Human Reproduction

Humans are sexually reproducing and viviparous. The reproductive events in humans
include formation of gametes (gametogenesis), transfer of sperms into the female
genital tract (insemination) and fusion of male and female
gametes (fertilisation) leading to formation of zygote. This is followed by formation and
development of blastocyst and its attachment to the uterine wall (implantation),
embryonic development (gestation) and delivery of the baby (parturition). Based on
these events, some important diagrams for NEET Examination are given below.

1. Male Pelvis

• The male reproductive system is located in the pelvis region. It includes a pair of
testes alongwith accessory ducts, glands and the external genitalia.

• The testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch
called scrotum.

• The scrotum helps in maintaining the low temperature of the testes (2- 2.5oC
lower than the normal internal body temperature) necessary for
spermatogenesis.

• In adults, each testis is oval in shape, with a length of about 4 to 5 cm and a width
of about 2 to 3cm.

• Each testis has about 250 compartments called testicular lobules.

Structure of Male Pelvis

2. Male Reproductive System

• The male sex accessory ducts include rete testis, vasa efferentia,
epididymis and vas deferens.

• The seminiferous tubules of the testis open into the vasa

efferentia through rete testis.

• The vasa efferentia leave the testis and open into epididymis located along the
posterior surface of each testis.

• The urethra originates from the urinary bladder and extends through the penis
to its external opening called urethral meatus.

• The penis is the male external genitalia.

• The enlarged end of penis called the glans penis is covered by a loose fold of skin
called foreskin.

Male Reproductive System

3. Seminiferous Tubule

• Each testicular lobule contains one 1-3 highly coiled seminiferous tubules in
which sperms are produced.

• Each seminiferous tubule is lined on its inside by two types of cells called male
germ cells (spermatogonia) and Sertoli cells.
 • The male germ cells undergo meiotic divisions finally leading to sperm
formation.

• Sertoli cells provide nutrition to the germ cells.

• The regions outside the seminiferous tubules called interstitial spaces, contain
small blood vessels and interstitial cells or Leydig cells.

Sectional View of Seminiferous Tubule

4. Female Reproductive System

Diagrammatic sectional view of female pelvis showing reproductive system

• The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries along with a pair
of oviducts, uterus, cervix, vagina and the external genitalia located in pelvic
region.

• The oviducts (fallopian tubes), uterus and vagina constitute the female
accessory ducts.

• The part closer to the ovary is the funnel-shaped infundibulum.

• The edges of the infundibulum possess finger-like projections called fimbriae,

which help in collection of the ovum after ovulation.

• The infundibulum leads to a wider part of the oviduct called ampulla.

 • The last part of the oviduct, isthmus has a narrow lumen and it joins the uterus.

• The cavity of the cervix is called cervical canal which along

with vagina forms the birth canal.

• The wall of the uterus has three layers of tissue: The external thin
membranous perimetrium, middle thick layer of smooth
muscle (myometrium) and inner glandular layer (endometrium) that lines the
uterine cavity.

Female Reproductive System

5. Mammary Glands

• A functional mammary gland is characteristic of all female mammals.

• The glandular tissue of each breast is divided into 15-20 mammary

lobes containing clusters of cells called alveoli.

• The cells of alveoli secrete milk, which is stored in the cavities (lumens) of alveoli.

• The alveoli open into mammary tubules.

• The tubules of each lobe join to form a mammary duct.

• Several mammary ducts join to form a wider mammary ampulla which is

connected to lactiferous duct through which milk is sucked out.
 Mammary Glands

6. Gametogenesis

• Each spermatogonium is diploid and contains 46 chromosomes.

• Some of the spermatogonia called primary spermatocytes periodically

undergo meiosis.

• A primary spermatocyte completes the first meiotic division (reduction division)

leading to formation of two equal, haploid cells called secondary
spermatocytes, which have only 23 chromosomes each.

• The secondary spermatocytes undergo the second meiotic division to

produce four equal, haploid spermatids.

• The spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa (sperms) by the process

called spermiogenesis.

• After spermiogenesis, sperm heads become embedded in the Sertoli cells, and
are finally released from the seminiferous tubules by the process
called spermiation.
 Seminiferous Tubule depicting Spermatogenesis

7. Structure of a Sperm

• It is a microscopic structure composed of a head, neck, a middle piece and

a tail.

• A plasma membrane envelops the whole body of sperm.

• The sperm head contains an elongated haploid nucleus, the anterior portion of
which is covered by a cap-like structure, acrosome.

• The acrosome is filled with enzymes that help fertilisation of the ovum.

• The middle piece possesses numerous mitochondria, which produce energy for
the movement of tail that facilitate sperm motility essential for fertilisation.
 Structure of a Sperm

8. Sectional View of an Ovary

• Oogenesis is initiated during the embryonic development stage, no

more oogonia are formed and added after birth.

• These cells start division and enter into prophase-I of the meiotic
division called primary oocytes.

• Each primary oocyte then gets surrounded by a layer of granulosa cells and is
called the primary follicle. The primary follicles get surrounded by more layers of
granulosa cells and a new theca and are called secondary follicles.

• The secondary follicle soon transforms into a tertiary follicle which is

characterised by a fluid filled cavity called antrum.

• The tertiary follicle further changes into the mature follicle or Graafian follicle.

• The Graafian follicle now ruptures to release the secondary oocyte (ovum) from
the ovary by the process called ovulation.
 Sectional View of an Ovary

9. Spermatogenesis

• Spermatogenesis is the process of the production of sperms from the immature

germ cells in males.

• During spermatogenesis, a diploid spermatogonium (male germ cell) increases its

size to form a diploid primary spermatocyte.

• This diploid primary spermatocyte undergoes first meiotic division (meiosis I),
which is a reductional division to form two equal haploid secondary
spermatocytes.

• Each secondary spermatocyte then undergoes second meiotic division (meiosis

II) to form two equal haploid spermatids.

• Hence, a diploid spermatogonium produces four haploid spermatids.

• These spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa (sperm) by the process

called spermiogenesis.
 Spermatogenesis

10. Oogenesis

• Oogenesis is the process of the formation of a mature ovum from the oogonia in
females. It takes place in the ovaries.

• During oogenesis, a diploid oogonium or egg mother cell increases in size and
gets transformed into a diploid primary oocyte.

• This diploid primary oocyte undergoes first meiotic division i.e., meiosis I or
reductional division to form two unequal haploid cells. The smaller cell is
known as the first polar body, while the larger cell is known as the secondary
oocyte.

• This secondary oocyte undergoes second meiotic division i.e., meiosis II or

equational division and gives rise to a second polar body and an ovum.

• Hence, in the process of oogenesis, a diploid oogonium produces a single

haploid ovum while two or three polar bodies are produced.
 Oogenesis

11. Menstrual Cycle

• One ovum is released (ovulation) during the middle of each menstrual cycle.

• The cycle starts with the menstrual phase, when menstrual flow occurs and it
lasts for 3-5 days.

• The menstrual phase is followed by the follicular phase. During this phase,
the primary follicles in the ovary grow to become a fully mature Graafian
follicle and simultaneously the endometrium of uterus regenerates through
proliferation.

• The secretion of gonadotropins (LH and FSH) increases gradually during the
follicular phase, and stimulates follicular development as well as secretion
of estrogens by the growing follicles.

• Both LH and FSH attain a peak level in the middle of cycle (about 14th day). Rapid
secretion of LH leading to its maximum level during the mid-cycle called LH
surge induces rupture of Graafian follicle and thereby the release of
ovum (ovulation).
 • The ovulation (ovulatory phase) is followed by the luteal phase during which the
remaining parts of the Graafian follicle transform as the corpus luteum.

• The corpus luteum secretes large amounts of progesterone which is essential

for maintenance of the endometrium.

Various Events of Menstrual Cycle

12. Fertilisation

• The process of fusion of a sperm with an ovum is called fertilisation.

• During fertilisation, a sperm comes in contact with the zona pellucida layer of
the ovum and induces changes in the membrane that block the entry of
additional sperms, ensuring that only one sperm can fertilise an ovum.

• The secretions of the acrosome help the sperm enter into the cytoplasm of the
ovum through the zona pellucida and the plasma membrane.

• This induces the completion of the meiotic division of the secondary oocyte.
 • The second meiotic division is also unequal and results in the formation of
a second polar body and a haploid ovum (ootid).

• Soon the haploid nucleus of the sperms and that of the ovum fuse together to
form a diploid zygote.

Ovum Surrounded by Sperms before Fertilisation

13. Different Stages of Growth of an Embryo

• The mitotic division of zygote (cleavage) starts and forms 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter

cells called blastomeres.

• The embryo with 8 to 16 blastomeres is called a morula.

• The morula continues to divide and transforms into blastocyst as it moves

further into the uterus.

• The blastomeres in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer layer

called trophoblast and an inner group of cells attached to trophoblast called
the inner cell mass.

• The trophoblast layer then gets attached to the endometrium and the inner cell
mass gets differentiated as the embryo.
 • After implantation, the uterine cells divide rapidly and covers the blastocyst. As a
result, the blastocyst becomes embedded in the endometrium of the uterus
leading to pregnancy.

Fertilisation and Passage of Growing Embryo in Fallopian Tube

14. Pregnancy and Embryonic Development

The human foetus within the uterus

Placenta Formation:

• Chorionic Villi: Finger-like projections from the trophoblast that interdigitate

with uterine tissue.

• Function: Forms the placenta, which supplies oxygen and nutrients to the
embryo and removes waste products.

• Umbilical Cord: Connects the placenta to the embryo for substance transport.

• Endocrine Function: Produces hormones like human chorionic gonadotropin

(hCG), human placental lactogen (hPL), estrogens, and progestogens, crucial for
pregnancy maintenance.

Hormonal Changes:
 • Increased Hormones: During pregnancy, levels of hCG, hPL, estrogens,
progestogens, cortisol, prolactin, and thyroxine rise significantly to support fetal
growth and pregnancy maintenance.

• Relaxin: Secreted by the ovary in later pregnancy.

Germ Layer Formation:

• Post-Implantation: Inner cell mass differentiates into:

• Ectoderm: Outer layer.

• Endoderm: Inner layer.

• Mesoderm: Middle layer.

Human Pregnancy Milestones:

• 1 Month: Heart of the embryo forms; heartbeat may be detectable.

• 2 Months: Development of limbs and digits.

• 12 Weeks (First Trimester): Major organ systems formed; limbs and external
genital organs well-developed.

• 5 Months: First fetal movements and appearance of hair on the head.

• 24 Weeks (End of Second Trimester): Body covered with fine hair, eyelids
separate, eyelashes form.

• 9 Months: Full development and readiness for delivery.

Pregnancy Durations in Other Animals:

• Dogs: Approximately 2 months.

• Elephants: Around 22 months.

• Cats: Approximately 2 months.

Diagram Based Previous Year Questions - NEET

Q1: Given below are two statements: (NEET 2022)

Statement I: The release of sperms into the seminiferous tubules is called
spermiation.

Statement II: Spermiogenesis is the process of formation of sperms from

spermatogonia.

In the light of the above statements, choose the most appropriate answer from
the options given below :

(a) Statement I is correct but Statement II is incorrect

(b) Statement I is incorrect but Statement II is correct

(c) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct

(d) Both Statement I and Statement II are incorrect

Ans. (a)

Schematic Representation of Spermatogenesis

Solution.
 • The process of spermatogenesis occurs in testis, in which the immature male
germ cells or spermatogonia are converted to sperms.

• The spermatogonia present on the inside wall of seminiferous tubules undergoes

mitosis.

• Some spermatogonia periodically undergo meiosis.

• These spermatogonia are called as primary spermatocytes (2n).

• A primary spermatocyte completes the first meiotic division and forms secondary
spermatocytes (n). The secondary spermatocytes undergo the second meiotic
division to produce spermatids.

• The spermatids are then, transformed into spermatozoa or sperms by the process
called spermiogenesis.

• After spermiogenesis, sperm heads become embedded in the Sertoli cells.

• These spermatozoa are finally released from the seminiferous tubules by the
process called spermiation.

Q2: At which stage of life the oogenesis process is initiated? (NEET 2022)
(a) Birth
(b) Adult
(c) Puberty
(d) Embryonic development stage
Ans. (d)
 Schematic Representation of Oogenesis

Solution. Oogenesis starts at embryonic development stage in females.

Q3: Which of the following hormone levels will cause release of ovum (ovulation)
from the graffian follicle? (NEET 2020)

(a) Low concentration of LH

(b) Low concentration of FSH

(c) High concentration of Estrogen

(d) High concentration of Progesterone

Ans. (c)
 Various Events of Menstrual Cycle

Solution. LH (Leutenizing hormone) is produced by pituitary gland in the brain. It

triggers ovulation & promotes the development of corpus luteum by rupture of
graafian follicle. Which high concentration of estrogen is released by moture
graafian follicle.

Some Important Terms

The Male Reproductive System

• Scrotum: The testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch
called scrotum. The scrotum helps in maintaining the low temperature of the
testes (2–2.5 degree celcius lower than the normal internal body temperature)
necessary for spermatogenesis.

• Testicular lobules: The testis is covered by a dense covering. Each testis has
about 250 compartments called testicular lobules.

• Seminiferous tubules: Each testicular lobule contains one to three highly coiled
seminiferous tubules in which sperms are produced.
 • Male germ cells: Each seminiferous tubule is lined on its inside by two types of
cells called male germ cells (spermatogonia) and Sertoli cells. The male germ cells
undergo meiotic divisions finally leading to sperm formation.

• Sertoli Cells: Sertoli cells provide nutrition to the germ cells.

• Interstitial cells or Leydig cells: Leydig cells synthesise and secrete testicular
hormones called androgens.

• Urethral meatus: The urethra originates from the urinary bladder and extends
through the penis to its external opening called urethral meatus.

• Foreskin: The enlarged end of penis called the glans penis is covered by a loose
fold of skin called foreskin.

The Female Reproductive System

• Accessory ducts: The oviducts (fallopian tubes), uterus and vagina constitute the
female accessory ducts.

• Womb: Uterus is also called as womb.

• Cervical canal: The uterus opens into vagina through a narrow cervix. The cavity
of the cervix is called cervical canal.

• Mons pubis: Mons pubis is a cushion of fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic
hair in females.

• Labia majora: The labia majora are fleshy folds of tissue, which extend down
from the mons pubis and surround the vaginal opening.

• Labia Minora: The labia minora are paired folds of tissue under the labia majora.

• Hymen: The opening of the vagina is often covered partially by a membrane

called hymen.

• Clitoris: The clitoris is a tiny finger-like structure which lies at the upper junction
of the two labia minora above the urethral opening.

Gametogenesis
 • Spermatogenesis: In testis, the immature male germ cells (spermatogonia)
produce sperms by spermatogenesis that begins at puberty.

• Spermatids: The secondary spermatocytes undergo the second meiotic division

to produce four equal, haploid spermatids.

• Spermiogenesis: The spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa (sperms) by

the process called spermiogenesis.

• Spermiation: After spermiogenesis, sperm heads become embedded in the

Sertoli cells, and are finally released from the seminiferous tubules by the process
called spermiation.

• Acrosome: The sperm head contains an elongated haploid nucleus, the anterior
portion of which is covered by a cap-like structure, acrosome. The acrosome is
filled with enzymes that help fertilisation of the ovum.

• Oogenesis: The process of formation of a mature female gamete is called

oogenesis.

• Primary Follicle: Each primary oocyte then gets surrounded by a layer of

granulosa cells and is called the primary follicle.

• Secondary follicle: The primary follicles get surrounded by more layers of

granulosa cells and a new theca and are called secondary follicles.

• Antrum: The secondary follicle soon transforms into a tertiary follicle which is
characterised by a fluid filled cavity called antrum.

• Ovulation: The Graafian follicle ruptures to release the secondary oocyte (ovum)
from the ovary by the process called ovulation.

Menstrual Cycle

• Menstrual Cycle: The reproductive cycle in the female primates (e.g. monkeys,
apes and human beings) is called menstrual cycle. In human females,
menstruation is repeated at an average interval of about 28/29 days, and the
cycle of events starting from one menstruation till the next one is called the
menstrual cycle.
 • Menarche: The first menstruation begins at puberty and is called menarche. In
human beings, menstrual cycles ceases around 50 years of age; that is termed as
menopause.

Fertilisation and Implantation

• Fertilisation: The process of fusion of a sperm with an ovum is called

fertilisation.

• Cleavage & Blastomeres: The mitotic division starts as the zygote moves through
the isthmus of the oviduct called cleavage towards the uterus and forms 2, 4, 8, 16
daughter cells called blastomeres.

• Morula: The embryo with 8 to 16 blastomeres is called a morula

• Implantation: When the blastocyst becomes embedded in the endometrium of

the uterus. This is called implantation and it leads to pregnancy.

Pregnancy and Embryonic Development

• Chorionic villi: After implantation, finger-like projections appear on the

trophoblast called chorionic villi.

• Placenta: The chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated with each
other and jointly form a structural and functional unit between developing
embryo (foetus) and maternal body called placenta.

• Stem cells: Inner cell mass of embryo contains certain cells called stem cells
which have the potency to give rise to all the tissues and organs.

Parturition and Lactation

• Gestation Period: The average duration of human pregnancy is about 9 months

which is called the gestation period.

• Parturition: Vigorous contraction of the uterus at the end of pregnancy causes

expulsion/delivery of the foetus. This process of delivery of the foetus (childbirth)
is called parturition.
 • Foetal ejection reflex: The signals for parturition originate from the fully
developed foetus and the placenta which induce mild uterine contractions called
foetal ejection reflex.

• Colostrum: The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called
colostrum which contains several antibodies absolutely essential to develop
resistance for the new-born babies.

Abbreviations

• GnRH: Gonadotropin releasing hormone

• LH: Luteinising hormone

• FSH: Follicle stimulating hormone