08-02-2024

Control System (EE-206)

Reference Books
(1) Control System Engineering by I J Nagrath/M Gopal

(2)Control Systems – Principles and Design by M Gopal

(3) Control System Engineering by Norman S. Nise

(4) Automatic Control Systems by B. C. Kuo

(5) Design and Analysis of Control Systems by Arthur G.O. Mutambara

CS EE-206 Lecture
Slides
by Prof. R Saha,EED

Control System _ Introduction

Control is an information science, and includes the use of information in both analog
and digital representations.
Feedback is a central feature of life. The process of feedback governs how we grow,
respond to stress and challenge, and regulate factors such as body temperature, blood
pressure and cholesterol level. The mechanisms operate at every level, from the
interaction of proteins in cells to the interaction of organisms in complex ecologies. [Mahlon
B. Hoagland and B. Dodson, The Way Life Works, 1995 ]

Control relies on a type of input/output modeling that allows many new insights into the
behavior of systems, such as disturbance rejection and stable interconnection.
A modern controller senses the operation of a system, compares that against
the desired behavior, computes corrective actions based on a model of the
system’s response to external inputs and actuates the system to effect the
desired change.
A system is said to be a closed loop system if the systems are interconnected in
a cycle, as shown in Fig.a. If we break the interconnection, we refer to the
configuration as an open loop system, as shown in Fig. b.

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CONTROL SYSTEM

• The term feedback refers to a situation in which two (or more) dynamical
systems are connected together such that each system influences the
other and their dynamics are thus strongly coupled. By dynamical system,
we refer to a system whose behavior changes over time, often in response
to external stimulation or forcing.

• A system is linear if the superposition (addition) of two inputs yields an

output which is the sum of the outputs that would correspond to
individual inputs being applied separately.
➢ A system where input/ output relationships may be represented
by a linear differential equation.
➢ The plant is linear if it can be described using a set of linear
differential equations. System parameters do not vary as a
function of signal level. The equations that constitute the model
are linear.

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Time-Variant System.
A system where the parameters vary as a function of time. A linear time variant
system is described by linear differential equations with variable coefficients. Its
derivatives appear as linear combinations, but a coefficient or coefficients of terms
may involve the independent variable.
A rocket-burning fuel system is an example of time variant system since the rocket
mass varies during the flight as the fuel is burned.

Time-Invariant System.
A time-invariant system is a system described by a differential equation with
constant coefficients. Thus, the plant is time invariant if the parameters do not
change as a function of time. A system is time-invariant if the output response for a
given input does not depend on when that input is applied.The system is described
by linear differential equations with constant coefficients. A single spring mass
viscous damper system is an example of a time-invariant system provided the
characteristics of all the three components do not vary with time.

CONTROL SYSTEM
More precisely, for a time invariant system if the input u(t) gives output y(t), then if
we shift the time at which the input is applied by a constant amount a, u(t +a) gives
the output y(t +a).
Systems that are linear and time-invariant, often called LTI systems: the interesting
property that their response to an arbitrary input is completely characterized by their
response to step inputs or their response to short “impulses”.

Many electrical engineering systems can be modeled by LTI systems and hence a large
number of tools are available to analyze them. One such tool is the step response,
which describes the relationship between an input that changes from zero to a constant
value abruptly (a “step” input) and the corresponding output.

Another possibility to describe a LTI system is to represent the system by its response to
sinusoidal input signals. This is called the frequency response. The results are based on
the theory of complex variables and Laplace transforms. We can characterize the
behavior of a system by its steady state response to sinusoidal inputs. This is normally
done by decomposing any arbitrary signal into a linear combination of sinusoids (e.g., by
using the Fourier transform) and then using linearity to compute the output by
combining the response to the individual frequencies.

Multivariable Feedback System, where the inter-relationships of many controlled

variables are considered.

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A linear continuous-time system :

For any two input signals x1(t), x2(t), and any real constant ’a’, the system
responses satisfy,

S [ x1(t) + x2(t)] = S [x1(t)] + S [x2(t)] and S [ a x1(t) ] = a S [x1(t) ]

A time-invariant system obeys the following time-shift invariance property:

If the response to the input signal x(t) is

y(t) = S [x(t)]

then for any real constant T,

y(t - T) = S [x(t - T)]

Examples of LTI Systems

➢ Constant-gain system, y(t) = 3 x(t)

➢and linear combinations of various time-shifts of the input signal, for example
y(t) = 3x(t) - 2 x(t - 4) + 5 x(t + 6)

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CONTROL SYSTEM-3
• Control engineering relies on and shares tools from physics
(dynamics and modeling), computer science (information and
software) and operations research (optimization, probability
theory and game theory).
• We often use the terms open loop and closed loop when
referring to such systems.
• A system is said to be a closed loop system if the systems are
interconnected in a cycle, as shown in Figure. If we break the
interconnection, we refer to the configuration as an open loop
system.

CONTROL SYSTEM-4
• A typical example of a modern control system is shown in the Figure. The
basic elements of sensing, computation and actuation are clearly seen.

Figure: Components of a computer-controlled system

• Computation is typically implemented on a l computer, requiring the use

of analog-to-digital (A/D) and digital-to-analog (D/A) converters.
• Uncertainty enters the system through noise in sensing and actuation
subsystems, external disturbances that affect the underlying system
operation and uncertain dynamics in the system (parameter errors,
unmodeled effects, etc).

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Good Control System-5

• Accuracy: To improve accuracy of a control system, error detector should
be present.
• Sensitivity : A control system should be insensitive to change in
surrounding conditions, internal disturbance, etc. It is sensitive to input
signals only.
• Noise : An undesired input signal is known as noise. A good control
system should be able to reduce the noise effect for better performance.
• Stability : For the bounded input signal, the output must be bounded. If
input is zero then output should be zero and such a control system is said
to be stable system.
• Bandwidth : An operating frequency range decides the bandwidth of
control system. Bandwidth should be large as possible for frequency
response of good control system.
• Speed : It is the time taken by control system to achieve its stable output.
A good control system possesses high speed. The transient period is very
small.
• Oscillation : A small numbers of oscillation or constant oscillation of
output tend to system to be stable.

Advantages of Open Loop Control System -7

• Simple in construction and design.

• Economical.
• Easy to maintain.
• Generally stable.
• Convenient to use as output is difficult to measure.

Disadvantages of Open Loop Control System

•Inaccurate.
•Unreliable.
•Any change in output cannot be corrected
automatically.

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Examples of Open Loop Control System -6

1. Electric Hand Drier - Hot air (output) comes out as long as you keep your
hand under the machine, irrespective of how much your hand is dried.
2. Automatic Washing Machine - This machine runs according to the pre-
set time irrespective of washing is completed or not.
3. Bread Toaster - This machine runs as per adjusted time irrespective of
toasting is completed or not.
4. Automatic Tea/Coffee Maker - These machines also function for pre
adjusted time only.
5. Timer Based Clothes Drier - This machine dries wet clothes for pre-
adjusted time, it does not matter how much the clothes are dried.
6. Light Switch - Lamps glow whenever light switch is on irrespective of light
is required or not.
7. Volume on Stereo System - Volume is adjusted manually irrespective of
output volume level.

Closed Loop Control System

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Close Loop Transfer Function

Examples of Close Loop Control System -8

• Automatic Electric Iron - Heating elements are controlled by output

temperature of the iron.
• Servo Voltage Stabilizer - Voltage controller operates depending
upon output voltage of the system.
• Water Level Controller - Input water is controlled by water level of
the reservoir.
• Missile Launched and Auto Tracked by Radar - The direction of
missile is controlled by comparing the target and position of the
missile.
• An Air Conditioner - An air conditioner functions depending upon
the temperature of the room.
• Cooling System in Car - It operates depending upon the
temperature which it controls.

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CONTROL SYSTEM -9

Servo-mechanisms:

Servomechanisms are the feedback control systems used to control

position, velocity, and acceleration .

A servomechanism is a power-amplifying feedback control system in which

the controlled variable is a time derivative of position such as velocity or
acceleration. An automatic aircraft landing system is an example of
servomechanism. The aircraft follows a ramp to the desired touchdown
point.

Another example is the control system of an industrial robot in which the

robot arm is forced to follow some desired path in space.

Advantages of Closed Loop Control System -10

• More accurate as any error arising is corrected due to

presence of feedback signal.
• Bandwidth range is large.
• Facilitates automation.
• Sensitivity of system may be made small to make system
more stable.
• System is less affected by noise.

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Disadvantages of Closed Loop Control System-11

• Costlier than open loop system.

• Complicated to design.
• Required more maintenance.
• Feedback leads to oscillatory response.
• Overall gain is reduced due to presence of feedback.
• Stability is the major problem and more care is
needed to design a stable closed loop system.

Transfer Function
• Close Loop or overall Transfer function
-----Ratio of the controlled variable C(S) to the input signal R(s) i.e.
(C(s)/R(s)= G(s)/(1+G(s)H(s))

• Forward Transfer function

---Ratio of the controlled variable C(S) to the actuating signal E(s) i.e.
(C(s)/E(s)= G(s))
• Open Loop TF
------Ratio of the output of the feedback path B(s) to the actuating signal E(s)
for any given feedback loop. i.e.
B(s)/E(s) = G(s) H(s)
• In case of unity feedback, where H(s)=1, open loop transfer function and
forward transfer function are the same.

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Closed Loop System

Undesired input signal

controller
the error or
control action

R (s) is an external
signal applied to a
feedback control
system to command
a specified action of
the plant

Feedback Elements: The feedback elements establish the fundamental relationship between the controlled
output C(s) and the primary feedback signal B(s). They include sensors of the controlled output,
compensators, and controller elements.
Feedback Path: The feedback path is the transmission path from the controlled output back to the summing
point.
Forward Path: The forward path is the transmission path from the summing point to the controlled output.

Physical system: Control System-12

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Mechanical System

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Physical System
• Mechanical Systems:
➢ Translational
➢ Rotational
• Electrical /Electronic Systems
Analogues Systems : Systems remains analogous as long as their
differential equations or transfer functions are of identical form.
Alternatively, Systems that can be represented by the same
mathematical model, but that are physically different, are called
analogous systems.

Mechanical-Electrical Analogies Mechanical systems can be

studied through their electrical analogs, which may be more
easily constructed than models of the corresponding
mechanical systems.

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Physical System

➢ Two electrical analogies for mechanical systems:

Force (Torque)-Voltage Analogy & Force ( Torque)-
Current Analogy.

• D’Alembert’s Principle:
➢ Static equilibrium of a dynamic system obeys the
following principle:
“For any body, the algebraic sum of external applied
forces and the forces resisting motion in any given
direction is zero.” …….Free Body Diagrams (FBDs)

Masses: the inertia or resistance to acceleration

Springs: represent the stiffness of a system- a restoring force
Dashpots: dashpots are the forces opposing motion, i.e. friction
or damping.
Mass:

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Spring Characteristics

Dashpot Construction

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Gear Trains

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Gear Trains

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For Physical Problems, follow any reference Book

END-1

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Laplace Transformation

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Transfer Function

• In general, a physical system that can be represented by a

linear, time-invariant differential equation and can be
modeled as a transfer function.
• Combining transfer functions with block diagrams gives a
powerful method for dealing with complex linear systems.
• The transfer function focuses on the steady state response
due to a given input, and provides a mapping between
inputs and their corresponding outputs.
• The basic idea of the transfer function comes from looking
at the frequency response of a system.
• Modeling a system through its response to sinusoidal and
exponential signals is known as frequency domain
modeling.

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Transfer Function

• The TF of a LTI system is defined as the ratio of

the Laplace transform of the output variable to
the LT of the input variable under the assumption
that all initial conditions are zero.

• It does not give any information concerning the internal

structure of the system.

• TF always gives poles and zeros of the system.

• Stability of the system is determined from TF.

Transfer Function

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Closed Loop System

Undesired input signal

controller
the error or
control action

R (s) is an external
signal applied to a
feedback control
system to command
a specified action of
the plant

Feedback Elements: The feedback elements establish the fundamental relationship between the controlled
output C(s) and the primary feedback signal B(s). They include sensors of the controlled output,
compensators, and controller elements.
Feedback Path: The feedback path is the transmission path from the controlled output back to the summing
point. In case of unity feedback, H(s)=1
Forward Path: The forward path is the transmission path from the summing point to the controlled output.

Transfer Function
• Close Loop or overall Transfer function (Negative
feedback control)
-----Ratio of the controlled variable C(S) to the input signal R(s) i.e.
(C(s)/R(s)= G(s)/(1+G(s)H(s)) [ CL_ Gain= G/(1+GH) ]

• Forward Transfer function

---Ratio of the controlled variable C(S) to the actuating signal E(s) i.e.
(C(s)/E(s)= G(s))

• Open Loop TF /Feed Forward control

------Ratio of the output of the feedback path B(s) to the actuating signal E(s)
for any given feedback loop. i.e.
B(s)/E(s) = G(s) H(s) [ OL_ Gain= G(S) ]

• In case of unity feedback, where H(s)=1, open loop transfer function and
forward transfer function are the same.

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Closed Loop Control System

➢ In case of MIMO Control System ( r inputs and m outputs) the i th output Ci (s)
is given by the principle of superposition as,
r
Ci ( s ) =  Gij ( s ) R j ( s ); i = 1, 2,....., m
j =1

Where Rj(s) is the j the input and G ij is the TF between the i th output and j th input
with all other inputs reduced to zero .

Positive feedback (exacerbating feedback, self-reinforcing feedback) in

Control system (ref. Wikipedia)

• Positive feedback is a positive loop gain around a closed loop of cause and
effect.
• That is, positive feedback is in phase with the input, it adds to make the input
larger.

• When the loop gain is positive and above 1, there will typically
be exponential growth, increasing oscillations, random
behavior from equilibrium.

• System parameters will typically accelerate towards extreme values, which

may damage or destroy the system. Positive feedback tends to cause system
instability.
Examples:
➢ Positive feedback in chemical reactions can increase the rate of reactions,
and in some cases can lead to explosions.

➢ Positive feedback is the loud howling sound produced by audio feedback

in public address systems: the microphone picks up sound from its own
loudspeakers, amplifies it, and sends it through the speakers again.

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Test Signals in Control SYstem

Test Input Signals

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Useful for testing the ability of the control system

to position itself with respect to a stationary
target, such as a satellite in geostationary orbit,
an antenna position control,etc.

Used for testing to track a constant-velocity

target, such as, a position control system that
tracks a satellite that moves across the sky at a
constant angular velocity, to evaluate the steady-
state error between the satellite’s angular
position and that of the control system.

Second derivatives are constant, representing

constant acceleration inputs to position control
systems to represent accelerating targets, such as
the missile to determine the steady-state error
performance.

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Block Diagrams Simplification

Block Diagrams Simplification--2

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Block Diagrams Simplification--3

Block Diagrams Simplification--4

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Block Diagrams: Problem

Evaluation of C/R1

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Evaluation of C/R2

SYSTEM TYPEs

• The values of the static error depends upon the form of G(s) in
the forward path, especially the number of pure integrations.

• The system type is defined to be the value of n in the

denominator or, equivalently, the number of pure integrations
in the forward path.

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SYSTEM Type & Order

• Therefore, the value of ‘n’ in the denominator denotes the type of

the system e.g.
n= 0 - Type -0 system,
n=1 -Type-1 system,
n=2 - Type-2 system, and so on.
• Thus value of n in denominator, i.e. number of poles at origin only is
independent to number of zeros of transfer function.

• The order of the system refers to the order of the equivalent differential
equation representing the system i.e. the order of the denominator of the
transfer function after cancellation of common factors in the numerator. The
highest order of ‘s’ in the denominator of the TF determines the order of the
system.
• Examples:
G(S)= K/s(s+1) it is of 2nd order, type 1 system.
G(S) = K(s+1)/s^2 it is of 2nd order type 2 system.

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Open Loop TF

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Multiplying by s , find A
Multiplying by s+5 , find B

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Transfer Function of Field Controlled DC Motor

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Transfer Function of Armature Controlled DC Motor

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Problem- Find TF

Sensitivity
• Changes in system parameters affect the behavior of the system.

• The changes in system parameters that affect system transfer functions, and
hence performance, is called sensitivity.

• A system with zero sensitivity (that is, changes in the system parameters
have no effect on the transfer function) is ideal.
• Defn of Sensitivity :
It is the ratio of the fractional or percentage change in the function to the
fractional or percentage change in the parameter (so G(s)) as the fractional
change of the parameter approaches zero.
It is used to describe the relative variations in the overall Transfer function of
a system T(s) due to variation in G(s).

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Sensitivity

Sensitivity

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Sensitivity

The sensitivity of T wrt H, the feedback sensor, is given by,

T H  −G  −GH
 = G 
H
S HT =  =
H T  (1 + GH ) 2  G / (1 + GH ) 1 + GH
For large values of GH, sensitivity of the feedback system wrt H approaches
unity. So , the changes in H directly affect the system output.
It is important to use feedback elements which do not vary with environmental
changes or can be maintained constant.

Signal Flow Graph (SFG)

• Introduced by S. J. Mason.
• Giving more detailed representation of a control system than a block diagram.
• Giving the passage of signals through the systems for feedback systems.
• Giving a clear indication of the feedback paths in the system.

• What is SFG ?
• A graphical representation of the relationship between the variables of a set
of linear algebraic equations.
• It consists of a network with junctions points called nodes;
• The nodes are connected by paths called branches which have always
directions (shown by arrow).
• A signal travels along a branch only in the direction of the path (arrow).
• A diagram which represents a set of simultaneous equations.
• Deriving the Transfer Function Block Dgm from SFG.
• The value of variable at each node is equal to the algebraic sum of all signals
entering that node.

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Signal Flow Graph-2

Some Terms in SFGs:

Node:
Input or source node: It has only outgoing branches i.e. node ‘R’ in Fig.
Output or sink node: It has only incoming branches i.e. node ‘C’ in Fig.
Chain node: It has both incoming and outgoing branches .

Nodes perform 2-functions :

(1) Addition of the signals on all incoming branches
(2) Transmission of the total node signals (the sum of all incoming signals)
to all outgoing branches.

Gain or Transmittance :
It is the relationship between variables denoted by two nodes or value of a
branch (e.g. t12).

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Mason’s Gain Formula…1

Terms in SFGs:
Dummy nodes:
If the first node is not an input node and/or the last node is not an output node
then a node is connected before the existing first node and a node is connected after
the existing last node with unity transmittances. These nodes are called dummy
nodes. In Fig.1, ‘R’ and ‘C’ are the dummy nodes.
Loop (Feedback path) :
Closed path that starts from one node and reaches the same node after travelling
through other nodes, and no node is encountered more than once.
In Fig. 1, see four such loops, i.e.
loop-1 (L1):‘x2-x3-x4-x2’,
(3) (5)
loop-2(L2):‘x5-x6-x5’,
loop-3(L3):‘x1-x2-x3-x4-x5-x6-x1’ and (2)
loop-4(L4):‘x1-x3-x4-x5-x6-x1’. (1)
Self Loop:
(4)
The loop starts from one node and reaches the same
node without travelling through other nodes i.e. loop in
node ‘x4’ with transmittance ‘t55’ in Fig.1. Loop-5(L5):x4-x4
Non-touching Loops:
Two non-touching loops if they don’t have any common nodes between them. In
Fig.1, [L1 (= -t2t3t6) , L2 (= -t5t7)]; [ L5(=t55 ), L2 (= -t5t7)] are two non-touching loops.

Mason’s Gain Formula….2

SFGs:

Forward path: Path(s) from input node to output node without repeating any of the
nodes in between them.
In Fig.1, there are two forward paths, i.e.
Fw_Path-1:‘R-x1-x2-x3-x4-x5-x6-C’ and
Fw_Path-2:‘R-x1-x3-x4-x5-x6-C’.

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Mason’s Gain Formula…3

SFGs:

The gain between the input and the output nodes is the transfer function of the
system.

Fw_Path gain(s): Product of gains/transmittances of all branches of a forward

path. In Fig.1,
Path gainsfor Path-1: P1 = t1t2t3t4t5 .
For path-2: P2 = t9t3t4t5
Loop gain: It is the product of gains or transmittances of all branches of a loop.
In Fig.1, there are four loops, i.e. L1 = -t2t3t6, L2 = -t5t7, L3 = -t1t2t3t4t5t8, and
L4 = -t9t3t4t5t8, and Self loop gain L5=t55

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SFG from block diagram model

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A PASSIVE Ladder Network :

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Refer to the Assignments for Problems

End

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