Relativity

The Principle of Galilean Relativity

There is no absolute inertial reference frame. Therefore, the results of an experiment
performed in a vehicle moving with uniform velocity must be identical to the results of the
same experiment performed in a stationary vehicle. The formal statement of this result is
called the principle of Galilean relativity:
“The laws of mechanics must be the same in all inertial frames of reference.”
Consider also an observer on the ground as in Figure 39.1b. Both observers agree on
the laws of physics: the observer in the truck throws a ball straight up, and it rises and falls
back into his hand according to the particle under constant acceleration model. Do the
observers agree on the path of the ball thrown by the observer in the truck? The observer on
the ground sees the path of the ball as a parabola as illustrated in Figure 39.1b, whereas, as
mentioned earlier, the observer in the truck sees the ball move in a vertical path

Consider two inertial frames S and S’ (Fig. 39.2). The S’ frame moves with a constant
velocity v along the common x and x’ axes, where v is measured relative to S. We assume
the origins of S and S’ coincide at t = 0 and an event occurs at point P in space at some
instant of time.
For example,

The Speed of Light

Maxwell showed that the speed of light in free space is c = 3.00 x 108 m/s. Physicists
of the late 1800s thought light waves move through a medium called the ether and the speed
of light is c only in a special, absolute frame at rest with respect to the ether.

That can be understood by recognizing that Maxwell’s equations imply that the speed
of light always has the fixed value 3.00 x 108 m/s in all inertial frames, a result in direct
contradiction to what is expected based on the Galilean velocity transformation equation.
To resolve this contradiction in theories, we must conclude that either (1) the laws of
electricity and magnetism are not the same in all inertial frames or (2) the Galilean velocity
transformation equation is incorrect. If we assume the first alternative, a preferred reference
frame in which the speed of light has the value c must exist and the measured speed must
be greater or less than this value in any other reference frame, in accordance with the Galilean
velocity transformation equation. If we assume the second alternative, we must abandon the
notions of absolute time and absolute length that form the basis of the Galilean space–time
transformation equations.
The Michelson–Morley Experiment
The experiment was designed to determine the velocity of the Earth
relative to that of the hypothetical ether. The experimental tool used was
the Michelson interferometer.

Details of the Michelson–Morley Experiment

To understand the outcome of the Michelson–Morley experiment, let’s assume the
two arms of the interferometer in Figure 39.4 are of equal length L.
−1
L L 2Lc 2L v2
∆t arm2 = + = 2 = (1 − )
c + v c − v c − v2 c c2

Now consider the light beam traveling along arm 1, perpendicular to the ether wind.
2L 2L v 2 −1/2
∆t arm1 = 2 = (1 − 2 )
(c − v 2 )1/2 c c

The time difference Dt between the horizontal round trip (arm 2) and the vertical
round trip (arm 1) is
2𝐿 𝑣 2 −1 𝑣 2 −1/2
∆𝑡 = ∆t arm2 − ∆t arm1 = [(1 − 2 ) − (1 − 2 ) ]
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
Because v2/c2 ≪ 1, we can simplify this expression by using the following binomial
expansion after dropping all terms higher than second order:
(1 − x)n ≈ 1 − nx (for x ≪ 1)

In our case, x = v2/c2 , and we find that

𝐿𝑣 2
∆𝑡 = ∆t arm2 − ∆t arm1 ≈
𝑐3
Therefore, the path difference that corresponds to this time difference is
2Lv 2
∆d = c(2∆t) = 2
c
The corresponding fringe shift is equal to this path difference divided by the wavelength
of the light:
2Lv 2
Shift =
λc 2
 Many efforts were made to explain the null results of the Michelson–Morley experiment
and to save the ether frame concept and the Galilean velocity transformation equation for
light. All proposals resulting from these efforts have been shown to be wrong. No experiment
in the history of physics received such valiant efforts to explain the absence of an expected
result as did the Michelson–Morley experiment. The stage was set for Einstein, who solved
the problem in 1905 with his special theory of relativity.

Einstein’s Principle of Relativity

Einstein proposed a theory that boldly removed these difficulties and at the same time
completely altered our notion of space and time. He based his special theory of relativity on
two postulates:
1. The principle of relativity: The laws of physics must be the
same in all inertial reference frames.
2. The constancy of the speed of light: The speed of light in
vacuum has the same value, c = 3.00 x 108 m/s, in all inertial frames,
regardless of the velocity of the observer or the velocity of the
source emitting the light.

Consequences of the Special Theory of Relativity

In this section, we restrict discussion to the concepts of simultaneity, time intervals, and
lengths, all three of which are quite different in relativistic mechanics from what they are in
Newtonian mechanics. In relativistic mechanics, for example, the distance between two points
and the time interval between two events depend on the frame of reference in which they
are measured.
Simultaneity and the Relativity of Time
A basic premise of Newtonian mechanics is that a universal time scale exists that is the
same for all observers. Newton and his followers took simultaneity for granted. In his special
theory of relativity, Einstein abandoned this assumption.
 Consider a box car moves with uniform velocity, and two bolts of lightning strike its ends
as illustrated in Figure 39.5a, leaving marks on the boxcar and on the ground. The marks on
the boxcar are labeled A’ and B’, and those on the ground are labeled A and B. An observer
O’ moving with the boxcar is midway between A’ and B’, and a ground observer O is midway
between A and B.
This observer realizes that the signals traveled at the same speed over equal distances
and so concludes that the events at A and B occurred simultaneously. Now consider the same
events as viewed by observer O’ the time the signals have reached observer O, observer O’
has moved as indicated in Figure 39.5b. Therefore, the signal from B’ has already swept past
O’, but the signal from A’ has not yet reached O’.
Time Dilation
To illustrate that observers in different inertial frames can measure different time
intervals between a pair of events, consider a vehicle moving to the right with a speed v such
as the boxcar shown in Figure 39.6a. We model the pulse of light as a particle under constant
speed. Because the light pulse has a speed c, the time interval required for the pulse to travel
from O’ to the mirror and back is
distance 2d
∆t p = =
speed c
 According to this observer, the mirror and the flashlight are moving to the right with a
speed v, and as a result, the sequence of events appears entirely different. By the time the
light from the flashlight reaches the mirror, the mirror has moved to the right a distance v∆t/2,
where ∆t is the time interval required for the light to travel from O’ to the mirror and back to
O’ as measured by O.
According to the second postulate of the special theory of relativity, both observers
must measure c for the speed of light. To obtain a relationship between these two-time
intervals, let’s use the right triangle shown in Figure 39.6c. The Pythagorean theorem gives
c∆t 2 v∆t 2
( ) = ( ) + d2
2 2
Solving for ∆t gives
2𝑑 2𝑑
∆t = =
√𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 𝑣2
𝑐 √1 −
𝑐2

Because ∆t p = 2d⁄c, we can express this result as

∆t p
∆t = = λ∆t p
2
√1 − v2
c
Where
1
λ=
2
√1 − v2
c
Because λ is always greater than unity, Equation 39.7 shows that the time interval ∆t
measured by an observer moving with respect to a clock is longer than the time interval ∆t p
measured by an observer at rest with respect to the clock. This effect is known as time dilation.
 Time dilation is a very real phenomenon that has been verified by interesting example
of time dilation involves the observation of muons, unstable elementary particles that have
a charge equal to that of the electron and a mass 207 times that of the electron. Muons can
be produced by the collision of cosmic radiation with atoms high in the atmosphere. Slow-
moving muons in the laboratory have a lifetime that is measured to be the proper time interval
∆t p = 2.2 𝜇𝑠. If we take 2.2 𝜇𝑠 as the average lifetime of a muon and assume that muons
created by cosmic radiation have a speed close to the speed of light, we find that these
particles can travel approximately (3 × 108 )(2.2 × 10−6) ≈ 6.6 × 102 m before they decay
(Fig. 39.8a)

Hence, they are unlikely to reach the surface of the Earth from high in the atmosphere
where they are produced. Experiments show, however, that many muons do reach the
surface. The phenomenon of time dilation explains this effect. For example, for v = 0.99c,
λ ≈ 7.1 and λ∆t p < 16 𝜇𝑠. Hence, the average distance traveled by the muons in this time
interval as measured by an observer on the Earth is approximately (0.99)(3.0 × 108 )(16 ×
10−6 ) ≈ 4.8 × 103 m as indicated in Figure 39.8b.

Example
The period of a pendulum is measured to be 3.00 s in the reference frame of the
pendulum. What is the period when measured by an observer moving at a speed of 0.960c
relative to the pendulum?
Length Contraction
The length of an object measured by someone in a reference frame that is moving with
respect to the object is always less than the proper length. This effect is known as length
contraction.
To understand length contraction, consider a spacecraft traveling with a speed v from
one star to another. There are two observers: one on the Earth and the other in the spacecraft.
The observer at rest on the Earth measures the distance between the stars to be the proper
length Lp According to this observer, the time interval required for the spacecraft to complete
the voyage is given by the particle under constant velocity model as ∆t = Lp/v The passages
of the two stars by the spacecraft occur at the same position for the space traveler. Therefore,
the space traveler measures the proper time interval ∆t p. Because of time dilation, the proper
time interval is related to the Earth-measured time interval by ∆t p = ∆t⁄λ Because the space
traveler reaches the second ∆t p.They concludes that the distance L between the stars is
∆t
L = v∆t p = v
λ
Because the proper length is Lp = v∆t, we see that

Lp v2
L= = Lp √ 1 − 2
λ c

If an object has a proper length Lp when it is measured by an observer at rest with

respect to the object, its length L when it moves with speed v in a direction parallel to its
length is measured to be shorter according to Equation.
The Relativistic Doppler Effect
In the case of sound, the velocity vS of the source with respect to the medium of
propagation can be distinguished from the velocity v0 of the observer with respect to the
medium (the air). The only measurable velocity is the relative velocity v between the source
and the observer. If a light source and an observer approach each other with a relative speed
v, the frequency f’ measured by the observer is
√1 + v⁄c
f′ = f
√1 − v⁄c

where f is the frequency of the source measured in its rest frame.

Example
An astronaut takes a trip to Sirius, which is located a distance of 8 light-years from the
Earth. The astronaut measures the time of the one-way journey to be 6 years. If the spaceship
moves at a constant speed of 0.8c, how can the 8-ly distance be reconciled with the 6-year
trip time measured by the astronaut?

The Lorentz Transformation Equations

The observer in S reports the events with space–time coordinates (x, y, z, t), and the
observer in S’ reports the same events using the coordinates (x’, y’, z’, t’). Because this
prediction is contradictory to the notion of length contraction, the Galilean transformation is
not valid when v approaches the speed of light.
 The equations that are valid for all speeds and that enable us to transform coordinates
from S to S’ are the Lorentz transformation equations:
v
x ′ = γ(x − vt) y′ = y z′ = z t ′ = γ(t − x)
c2

These transformation equations were developed by Hendrik A. Lorentz (1853–1928) in

1890 in connection with electromagnetism. If you wish to transform coordinates in the S’
frame to coordinates in the S frame, the equation is
v ′
x = γ(x ′ + vt) y = y′ z = z′ t = γ(t ′ + x)
c2
In many situations, we would like to know the difference in coordinates between two
events or the time interval between two events as seen by observers O and O’. we can
express the differences between the four variables x, x’, t, and t’ in the form
v
Δx ′ = γ(Δx − vΔt) Δt ′ = γ (Δt − c2 Δx) S to S’
v
Δx = γ(Δx ′ + vΔt) Δt = γ (Δt ′ + c2 Δx ′ ) S’ to S

The Lorentz Velocity Transformation Equations

We know that the Galilean velocity transformation (Eq) is valid for low speeds. How do
the observers’ measurements of the velocity of the object relate to each other if the speed
of the object or the relative speed of the observers is close to that of light? Once again, S’ is
our frame moving at a speed v relative to S. Suppose an object has a velocity component 𝑢𝑥′
measured in the S’ frame, where
dx ′
u′x = ′
dt
Using Equation from Lorentz Transformation, we have
dx ′ = γ(dx − vdt)
v
dt ′ = γ(dt − 2 dx)
c
Substituting these values into Equation gives
 dx
γ(dx − vdt) −v
u′x = = dt
v
γ(dt − 2 dx) 1 − v2dx
c c dt
The term dx/dt, however, is simply the velocity 𝑢𝑥′ of the object measured by an
observer in S, so this expression becomes
ux − v
u′x = u v
1 − x2
c
To obtain 𝑢𝑥 in terms of 𝑢𝑥′ , we replace v by -v in Equation and interchange the roles
of 𝑢𝑥 and 𝑢𝑥′ :
u′x − v
ux =
u′ v
1 − x2
c
uy uz
u′y = and u′z =
ux v u v
γ(1 − ) γ(1 − x2 )
c2 c

Example
Two spacecraft A and B are moving in opposite directions as shown in Figure 39.14. An
observer on the Earth measures the speed of spacecraft A to be 0.750c and the speed of
spacecraft B to be 0.850c. Find the velocity of spacecraft B as observed by the crew on
spacecraft A.
 Two motorcycle pack leaders named David and Emily are racing at relativistic speeds
along perpendicular paths as shown in Figure 39.15. How fast does Emily recede as seen by
David over his right shoulder?

Relativistic Linear Momentum

In view of this contradiction and assuming the Lorentz velocity transformation equation
is correct, we must modify the definition of linear momentum so that the momentum of an
isolated system is conserved for all observers. For any particle, the correct relativistic equation
for linear momentum that satisfies this condition is
mu
⃗
⃗ =
p = γmu
⃗
2
√1 − u2
c
where m is the mass of the particle and u⃗ is the velocity of the particle. When u is
much less than c, γ = (1 − u2⁄c2)−1⁄2approaches unity and p⃗ approaches mu⃗.
Example
An electron, which has a mass of 9.11 x 10-31 kg, moves with a speed of 0.750c. Find
the magnitude of its relativistic momentum and compare this value with the momentum
calculated from the classical expression.
Relativistic Energy
To derive the relativistic form of the work–kinetic energy theorem, imagine a particle
moving in one dimension along the x axis. A force in the x direction causes the momentum
of the particle to change according to Equation. In what follows, we assume the particle is
accelerated from rest to some final speed u. The work done by the force F on the particle is
x2 x2
dp
w = ∫ Fdx = ∫ dx
x1 x1 dt

To perform this integration and find the work done on the particle and the relativistic
kinetic energy as a function of u, we first evaluate dp/dt:

dp d mu m du
= = 3⁄2 dt
dt dt 2 u2
√1 − u2 (1 − 2 )
( c ) c
Substituting this expression for dp/dt and dx 5 u dt into first Equation gives
t 𝑢
m
du 𝑢
W=∫ 3⁄2 dt
(u dt) = 𝑚 ∫ 3⁄2
𝑑𝑢
0 u2 0 𝑢2
(1 − 2 ) (1 − 2 )
c 𝑐
where we use limits 0 and u in the integral because the integration variable has been
changed from t to u. Evaluating the integral gives
mc 2
W= − mc 2
√1 − u2
c2
The work done by a force acting on a system consisting of a single particle equals
the change in kinetic energy of the particle: W = ∆K. Because we assumed the initial speed
of the particle is zero, its initial kinetic energy is zero, so W = K − K 𝑖 = 𝐾 − 0 = 𝐾.
mc 2
K= − mc 2 = γmc 2 − mc 2 = (γ − 1)mc 2
√1 − u2
c2
The constant term mc2 in Equation, which is independent of the speed of the particle,
is called the rest energy ER of the particle:
ER = mc 2
 The term γmc2 in Equation 39.23, which depends on the particle speed, is the sum
of the kinetic and rest energies. It is called the total energy E:
Total energy = kinetic energy + rest energy
E = K + mc 2

In many situations, the linear momentum or energy of a particle rather than its speed
is measured It is therefore useful to have an expression relating the total energy E to the
relativistic linear momentum p, The result, after some algebra, is
E 2 = p2 c 2 + (mc 2 )2

Example
(A) Find the rest energy of a proton in units of electron volts.
(B) If the total energy of a proton is three times its rest energy, what is the speed of the
proton?
(C) Determine the kinetic energy of the proton in units of electron volts.
(D) What is the proton’s momentum?
 The 216 Po nucleus is unstable and exhibits radioactivity (Chapter 44). It decays to
212 Pb by emitting an alpha particle, which is a helium nucleus, 4 He. The relevant masses,
in atomic mass units (see Table A.1 in Appendix A), are mi = m( 216 Po) = 216.001 915 u and
mf = m( 212 Pb) + m(4 He) = 211.991 898 u + 4.002 603 u.
(A) Find the mass change of the system in this decay.
(B) Find the energy this mass change represents.
Problem
The truck in Figure P39.1 is moving at a speed of 10.0 m/s relative to the ground. The
person on the truck throws a baseball in the backward direction at a speed of 20.0 m/s relative
to the truck. What is the velocity of the baseball as measured by the observer on the ground?

A car of mass 2 000 kg moving with a speed of 20.0 m/s collides and locks together with
a 1 500-kg car at rest at a stop sign. Show that momentum is conserved in a reference frame
moving at 10.0 m/s in the direction of the moving car.
 A star is 5.00 ly from the Earth. At what speed must a spacecraft travel on its journey to
the star such that the Earth–star distance measured in the frame of the spacecraft is 2.00 ly?

A meterstick moving at 0.900c relative to the Earth’s surface approaches an observer at

rest with respect to the Earth’s surface. (a) What is the meterstick’s length as measured by
the observer? (b) Qualitatively, how would the answer to part (a) change if the observer started
running toward the meterstick?
 At what speed does a clock move if it is measured to run at a rate one-half the rate of
a clock at rest with respect to an observer? At what speed does a clock move if it is measured
to run at a rate one-half the rate of a clock at rest with respect to an observer?

An astronaut is traveling in a space vehicle moving at 0.500c relative to the Earth. The
astronaut measures her pulse rate at 75.0 beats per minute. Signals generated by the
astronaut’s pulse are radioed to the Earth when the vehicle is moving in a direction
perpendicular to the line that connects the vehicle with an observer on the Earth. (a) What
pulse rate does the Earth-based observer measure? (b) What If? What would be the pulse rate
if the speed of the space vehicle were increased to 0.990c?
 A deep-space vehicle moves away from the Earth with a speed of 0.800c. An astronaut
on the vehicle measures a time interval of 3.00 s to rotate her body through 1.00 rev as she
floats in the vehicle. What time interval is required for this rotation according to an observer
on the Earth?

The average lifetime of a pi meson in its own frame of reference (i.e., the proper lifetime) is
2.6 x 10-8 s. If the meson moves with a speed of 0.98c, what is (a) its mean lifetime as measured
by an observer on Earth, and (b) the average distance it travels before decaying, as measured
by an observer on Earth? (c) What distance would it travel if time dilation did not occur
 An atomic clock moves at 1 000 km/h for 1.00 h as measured by an identical clock on
the Earth. At the end of the 1.00-h interval, how many nanoseconds slow will the moving
clock be compared with the Earth- based clock?

A red light flashes at position xR = 3.00 m and time tR = 1.00 x 10-9 s, and a blue light
flashes at xB = 5.00 m and tB = 9.00 x 10-9 s, all measured in the S reference frame. Reference
frame S’ moves uniformly to the right and has its origin at the same point as S at t = t’ = 0.
Both flashes are observed to occur at the same place in S’. (a) Find the relative speed between
S and S’. (b) Find the location of the two flashes in frame S’. (c) At what time does the red
flash occur in the S’ frame?
 Shannon observes two light pulses to be emitted from the same location, but separated
in time by 3.00 𝜇s. Kimmie observes the emission of the same two pulses to be separated in
time by 9.00 𝜇s. (a) How fast is Kimmie moving relative to Shannon? (b) According to Kimmie,
what is the separation in space of the two pulses?

An enemy spacecraft moves away from the Earth at a speed of v = 0.800c (Fig. P39.33).
A galactic patrol spacecraft pursues at a speed of u = 0.900c relative to the Earth. Observers
on the Earth measure the patrol craft to be overtaking the enemy craft at a relative speed of
0.100c. With what speed is the patrol craft overtaking the enemy craft as measured by the
patrol craft’s crew?
 A spacecraft is launched from the surface of the Earth with a velocity of 0.600c at an
angle of 50.0° above the horizontal positive x axis. Another spacecraft is moving past with a
velocity of 0.700c in the negative x direction. Determine the magnitude and direction of the
velocity of the first spacecraft as measured by the pilot of the second spacecraft.

(a) Calculate the classical momentum of a proton traveling at 0.990c, neglecting

relativistic effects. (b) Repeat the calculation while including relativistic effects. (c) Does it
make sense to neglect relativity at such speeds? (a) Calculate the classical momentum of a
proton traveling at 0.990c, neglecting relativistic effects. (b) Repeat the calculation while
including relativistic effects. (c) Does it make sense to neglect relativity at such speeds?
 Protons in an accelerator at the Fermi National Laboratory near Chicago are accelerated
to a total energy that is 400 times their rest energy. (a) What is the speed of these protons in
terms of c? (b) What is their kinetic energy in MeV?

Consider electrons accelerated to a total energy of 20.0 GeV in the 3.00-km-long

Stanford Linear Accelerator. (a) What is the factor g for the electrons? (b) What is the electrons’
speed at the given energy? (c) What is the length of the accelerator in the electrons’ frame of
reference when they are moving at their highest speed?