page to the browser, which is done
using HTTP again. In case the page asked for does not exist or if there is something amiss, then the
web servers get back with a message stating that there is an error. The browser then displays the
webpage.
The web server is also capable of hosting many domains.

Uses of Web Server

• Send and receive emails.
• Download the file transfer protocol or FTP request
• Build and publish webpages.
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
A computer network is a cluster of computers over a shared communication path that works for the
purpose of sharing resources from one computer to another, provided by or located on the network
nodes.
There are various types of Computer Networking options available. The classification of network in
computers can be done according to their size as well as their purpose.
• PAN (Personal Area Network)
• LAN (Local Area Network)
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN (Wide Area Network)
Let’s study all of these types of networking in detail.

What is PAN (Personal Area Network)?

PAN (Personal Area Network) is a computer network formed around a person. It generally consists
of a computer, mobile, or personal digital assistant. PAN can be used for establishing
communication among these personal devices for connecting to a digital network and the internet.

Characteristics of PAN
Below are the main characteristics of PAN:
• It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a limited area.
• Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the surrounding of a single user.
• PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.
• It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.
• Appliances use for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and Bluetooth systems.

Advantages of PAN
Here are the important pros/benefits of PAN network:
• PAN networks are relatively secure and safe
• It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
• Strictly restricted to a small area

Disadvantages of PAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of using PAN network:
• It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio bands.
• Distance limits.

What is a LAN (Local Area Network)?

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral devices which are connected
in a limited area such as school, laboratory, home, and office building. It is a widely useful network
for sharing resources like files, printers, games, and other application. The simplest type of LAN
network is to connect computers and a printer in someone’s home or office. In general, LAN will be
used as one type of transmission medium. It is a network which consists of less than 5000
interconnected devices across several buildings.
Characteristics of LAN
Here are the important characteristics of a LAN network:
• It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.
• LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.
• There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring and ethernet.
Advantages of LAN:
• Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local area networks.
This significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
• You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the licensed software
for each client in the network.
• Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server computer.
• You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
• It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.
• Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection among all the
LAN users.

Disadvantages of LAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of LAN:
• LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial cost of
installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
• The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not offer good
privacy.
• Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN admin is not able
to secure centralized data repository.
• Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues related to
software setup and hardware failures

What is WAN (Wide Area Network)?

WAN (Wide Area Network) is another important computer network that which is spread across a
large geographical area. WAN network system could be a connection of a LAN which connects
with other LAN’s using telephone lines and radio waves. It is mostly limited to an enterprise or an
organization.

Charateristics of WAN
Below are the characteristics of WAN:
• The software files will be shared among all the users; therefore, all can access to the latest
files.
• Any organization can form its global integrated network using WAN.

Advantages of WAN
Here are the benefits/pros of WAN:
• WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business offices situated at
longer distances can easily communicate.
• Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming consoles, etc.
• WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client devices.
Disadvantages of WAN
Here are the drawbacks/cons of WAN network:
• The initial setup cost of investment is very high.
• It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and network
administrators.
• There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of different
technologies.
• It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple wired and
wireless technologies.
• Offers lower security compared to other types of network in computer.

What is MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)?

A Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is consisting of a computer network across an entire city,
college campus, or a small region. This type of network is large than a LAN, which is mostly
limited to a single building or site. Depending upon the type of configuration, this type of network
allows you to cover an area from several miles to tens of miles.

Characteristics of MAN
Here are important characteristics of the MAN network:
• It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range
• Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
• Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Advantages of MAN
Here are the pros/benefits of MAN network:
• It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic cables.
• It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater access to WANs.
• The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both directions
concurrently.
• A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.

Disadvantages of MAN
Here are drawbacks/cons of using the MAN network:
• You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to another.
• In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers
 TOPOLOGY
The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and receiver is
referred to as network topology. The various network topologies are

a) Star Topology :
In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central
node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not
an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known
as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them.

Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection i.e. hub.
a Advantages of this topology :
• If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
• Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of
ports required is N.
Problems with this topology :
• If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will
crash down.
• The cost of installation is high.
• Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.

b) Bus Topology :
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a
single cable. It transmits the data from one end to another in a single direction. No bi-directional
feature is in bus topology. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the
backbone fails the topology crashes.
Figure 3: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the channel via
drop lines.
Advantages of this topology :
• If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is 1, which is known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are
required.
• The cost of the cable is less as compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small
networks.
Problems with this topology :
• If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
• If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various
protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
• Security is very low.

d) Ring Topology :
In this topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with its exactly two neighboring devices.
A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if someone
wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have
to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in
the network.
The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections
between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.

Figure 4: A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.
The following operations take place in ring topology are :

1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility to perform the
operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the
token is to be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
 4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token just
after transmitting the data and Delay token release releases the token after the
acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
Advantages of this topology :
• The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
• Cheap to install and expand.
Problems with this topology :
• Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
• The addition of stations in between or removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
• Less secure.
 ISDN
ISDN – otherwise known as integrated services digital network – is a digital phone connection that
can transmit data, voice and video over a normal telephone line. It was meant to be a method of
transmitting information much faster than a typical analog phone; however, the phone industry was
able to survive the arrival of the ISDN and these days, is stronger than ever. Therefore, ISDN has
diminished in use; however, those that do provide it as a service target high-traffic businesses that
need the ability of sending information and making calls simultaneously.

Benefits of ISDN
There are a handful of benefits that a business should consider when looking into ISDN. Because of
its ability to send information faster and to do more at the same time, it is more expensive.
However, it has been argued by some that use it that the cost is easily remedied due to the superior
service. Here are a few benefits of using ISDN:
• Faster dial up: It takes only 1-3 seconds to connect in comparison to an analog phone.
• Digital: Because it is digital, it can provide information 64 kbps consistently.
• Multi-mode: This means that a single channel can transmit whatever is needed: voice, data
or video.
Because of these benefits, businesses have found that it is cost effective to use ISDN. However, the
big problem people have is determining what type of ISDN modem to go with. There are so many
around to choose from and some are incredibly expensive.
ISDN stands for Integrated Services Digital Network. It is used to bridge the Central Office's local
loop and the premise connection (home). ISDN uses the existing wiring so that no new cabling is
required. It is a digital service that restores the analog plain old telephone set.
An Integrated Digital Network (ISDN) is a network in which digital switching connections are used
to transmit digital signals. Integrated Services refers to ISDNs ability to deliver two simultaneous
connections, in any merging of data, voice, video and fax, over an individual line. Multiple devices
can be connected to the line and sent as needed.
An ISDN is a network, in general evolving from telephony ISDN, which provides end-to end digital
connectivity to provide a broad range of services such as voice and non-voice services, to which
customers have to create by a limited set of standard multipurpose user network interfaces.

Advantages
• ISDN is a mature technology, and it has been around since the late 1980s. It has been tried,
tested and works.
• A worldwide set of standards governs it.
• It offers symmetrical transfer rates− the transmit rate is the same as the receiving rate.
• It has consistent transfer rates. If you have a 64 Kbps bearer channel, then it is the speed that
you transfer at.
• It is a competitive price compared to other technologies.

Disadvantages
• An external power supply is required. The telecommunication doesn't supply power for
ISDN lines. If the power fails, the mobile phones won't work.
• Unique digital phones are necessary or a terminal adapter to talk to the existing plain old
telephone set devices.
• It is costly to upgrade a central office switch ($500,000+) to ISDN.
• If the ISDN fails-the phone fails.
 ADSL (ASYMMETRIC DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE)
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) is a type of broadband communications technology
that transmits digital data at a high bandwidth over existing phone lines to homes and businesses.
In order to access ADSL, a Digital Subscriber Line modem (DSL modem) is installed at the client
side. The DSL modem sends data bits over the local loop of the telephone network. The local loop
is a two – wire connection between the subscriber’s house and the end office of the telephone
company. The data bits are accepted at the end office by a device called Digital Subscriber Line
Access Multiplexer (DSLAM).

Features of ADSL
• ADSL is one among the DSL family of technologies.
• ADSL is used in the local loop of the telephone network, i.e. the part of the telephone
network that connects the customer premises with the end office of the telephone company.
• The telephone company uses a Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer (DSLAM) at its
end office so that multiple ADSL users can be connected to the high-speed backbone
network.
• Most ADSL communications are full-duplex communication. It is achieved by any of the
following technologies −
• frequency-division duplex (FDD)
• echo-cancelling duplex (ECD)
• time-division duplex (TDD)
• The most common technology uses FDD. Here two separate bands are used for upstream
and downstream communications.
• ADSL uses frequency bands 26.075 kHz to 137.825 kHz for upstream communication and
138–1104 kHz is downstream communication. Voice transmission occurs at less than 4 KHz.
So, data transmission occurs simultaneously with voice transmission.
• ADSL filters are used on customer premises with non-DSL connections.
• ADSL uses analog sinusoidal carrier waves for data transmission. The waves are modulated
and demodulated at the customer premises with ADSL modems.

Cable Internet is a category of broadband Internet access that uses the infrastructure of cable TV
network to provide Internet services. Cable Internet provides connectivity from the Internet service
provider (ISP) to the end users in a similar manner as digital subscriber line (DSL) and fiber-to-the-
home (FTTH).

System Layout
Broadband cable Internet access has a cable modem termination system (CMTS) at a cable operator
facility, called a headend. Headend is connected to switching centers by high bandwidth fiber trunk.
Each switching center is connected to one or more fiber nodes through fiber optic cables. The local
coaxial cable connects to the customer which has a cable modem to receive the services.
Features of Cable Internet
• Hybrid Fiber Coax (HFC) System: The system uses a combination of fiber cables and
coaxial cables. Fiber cables are used for long haul connections, fiber trunks connect the
headend with switching centres and fiber cables connect switching centre with fiber node.
Coaxial cables run to the individual houses. The fiber nodes are responsible for optical –
electrical conversion of signals.
• Cable TV networks were originally one – way traffic. So, they had one-way amplifiers.
These are replaced with two-way amplifiers to enable both upstream and downstream traffic.
• Peak downstream bit rates can be as high as 1 Gbps, while upstream bit rates ranges from
384 Kbps to more than 20 Mbps. One downstream channel can be connected to hundreds of
cable modems.
 BLUETOOTH
Bluetooth is a network technology that connects mobile devices wirelessly over a short-range to
form a personal area network (PAN). They use short-wavelength, ultra-high frequency (UHF) radio
waves within the range 2.400 to 2.485 GHz, instead of RS-232 data cables of wired PANs.

Features of Bluetooth
• Bluetooth technology was released in 1999 as Bluetooth 1.0, by Special Interest Group
(SIG) who continues to manage it.
• It was initially standardized as IEEE 802.15.1.
• Mobile computing devices and accessories are connected wirelessly by Bluetooth using
short-range, low-power, inexpensive radios.
• UHF radio waves within the range of 2.400 to 2.485 GHz are using for data
communications.
• A PAN or a piconet can be created by Bluetooth within a 10 m radius.
• Presently, 2 to 8 devices may be connected.
• Bluetooth protocols allow devices within the range to find Bluetooth devices and connect
with them. This is called pairing. Once, the devices are paired, they can transfer data
securely.
• Bluetooth has lower power consumption and lower implementation costs than Wi-Fi.
However, the range and transmission speeds are typically lower than Wi-Fi.
• The lower power requirements make it less susceptible to interference with other wireless
devices in the same 2.4GHz bandwidth.
• Bluetooth version 3.0 and higher versions can deliver a data rate of 24 Mbps.
• The Bluetooth version 4.0 came in 2010. It is characterized by low energy consumption,
multivendor interoperability, the economy of implementation, and greater range.
 Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is a wireless networking technology that uses radio waves to provide wireless high-speed
Internet access. A common misconception is that the term Wi-Fi is short for “wireless fidelity,”
however Wi-Fi is a trademarked phrase that refers to IEEE 802.11x standards.
Initially, Wi-Fi was used in place of only the 2.4GHz 802.11b standard, however the Wi-Fi Alliance
has expanded the generic use of the Wi-Fi term to include any type of network or WLAN product
based on any of the 802.11 standards, including 802.11b, 802.11a, etc. in an attempt to stop
confusion about wireless LAN interoperability.
How does Wi-Fi work?
Wi-Fi networks have no physical wired connection between sender and receiver. Instead, they
function by using radio frequency (RF) technology a frequency within the electromagnetic spectrum
associated with radio wave propagation. When an RF current is supplied to an antenna, an
electromagnetic field is created that then is able to propagate through space.
The 802.11 standard is defined through several specifications of WLANs. It defines an over-the-air
interface between a wireless client and a base station or between two wireless clients.
There are several specifications in the 802.11 family −
• 802.11 − This pertains to wireless LANs and provides 1 - or 2-Mbps transmission in the 2.4-
GHz band using either frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) or direct-sequence
spread spectrum (DSSS).
• 802.11a − This is an extension to 802.11 that pertains to wireless LANs and goes as fast as
54 Mbps in the 5-GHz band. 802.11a employs the orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM) encoding scheme as opposed to either FHSS or DSSS.
• 802.11b − The 802.11 high rate WiFi is an extension to 802.11 that pertains to wireless
LANs and yields a connection as fast as 11 Mbps transmission (with a fallback to 5.5, 2, and
1 Mbps depending on strength of signal) in the 2.4-GHz band. The 802.11b specification
uses only DSSS. Note that 802.11b was actually an amendment to the original 802.11
standard added in 1999 to permit wireless functionality to be analogous to hard-wired
Ethernet connections.
• 802.11g − This pertains to wireless LANs and provides 20+ Mbps in the 2.4-GHz band.
Access Protocols:
IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs use a media access control protocol called Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA). While the name is similar to Ethernet's Carrier
Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD), the operating concept is totally
different.
WiFi systems are the half duplex shared media configurations, where all stations transmit and
receive on the same radio channel. The fundamental problem of a radio system is that a station
cannot hear while it is sending, and hence it is impossible to detect a collision. Because of this, the
developers of the 802.11 specifications came up with a collision avoidance mechanism called the
Distributed Control Function (DCF)

Its advantages are:

1. It can be used to connect to Internet anywhere and anytime and is quickly replacing the
wired medium.
2. It is relatively cheaper compared to the wired medium.
 3. Multiple devices can be connect with WiFi to create a WLAN.
Its limitations are:
1. Higher power consumption.
2. Slower speeds than wired medium.
3. Transmission breaks or slows down when there is noise interference.